Communication From Wikipedia

8/8/2019 Communication From Wikipedia

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation,searchFor the term as used in the game of bridge, see

Glossary_of_contract_bridge_terms#communication.

Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed in a package and is channeled andimparted by a sender to a receiver via some medium. The receiver then decodes the message andgives the sender a feedback. All forms of communication require a sender, a message, and an

intended recipient, however the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to

communicate at the time of communication in order for the act of communication to occur.

Communication requires that all parties have an area of communicative commonality. There areauditory means, such as speech, song, and tone of voice, and there are nonverbal means, such as

body language,sign language,paralanguage,touch,eye contact, through media, i.e., pictures,

graphics and sound, and writing.

Contents

[hide]

1 Information communication revolutions

2 Human communication

o 2.1 Nonverbal communication

o 2.2 Visual communication

o 2.3 Understanding the Field of Communication

3 Oral communication 4 Communication modeling

5 Communication noise

6 Nonhuman communication 7 Plants and fungi

8 Communication as academic discipline

9 See also

10 Notes

11 References

[edit] Information communication revolutions

Over time, technology has progressed and has created new forms of and ideas aboutcommunication. The newer advances include media and communications psychology. Media

psychology is an emerging field of study. These technological advances revolutionized the

processes of communication. Researchers have divided how communication was transformed

into three revolutionary stages:
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In the 1st Information Communication Revolution, the first written communication began, with

pictographs. These writings were made on stone, which were too heavy to transfer. During this

era, written communication was not mobile, but nonetheless existed.

In the 2nd Information Communication Revolution, writing began to appear on paper, papyrus,

clay, wax, etc. Common alphabets were introduced, allowing the uniformity of language acrosslarge distances. Much later the Gutenberg printing-press was invented. Gutenberg created this

printing-press after a long period of time in the 15th century.

In the 3rd Information Communication Revolution, information can now be transferred via

controlled waves and electronic signals.

Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to

create shared understanding. This process requires a vast repertoire of skills in interpersonalprocessing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, gestures and evaluating. It is

through communication that collaborationandcooperationoccur.[1]

There are also many common barriers to successful communication, two of which are message

overload (when a person receives too many messages at the same time), and message

complexity.[2] Communication is a continuous process. The psychology of media

communications is an emerging area of increasing attention and study.

[edit] Human communication

Human spoken and written languages can be described as a systemofsymbols(sometimesknown as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are manipulated. The word

"language" is also used to refer to common properties of languages. Language learning is normal

in human childhood. Most human languages use patterns ofsound orgesture for symbols whichenable communication with others around them. There are thousands of human languages, and

these seem to share certain properties, even though many shared properties have exceptions.

There is no defined line between a language and a dialect, but the linguist Max Weinreichis

credited as saying that "a language is a dialect with an army and a navy". Constructed languagessuch as Esperanto,programming languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not

necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages.

Bernard Luskin, UCLA, 1970, advanced computer assisted instruction and began to connect

media and psychology into what is now the field of media psychology. In 1998, the American

Association of Psychology, Media Psychology Division 46 Task Force report on psychology andnew technologies combined media and communication as pictures, graphics and sound

increasingly dominate modern communication.

[edit] Nonverbal communication

Nonverbal communicationis the process of communicating through sending and receivingwordless messages. Such messages can be communicated through gesture,body languageor
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posture; facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing,hairstyles or

even architecture, or symbols and infographics, as well as through an aggregate of the above,

such asbehavioral communication. Nonverbal communication plays a key role in every person'sday to day life, from employment to romantic engagements.

Speech may also contain nonverbal elements known asparalanguage, including voice quality,emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm,intonationandstress.

Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangementof words, or the use ofemoticons. A portmanteau of the English words emotion (or emote) and

icon, an emoticon is a symbol or combination of symbols, such as :), used to convey emotional

content in written or message form.

Other communication channels such as telegraphy fit into this category, whereby signals travelfrom person to person by an alternative means. These signals can in themselves be representative

of words, objects or merely be state projections. Trials have shown that humans can

communicate directly in this way[3] without body language, voice tonality or words.

Categories and Features

G. W. Porter divides non-verbal communication into four broad categories:

Physical. This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, toneof voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions.

Aesthetic. This is the type of communication that takes place through creativeexpressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.

Signs. This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signalflags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.

Symbolic. This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or ego-

building symbols.

Static Features

Distance. The distance one stands from another frequently conveys a non-verbalmessage. In some cultures it is a sign of attraction, while in others it may reflect status or

the intensity of the exchange.

Orientation. People may present themselves in various ways: face-to-face, side-to-side,

or even back-to-back. For example, cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-side whilecompetitors frequently face one another.
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Posture. Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing. These are not the

elements of posture that convey messages. Are we slouched or erect ? Are our legs

crossed or our arms folded ? Such postures convey a degree of formality and the degreeof relaxation in the communication exchange.

Physical Contact. Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or patting onthe back all convey messages. They reflect an element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack

of) attraction.

Dynamic Features

Facial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey

information. Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are monitored

constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of these expressions maybe similar across cultures.

Gestures. One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a handmovement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. While some

gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others areindividually learned and idiosyncratic.

Looking. A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey emotion,

signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. The frequency of contact may suggest either

interest or boredom.

[edit] Visual communication

Visual communication is communication through visual aid. It is the conveyance of ideas andinformation in forms that can be read or looked upon. Primarily associated with two dimensional

images, it includes: signs,typography,drawing,graphic design, illustration, colour and

electronic resources. It solely relies on vision. It is form of communication with visual effect. Itexplores the idea that a visual message with text has a greater power to inform, educate or

persuade a person. It is communication by presenting information through visual form.

The evaluation of a good visual design is based on measuring comprehension by the audience,

not on aesthetic or artistic preference. There are no universally agreed-upon principles of beautyand ugliness. There exists a variety of ways to present information visually, like gestures, body

languages, video and TV. Here, focus is on the presentation of text, pictures, diagrams, photos, et

cetera, integrated on a computer display. The term visual presentation is used to refer to theactual presentation of information. Recent research in the field has focused onweb design and

graphically oriented usability.Graphic designers use methods of visual communication in their

professional practice.

[edit] Understanding the Field of Communication
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The field of communication is typically broken into three distinct camps: human communication,

mass communications, and communication disorders [4]

Human Communication orCommunication Studiesis the study of how individualscommunicate. Some examples of the distinct areas that human communication scholars study

are:

Interpersonal Communication

Organizational Communication

Oral Communication

Small Group Communication

Intercultural Communication

Nonviolent Communication Conflict

Rhetoric

Public Speaking

Media and Communications Psychology

Examples of Mass Communications include:

Mass communication

Graphic communication

Science communication

Strategic Communication

Superluminal communication

Technical communication Public relations

Broadcast Media Journalism

Media and Communications Psychology

Examples ofCommunication Disordersinclude:

Facilitated Communication

Impairment of Language Modality

Speech Disorders

[edit] Oral communication

Oral communication is a process whereby information is transferred from a sender to receiver; in

general communication is usually transferred by both verbal means and visual aid throughout theprocess.. The receiver could be an individual person, a group of persons or even an audience.

There are a few of oral communication types: discussion, speeches, presentations, etc. However,

often when you communicate face to face thebody language and your voice tonality has a biggerimpact than the actual words that you are saying.
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A widely cited and widely mis-interpreted figure, used to emphasize the importance of delivery,

is that "communication is 55% body language, 38% tone of voice, 7% content of words", the so-

called "7%-38%-55% rule".[5]This is not however what the cited research shows rather, whenconveying emotion, if body language, tone of voice, and words disagree, then body language and

tone of voice will be believed more than words.[6][clarification needed] For example, a person saying "I'm

delighted to meet you" while mumbling, hunched over, and looking away will be interpreted asinsincere. (Further discussion atAlbert Mehrabian: Three elements of communication.)

You can notice that the content or the word that you are using is not the determining part of a

good communication. The "how you say it" has a major impact on the receiver. You have to

capture the attention of the audience and connect with them. For example, two persons sayingthe same joke, one of them could make the audience die laughing related to his good body

language and tone of voice. However, the second person that has the exact same words could

make the audience stare at one another.[citation needed]

In an oral communication, it is possible to have visual aid helping you to provide more precise

information. Often enough, we use apresentation program in presentations related to our speechto facilitate or enhance the communication process.

[edit] Communication modeling

Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

Communication major dimensions scheme
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Communication code scheme

Linear Communication Model

Interactional Model of Communication

Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
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Transactional Model of Communication

The first major model for communication came in 1949 by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaverfor Bell Laboratories [7] The original model was designed to mirror the functioning of radio and

telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary parts: sender, channel, and

receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel was thetelephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other

person. Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one

listening to a telephone conversation, which they deemed noise.

In a simple model, often referred to as the transmission model or standard view ofcommunication, information or content (e.g. a message in natural language) is sent in some form

(as spoken language) from an emisor/ sender/encoderto a destination/ receiver/ decoder. This

common conception of communication simply views communication as a means of sending andreceiving information. The strengths of this model are simplicity, generality, and quantifiability.

Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the

following elements:

1. An information source, which produces a message.2. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals

3. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission

4. A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.

5. A destination, where the message arrives.

Shannon and Weaver argued that there were three levels of problems for communication within

this theory.

The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning 'conveyed'?The effectiveness problem: how effectively does the received meaning affect behavior?

Daniel Chandler critiques the transmission model by stating

It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.

No allowance for differing purposes.
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No allowance for differing interpretations.

No allowance for unequal power relations.

No allowance for situational contexts.

In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weavers (1949) linear model of

communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication.[8]

The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been

expanded upon by other scholars.

Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: Message (what type of

things are communicated), source / emisor / sender / encoder(by whom), form (in which form),

channel (through which medium), destination / receiver / target / decoder(to whom), and

Receiver. Wilbur Schram (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that amessage has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message.[9] Between parties,

communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and

commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of

communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together,communication content and form makemessages that are sent towards a destination. The target

can be oneself, anotherperson or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).

Communication can be seen as processes ofinformation transmission governed by three levels ofsemiotic rules:

1. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols),

2. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users) and

3. Semantic (study of relationships between signs and symbols and what they represent).

Therefore, communication is social interactionwhere at least two interacting agents share acommon set of signs and a common set ofsemiotic rules. This commonly held rules in some

sense ignores autocommunication, including intrapersonal communicationvia diaries or self-talk, both secondary phenomena that followed the primary acquisition of communicative

competences within social interactions.

In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional model of communication.[10] The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals aresimultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.

In a slightly more complex form a sender and a receiver are linked reciprocally. This second

attitude of communication, referred to as the constitutive model or constructionist view, focuseson how an individual communicates as the determining factor of the way the message will beinterpreted. Communication is viewed as a conduit; a passage in which information travels from

one individual to another and this information becomes separate from the communication itself.

A particular instance of communication is called aspeech act. The sender's personal filters andthe receiver's personal filters may vary depending upon different regional traditions, cultures, or

gender; which may alter the intended meaning of message contents. In the presence of

"communication noise" on the transmission channel (air, in this case), reception and decoding of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_(communication)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_transmissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_transmissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmaticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocommunicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrapersonal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrapersonal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication#cite_note-9http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/reciprocalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encoderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_(communication)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_Communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_transmissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmaticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocommunicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrapersonal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication#cite_note-9http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/reciprocalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_acthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise


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content may be faulty, and thus the speech act may not achieve the desired effect. One problem

with this encode-transmit-receive-decode model is that the processes of encoding and decoding

imply that the sender and receiver each possess something that functions as a code book, and thatthese two code books are, at the very least, similar if not identical. Although something like code

books is implied by the model, they are nowhere represented in the model, which creates many

conceptual difficulties.

Theories ofcoregulation describe communication as a creative and dynamic continuous process,rather than a discrete exchange of information. Canadian media scholarHarold Innis had the

theory that people use different types of media to communicate and which one they choose to use

will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society (Wark, McKenzie 1997).His famous example of this is using ancient Egyptand looking at the ways they built themselves

out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called 'SpaceBinding'. it made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enablesthe waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and

'Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids can sustain their authority

generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in theirsociety (Wark, McKenzie 1997).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coregulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Innishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Innishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coregulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Innishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt

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Communication From Wikipedia