Communicating through Nonverbal Behaviors Communicating

4C H A P T E R

Learning OutcomesLO1 Identify characteristics of nonverbal communication

LO2 Identify channels through which we communicate nonverbally

LO3 Discuss how our self-presentation affects communication

LO4 Examine how nonverbal communication varies based on culture and gender

LO5 Understand guidelines for improving nonverbal communication

Communicating through Nonverbal Behaviors

Communicating through Nonverbal Behaviors

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© 2009 Cengage LearningVerderber, Verderber, Sellnow

COMM 2008-2009 Edition

We’ve all heard—and said—“actions speak louder than words.” Actions are so impor-tant to our communication that researchers have estimated that in face-to-face com-munication as much as 60 percent of the social meaning is a result of nonverbalbehavior (Burgoon & Bacue, 2003, p. 179). In other words, the meaning we assign toany communication is based on both the content of the verbal message and ourinterpretation of the nonverbalbehavior that accompanies andsurrounds the verbal message.And interpreting these nonverbalactions is not always the easiestthing to do.

We begin this chapter bybriefly identifying the characteris-tics of nonverbal communication.Next, we describe the sources ofnonverbal information that we usewhen we interpret and assign meaning to the behavior of others: body language(kinesics), nonsymbolic vocal sounds (paralanguage), our use of space (proxemics),and self-presentation cues. Then we explore how the meaning of nonverbal commu-nication may vary based on culture, sex, and gender. Finally, we offer suggestions tohelp you improve your accuracy at interpreting nonverbal messages and for increas-ing the likelihood that others are able to accurately interpret your behavior.

In the broadest sense, the term nonverbal communication is commonly used todescribe all human communication events that transcend spoken or written words(Knapp & Hall, 2006). Specifically, nonverbal communication behaviors are thosebodily actions and vocal qualities that typically accompany a verbal message. Thebehaviors are usually interpreted as intentional and have agreed-upon interpreta-tions in a particular culture or speech community (Burgoon & Hoobler, 2002, p. 244).

Characteristics of Nonverbal CommunicationNonverbal communication is distinct from verbal communication in that itis continuous and multichanneled. It may be unintentional and ambiguous. Thenonverbal part of the message is the primary conveyer of emotion.

First, nonverbal communication is continuous. Although youcan choose to form and send a verbal message, you do not con-trol whether your nonverbal behavior is interpreted as a commu-nication message. As long as you are in the presence of someoneelse, that person may perceive your behavior as communication.When Austin yawns and stares off into the distance during ameeting at work, his coworkers will notice this behavior andassign meaning to it. One coworker may interpret it as a sign of

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“In face-to-face communication as much as 60 percent of the social meaning is a result of

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CHAPTER 4 Communicating through Nonverbal Behaviors 4 3

nonverbalcommunicationbehaviorsbodily actions and vocalqualities that typicallyaccompany a verbalmessage

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© 2009 Cengage LearningVerderber, Verderber, SellnowCOMM 2008-2009 Edition

1972). So, when Janelle says, “I’m really fine,but thanks for asking,” her sister Renee will

understand the real message based on thenonverbal behaviors that accompany it. For

example, if Janelle uses a sarcastic tone, Renee willunderstand that Janelle is angry about something. IfJanelle sighs, averts her eyes, tears up, and almostwhispers her message, Renee will understand thatJanelle is really sad and emotionally upset.

Sources of NonverbalCommunicationThere are a variety of sources or channels forthe nonverbal messages that we interpret fromothers and display ourselves. These include theuse of the body (kinesics), the use of the voice (vocal-ics/paralanguage), the use of space (proxemics), andself-presentation.

Use of Body: KinesicsOf all the research on nonverbal behavior, you areprobably most familiar with kinesics, the technicalname for the interpretation of body motions as com-munications (Wikipedia, 2006). Body motions are themovement of your body or body parts that othersinterpret and assign meaning. These include yourgestures, eye contact, facial expression, posture, andyour use of touch.

Gestures

Gestures are the movements of your hands, arms, andfingers that you use to describe or to emphasize.

People vary, however, inthe amount of gestur-

ing that accompa-nies their spokenmessages; for exam-ple, some people“talk with theirhands” far more

than others. Somegestures, called illustra-

tors, augment the verbalmessage. So when you say“about this high” or “nearlythis round,” we expect tosee a gesture accompany

boredom, another might see it as a signof fatigue, and yet another may view it as a

message of disrespect. Meanwhile, Austin is oblivi-ous to all of the messages that his behavior is sending.

Second, nonverbal communication is multichan-neled. We perceive meaning from a variety of nonver-bal behaviors including posture, gestures, bodymovements, body appearance, non-language vocalmannerisms, and so on. When we interpret nonver-bal behavior, we usually base our perception on acombination of these behaviors. So, Anna observesMimi’s failure to sustain eye contact, her bowedhead, and her repetitive toe stubbing in the dirt, ascues that mean her daughter is lying about not hit-ting her brother.

Third, nonverbal communication can be inten-tional or unintentional. Although we can carefully con-trol the verbal messages we send, because nonverbalbehavior is continuous, we often display behaviorsthat we are not controlling. For example, PresidentGeorge W. Bush’s noted “smirk,” a nonverbal facialmannerism, may be an intentional message convey-ing contempt for another’s opinion, or it may be anunintentional nervous reaction to speaking in pub-lic. Whether the smirk is intentional or uninten-tional, however, when we see it, we interpret andassign it meaning. Because nonverbal behavior isnot easily controlled, it is perceived to be more accu-rate than verbal communication. So when your non-verbal behavior contradicts your verbal message,people are more likely to believe the nonverbal com-munication they perceive.

Fourth, the meaning of a particular nonverbalcommunication can be ambiguous. Any particularbehavior can have many meanings. So regardless ofwhat President Bush intends, the smirk is anambiguous message and may be interpreted differ-

ently by different audiencemembers.

Finally, nonverbal com-munication is the primary con-veyor of our emotions. When welisten to others, we base ourinterpretation of their feel-ings and emotions almosttotally on their nonverbalbehavior. In fact, about 93 per-cent of the emotional mean-ing of messages is conveyednonverbally. (Mehrabian,

kinesicsthe interpretation ofbody motions used incommunication

gesturesmovements of ourhands, arms, and fin-gers that we use todescribe or toemphasize

illustratorsgestures that augmenta verbal message

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4 4 PART 1 Foundations of Communication

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effective public speakers not only use direct eye con-tact with audience members to monitor how theirspeech is being received, but also to establish rapportand demonstrate their sincerity. Speakers who fail tomaintain eye contact with audience members areperceived as ill at ease and often as insincere or dis-honest (Burgoon, Coker, & Coker, 1986).

Facial Expression

Facial expression is the arrangement of facial musclesto communicate emotional states or reactions to mes-sages. Our facial expressions are especially importantin conveying the six basic human emotions of happi-ness, sadness, surprise, fear, anger, and disgust. Itappears that the particular facial expression for eachof these emotions is universal and does not vary byculture. But we can consciously choose to mask thefeeling expressed by our faceor to feign feelings that wedo not have (Ekman, 1999).

Facial expressions are soimportant to communicat-ing the emotional part of amessage that people haveinvented emoticons, a sys-tem of typed symbols toconvey facial expressionsonline. For example, :-) con-veys a smile, while : -( con-veys a frown (Walther &Parks, 2002).

Posture

Posture is the position andmovement of your body.From your posture, othersinterpret how attentive,respectful, and dominant

your verbal description.One type of gesture,called emblems, canstand alone and substi-tute completely forwords. When you raiseyour finger and place itvertically across yourlips, it signifies “Quiet.”Emblems have automaticagreed-upon meaningsin a particular culture,but the specific meaningassigned to a specificgesture can vary greatlyacross cultures. Forexample, the Americanhand sign for “OK” has an obscene sexual meaning insome European countries. Gestures called adaptorsoccur unconsciously as a response to a physical need.For example, you may scratch an itch, adjust yourglasses, or rub your hands together when they arecold. You do not mean to communicate a messagewith these gestures, but others do notice them andattach meaning to them.

Eye ContactEye contact, also referred to as gaze, is how and howmuch we look at others when we are communicat-ing. Although the amount of eye contact differs fromperson to person and from situation to situation,studies show that talkers hold eye contact about 40percent of the time and listeners nearly 70 percentof the time (Knapp & Hall, 2006).

Through our eye contact, we both express ouremotions and we monitor what is occurring in the

interaction. How we look at a personcan convey a range of emotions

such as anger, fear, or affection.Shakespeare acknowledged howpowerfully we express emo-tions through eye contact whenhe said, “The eyes are the win-dows of the soul.” With eye con-tact, you can tell when or

whether a person or audience ispaying attention to you, whethera person or audience isinvolved in what you are say-ing, and the reaction a personor audience is having to yourcomments.

Although the use andmeaning of eye contact varies

from one cultural group toanother, in the United States,

emblemsgestures that can substi-tute for words

adaptorsgestures that respond toa physical need

eye contact (gaze)how and how much welook at people withwhom we arecommunicating

facial expressionthe arrangement offacial muscles to com-municate emotionalstates or reactions tomessages

emoticonstyped symbols that con-vey emotional aspectsof an online message

posturethe position and move-ment of the body

Our facial expressions are especially important in conveying emotions. What is the message on these faces?

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to unsolicited touch from others. Somepeople like to touch others and be

touched; other people do not.Although American culture is rel-atively noncontact oriented, thekinds and amounts of touchingbehavior within our societyvary widely. Touching behaviorthat seems appropriate to oneperson may be perceived asoverly intimate or threatening

by another. Moreover, the per-ceived appropriateness of touch differs with the

context. Touch that is considered appro-priate in private may embarrass aperson when done in public or

with a large group of people.

Use of Voice:Vocalics

The interpretation of a verbalmessage based on the paralinguis-

tic features is called vocalics.Paralanguage is the voiced but not ver-

bal part of a spoken message. Six vocal characteris-tics that comprise paralanguage are pitch, volume,rate, quality, intonation, and vocalized pauses.

Pitch

Pitch is the highness or lowness of vocal tone. Peopleraise and lower vocal pitch and change volume toemphasize ideas, indicate questions, and shownervousness. They may also raise the pitch whenthey are nervous or lower the pitch when they aretrying to be forceful. Lower pitch voices tend to con-vey more believability and credibility.

Volume

Volume is the loudness or softness of tone. Whereassome people have booming voices that carry longdistances, others are normally soft-spoken.Regardless of their normal volume level, however,people do vary their volume depending on the situ-ation and topic of discussion. For example, peopletalk loudly when they wish to be heard in noisy set-tings. They may vary their volume when they areangry, or they may speak more softly when they arebeing romantic or loving.

Rate

Rate is the speed at which a person speaks. Peopletend to talk more rapidly when they are happy,

you are. Body orientation refers to your posture in rela-tion to another person. If you face another personsquarely, this is called direct body orientation. Whentwo people’s postures are at angles to each other, thisis called indirect body orientation. In many situa-tions, direct body orientation signals attentive-ness and respect, while indirect bodyorientation shows nonattentivenessand disrespect. Think of how youwould sit in a job interview.Youare likely to sit up straightand face the interviewerdirectly because you want tocommunicate your interestand respect. Interviewerstend to interpret a slouchedposture and indirect body orien-tation as inattentiveness and dis-respect.Yet, in other situations, such astalking with friends, a slouched postureand indirect body orientation may beappropriate and may not carrymessages about attention orrespect. When you are making aspeech, an upright stance and squared shoul-ders will help your audience perceive you as poisedand self-confident. So when you are giving a speech,be sure to distribute your weight equally on both feetso that you maintain a confident bearing.

Haptics

Haptics is the interpretation of touch. Touchingbehavior is a fundamentalaspect of nonverbal commu-nication. We use our hands,our arms, and other bodyparts to pat, hug, slap, kiss,pinch, stroke, hold, embrace,and tickle others. Throughtouch we communicate avariety of emotions and mes-sages. In Western culture, weshake hands to be sociableand polite, we pat a personon the back for encourage-ment, we hug a person toshow love, and we claspraised hands to demonstratesolidarity.

Because of individualpreference, family back-ground, or culture, people dif-fer in their use of touchingbehavior and their reactions

body orientationposture in relation toanother person

hapticsthe interpretation oftouch

vocalicsthe interpretation of amessage based on theparalinguistic features

paralanguagethe voiced but not ver-bal part of a spokenmessage

pitchthe highness or low-ness of vocal tone

volumethe loudness or soft-ness of tone

ratethe speed at which aperson speaks


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perceive her message as sarcasm. But if her voicepitch rises with each word, we might perceive thevocalics as supplementing the message and under-stand that she is asking a question.

Use of Space: ProxemicsHave you ever been in the midst of a conversationwith someone that you felt was “standoffish” or“pushy”? If you had analyzed your feeling, you mighthave discovered that your impression of the personor what was being said stemmed from how far theperson chose to stand from you. If the personseemed to be farther away than you are accustomedto, you might have interpreted the distance as aloof-ness. If the distance was less than you would haveexpected, you might have felt uncomfortable andperceived the person as being overly familiar or

pushy. Proxemics is the formal term for the inter-pretation someone makes ofyour use of space. People willinterpret how you use the per-sonal space around you, thephysical spaces that you con-trol and occupy, and the arti-facts that you choose todecorate your space.

Personal Space

Personal space is the distanceyou try to maintain when youinteract with other people. Ourneed for and use of personalspace stems from our biologicalterritorial natures, which view

space as a protective mechanism. How much spaceyou need or view as appropriate depends on yourindividual preference, thenature of your relationshipto the other person or peo-ple, and your culture. Whilethe absolute amount ofspace varies from person toperson, message to mes-sage, and from culture toculture, in general theamount of personal spacewe view as appropriatedecreases as the intimacy ofour relationship increases.For example, in the domi-nant U.S. culture, four dis-tinct distances are generallyperceived as appropriate

frightened, nervous, or excited and more slowlywhen they are problem solving out loud or are tryingto emphasize a point.

Quality

Quality is the sound of a person’s voice. Each humanvoice has a distinct tone. Some voices are raspy,some smoky, some have bell-like qualities, whileothers are throaty or nasal.

Intonation

Intonation is the variety, melody, or inflection inone’s voice. Some voices have little intonation andsound monotone. Other voices have a great deal ofmelody and may have a childlike quality to them.People prefer to listen to voices with a moderateamount of intonation.

Vocalized Pauses

Vocalized pauses are extraneoussounds or words that interrupt flu-ent speech. The most commonvocalized pauses that creep into ourspeech include “uh,” “um,” “er,”“well,” “OK,” and those nearly uni-versal interrupters of Americanconversations, “you know” and“like.” At times we may use vocalpauses to hold our turn when wemomentarily search for the rightword or idea. Because they arenot part of the intended mes-sage, occasional vocalized pauses are gen-erally ignored by those who are interpreting themessage. However, when you begin to use them toexcess, others will perceive you as nervous or unsureof what you are saying. As your use increases, peoplewill be less able to understand what you are saying,and they may perceive you as confused and yourideas as not well thought out. For some people, theuse of vocalized pauses presents interferences thatare so pervasive that listeners are unable to concen-trate on the meaning of the message.

We can interpret the paralinguistic part of a mes-sage as complementing, supplementing, or contra-dicting the meaning conveyed by the verbalmessage. So when Joan says, “Well, isn’t that aninteresting story.” How we interpret her meaningwill depend on the paralanguage that accompaniesit. If she alters her normal voice so that the “Well” isvaried both in pitch and tone while the rest of herwords are spoken in a staccato monotone, we mightinterpret the vocalics as contradicting the words and


qualitythe sound of a person’svoice

intonationthe variety, melody, orinflection in one’s voice

vocalized pausesextraneous sounds orwords that interrupt flu-ent speech

proxemicsthe interpretation of aperson’s use of space

personal spacethe distance you try tomaintain when youinteract with otherpeople

How much spaceyou need or v iewas appropr iate

depends on yourindi v idual

preference .

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the unwritten rules. For instance,people will tolerate being packedinto a crowded elevator or subwayand even touching others they donot know, provided that the othersfollow the “rules.” The rules mayinclude standing rigidly, looking atthe floor or the indicator above thedoor, but not making eye contactwith others. The rules also includeignoring or pretending that they arenot touching.

Physical Space

Physical space is the part of thephysical environment over whichyou exert control. Our territorialnatures not only lead us to main-tain personal distance, but alsolead us to assert ownership claimsto parts of the physical space thatwe occupy. Sometimes we do notrealize the ways that we claimspace as our own; in otherinstances, we go to great lengths tovisibly “mark” our territory. Forexample, Ramon arrives early forthe first day of class, finds anempty desk, and puts his backpack

next to it on the floor and his coat on the seat. Hethen makes a quick trip to the restroom. If someonecomes along while Ramon is gone, moves his back-pack and coat, and sits down at the desk, that per-son is violating what Ramon has “marked” as histerritory. If you regularly take the same seat in aclass, that habit becomes a type of marker, signaling

and comfortable, depending on the nature of theconversation. These distances are illustrated inFigure 4.1. Intimate distance is defined as up to 18inches and is appropriate for private conversationsbetween close, intimate friends. Personal distance,from 18 inches to 4 feet, is the space in which casualconversation occurs. Social distance, from 4 to 12 feet,is where impersonal business such as a job interviewis conducted. Public distance is anything more than 12feet (Hall, 1969).

Of greatest concern to us is the intimate dis-tance—that which we regard as appropriate for inti-mate conversation with close friends, parents, andyounger children. People usually become uncom-fortable when “outsiders” violate this intimate dis-tance. For instance, in a movie theater that is lessthan one-quarter full, people will tend to leave oneor more seats empty between themselves and oth-ers whom they do not know. If a stranger sits rightnext to you in such a setting, you are likely to feel

uncomfortable or threatenedand may even move away.Intrusions into our intimatespace are acceptable only incertain settings and thenonly when all involved follow

a b c

Zone a, intimate space: spouses, significant others, family members, and others with whom we have an intimate relationshipZone b, personal distance: friendsZone c, social distance: business associates and acquaintancesZone d, public distance: strangers

4feet

11/2feet

12feet

d

physical spacethe physical environ-ment over which youexert control


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E>>What do the artifacts in this room and their arrangement tellyou about the person who works there? How do you think they influ-ence this person’s interactions with other people?

Figure 4.1Distance Levels of Personal Space in the Dominant U.S. Culture

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conveys about them. So when Lee,the baby of his family, got his firstjob, the first items he purchased forhis new apartment were a large,flat-screen TV and a stuffed leathercouch and chair. He chose theseprimarily to impress his older andalready successful brother.Whether the artifacts you chooseare conscious attempts to impressor whether they simply reflect yourtaste or income, when others enteryour space, they will notice theartifacts and draw conclusions.

Self-Presentation CuesPeople learn a lot about us based on how welook. This includes our physical appearance, ourclothing and grooming, and our use of time.

Physical AppearancePeople make judgments about others based on howthey look.We can control our physique to some extentthrough exercise, diet, cosmetic surgery, and so on. Butwe also inherit much of our physical appearance,including our body type, and physical features such ashair and eyes. Our body is one of the first things thatothers notice about us and there are culture-basedstereotypes associated with each of the three generalbody shapes. Endomorphs, who are shaped round andheavy, are stereotyped as kind, gentle, and jovial.Mesomorphs, who are muscular and strong, arebelieved to be energetic, outgoing, and confident.Ectomorphs, whose bodies are lean and have littlemuscle development, are stereotyped as brainy, anx-ious, and cautious. While not everyone fits perfectlyinto one of these categories, each person tends towardone body type. Even though these stereotypes are farfrom accurate, there is ample anecdotal evidence tosuggest that many of usform our first impression ofsomeone using body typestereotypes. Yet, the mes-sages we infer from bodytype also vary by culture.

Clothing andGroomingYour clothing and personalgrooming communicate amessage about you. Today,more than ever, people use

to others that a particular seatlocation is yours. Other studentswill often leave that seat emptybecause they have perceived it asyours. Not only can we interpretsomeone’s ownership of space bytheir markers, but we also canunderstand a person’s status in agroup by noting where the personsits and the amount of space overwhich ownership is claimed. In awell-established group, peoplewith differing opinions will oftenchoose to sit on opposite sides ofthe table, while allies will sit inadjacent spots. So if you are observant, you can tellwhere people stand on an issue by noticing wherethey have chosen to sit. There are many othermeanings that can be discerned from how peopleuse physical space.

Artifacts

Artifacts are the objects and possessions we use todecorate the physical space we control. When oth-ers enter our homes, our offices, or our dormrooms, they look around and notice what objectswe have chosen to place in the space and how wehave arranged them. Then they assign meaning towhat they see. For example, when Katie visited herboyfriend Peter at school, the first thing she noticedwas a picture hanging on his bulletin board of himhugging a really cute woman that she did not rec-ognize. The second thing she noticed was that theframed picture she had given him of her before heleft for school was nowhere to be found. From this,she concluded that Peter wasn’t honoring hispromise not to see anyone at school.

The way that we arrange the artifacts in ourspace also can nonverbally communicate to oth-ers. Professors and businesspeople have learnedthat by choosing and arranging the artifacts intheir space, they can influence interactions. Weonce knew a professor who was a real soft touch.So when he had to handle the students who werepetitioning to enter closed classes, he turned hisdesk, which normally faced out the window, sothat it was directly in front of the door. That way,the students couldn’t get into his office, sit down,and break his resolve with their sad stories.Instead, they had to plead their case standing inthe very public hall. In this case, his desk servedas a barrier and protected him from his soft-hearted self.

People choose artifacts not just for the function ofthe object, but also for the message that the object

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artifactsobjects and possessionswe use to decorate thephysical space wecontrol

endomorphround and heavy bodytype

mesomorphmuscular and athleticbody type

ectomorphbody type that is leanand has little muscledevelopment

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For example, George, who is polychronic, shows upfor a noon lunch with Raoul at 12:47 p.m. becauseas he was leaving his office, his coworker stoppedhim to ask for help on a problem.

How Margarite’s sister or Raoul interpreted thetime behavior they experienced depends on theirown time orientation. If Margarite’s sister is alsomonochronic, she probably apologized, perceivingher own behavior to have been at fault. If Raoul ispolychronic, he will not be offended by George’sarrival time because he will have viewed George’sdelay as understandable. We tend to view other’s useof time through the lens of the culture from whichwe come. So if we are monochronic in our orientationto time, we will view the polychronic time behaviorof someone else as being “rude” and vice versa.

Cultural and GenderVariations in NonverbalCommunicationCulture and gender often play a role in how wecommunicate nonverbally. Cultural and gendervariations are seen in the use of kinesics, paralan-guage, proxemics and territory, artifacts and physi-cal appearance, and chronemics.

KinesicsAs we have said, the use of kinesics, or body motionsand the meanings they convey, differs among cul-tures. Several cultural differences in body motionsare well documented.

Eye Contact

A majority of people in the United States and otherWestern cultures expect those with whom they arecommunicating to “look them in the eye.” Samovar,Porter, and McDaniel (2007) explain, however, thatdirect eye contact is not a custom throughout theworld (p. 210). For instance, in Japan, prolonged eyecontact is considered rude, disrespectful, and threat-ening. People from Latin America, Caribbean cul-tures, and Africa tend to avoid eye contact as a signof respect.

In the United States, women tend to have morefrequent eye contact during conversations thanmen do (Cegala & Sillars, 1989). Moreover, womentend to hold eye contact longer than men, regard-less of the sex of the person they are interactingwith (Wood, 2007). It is important to note thatthese differences, which we have describedaccording to biological sex, are also related to

clothing choices, body art, and other personal groom-ing to communicate who they are and what theystand for. Likewise, when we meet someone, we arelikely to form our impression of them from how theyare dressed and groomed. Because we can alter ourclothing and grooming to suit the occasion, others relyheavily on these nonverbal cues to help them under-stand who we are and how to treat us. As a result, youcan change how people perceive you by altering yourclothing and grooming. For example, a successfulsales representative may wear an oversize white T-shirt, baggy shorts, and a backward ball cap whenhanging with his friends; put on khakis and a golf shirtto go to the office; and dress in a formal blue suit tomake a major presentation to a potential client group.In each case, he uses what he is wearing to communi-cate who he is and how others should treat him.

Use of TimeChronemics is the way others interpret your use oftime. Cultures differ in how they view time (Hall,E. T., 1959). Some of us have a monochronic timeorientation, or a “one thing at a time” approach totime. We concentrate our efforts on one task, andonly when it is finished or when the time we haveallotted to it is complete, do we move on toanother task. If we are monochronic, we see timeas “real” and think about “spending time,” “losingtime,” and so on. As a result, we subordinate ourinterpersonal relationships to our schedule (Dahl,2004, p. 11). So when Margarite’s sister, who isexcited to share some good news, comes into theroom and interrupts her “study time,” Margarite,who is monochronic, screams, “Get out! Can’t yousee I’m studying!” Others of us have a polychronictime orientation and tackle multiple tasks at once.We see time as flexible and fluid. So we viewappointment times and schedules as variable andsubordinate to our interpersonal relationships,and we easily alter or adapt our schedule to meetthe needs of our relationships (Dahl, 2004, p. 11).

chronemicsthe interpretation of aperson’s use of time

monochronic timeorientationa time orientation thatemphasizes doing onething at a time

polychronic timeorientationa time orientation thatemphasizes doing mul-tiple things at once

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some cultures, lots of contact and touching is nor-mal behavior, while in other cultures, individualspace is respected and frequent touching is notencouraged. According to Neuliep (2006), some cul-tures such as South and Central American countries,as well as many southern European countries,encourage contact and engage in frequent touching.By contrast, many northern European cultures aremedium to low in contact, and Asian cultures aremainly low-contact cultures. The United States,which is a country of immigrants, is generally per-ceived to be medium in contact, though there arewide differences among individual Americans dueto variations in family heritage.

Women tend to touch others less than men do,but women value touching more than men do.Women view touch as an expressive behavior thatdemonstrates warmth and affiliation, whereas menview touch as instrumental behavior, so that touch-ing females is considered as leading to sexual activ-ity (Pearson, West, & Turner, 1995, p. 142).

ParalanguageThere are a few cultural and gender variations in theuse of paralanguage. It is in the use of volume wherecultural differences are most apparent (Samovar,Porter, & McDaniel, 2007). Arabs speak with a greatdeal of volume to convey strength and sincerity,while soft voices are preferred in Britain, Japan, andThailand.

In the United States, there are stereotypes aboutwhat are considered to be masculine and femininevoices. Masculine voices are expected to be low-pitched and loud, with moderate to low intonation;feminine voices are expected to be higher-pitched,softer in volume, and more expressive. The voicecharacteristic of breathiness is associated withfemininity. Although both sexes have the option toportray a range of masculine and feminine paralan-guage, most people probably conform to the expec-tations for their sex (Wood, 2007).

notions of gender and standpoint in society. Inother words, people (male or female) will givemore eye contact when they are displayingfeminine-type behaviors than when they are dis-playing masculine-type behaviors.

Facial Expression and Gestures

Studies show that there are many similarities innonverbal communication across cultures, espe-cially in facial expressions. For instance, severalfacial expressions seem to be universal, including aslight raising of the eyebrow to communicate recog-nition, wriggling one’s nose, and a disgusted faciallook to show social repulsion (Martin & Nakayama,2000, pp. 183–184).

Across cultures, people also show considerabledifferences in the meaning of gestures. For instance,the forming of a circle with the thumb and forefin-ger signifies the OK sign in the United States, butmeans zero or worthless in France, is a symbol formoney in Japan, and is a vulgar gesture in Germanyand Brazil (Axtell, 1999, pp. 44, 143, 212).

Displays of emotion may also vary. For instance,in some Eastern cultures, people have been social-ized to downplay emotional behavior cues, whereasmembers of other cultures have been socialized toamplify their displays of emotion. Research hasshown some sex and gender effects in facial expres-sions and gestures. Women and men using a femi-nine style of communication tend to smilefrequently. Gender differences in the use of gesturesare so profound that people have attributed mas-culinity or femininity on the basis of gesture stylealone (Pearson, West, & Turner, 1995, p. 126). Forinstance, women are more likely to keep their armsclose to the body, are less likely to lean forward withthe body, play more often with their hair or clothing,and tap their fingers more often than men.

Haptics

According to Samovar, Porter, and McDaniel (2007),touching behavior is closely linked to culture. In

South American United States Japannot okay okay money

France Germany Other Placeszero vulgar gesture better check first

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interpretations of others’ behavior, and that yourown behavior will lead others to perceive your non-verbal messages correctly.

Interpreting NonverbalMessagesWhen interpreting nonverbal messages, here aresome things you might want to remember.

• Do Not AssumeWhen interpreting others’ nonverbal cues, do notautomatically assume that a particular behaviormeans a certain thing. Except for the category ofemblems, there is no automatic meaning of non-verbal behavior. And even the meaning ofemblems varies culturally. There is much room forerror when people make quick interpretations ordraw rapid conclusions about an aspect of nonver-bal behavior. Instead of making automatic inter-pretations of nonverbal cues, we should considercultural, gender, and individual influences on non-verbal behavior.

• Consider InfluencesConsider cultural, gender, and individual influ-ences when interpreting nonverbal cues. We haveshown how nonverbal behavior varies widely basedon culture or expectations of masculinity and femi-ninity. Note also that some people are totally uniquein their display of nonverbal behavior.You may havelearned over time that your friend grinds her teethwhen she is excited. You may never encounteranother person who uses this behavior in this way.

• Pay Attention to Nonverbal CommunicationPay attention to multiple aspects of nonverbalcommunication and their relationship to verbalcommunication. You should not take nonverbalcues out of context. In any one interaction, you arelikely to get simultaneous messages from a per-son’s eyes, face, gestures, posture, voice, and use ofspace and touch. Even in electronic communica-tion, where much of the nonverbal communica-tion is absent, there can be facial expression andtouch communicated through emoticons, paralan-guage through capitalization of words, andchronemics through the timing and length of anelectronic message. By taking into considerationall aspects of communication, you will be moreeffective in interpreting others’ messages.

• Use Perception Checking As we discussed in Chapter 2, the skill of perceptionchecking lets you see if your interpretation ofanother person’s message is accurate or not. Bydescribing the nonverbal behavior you have noticedand tentatively sharing your interpretation of it,

Proxemics and TerritoryAs is the case with most forms of nonverbal com-munication, one’s use of space and territory is asso-ciated with culture (Samovar, Porter, & McDaniel,2007). Recall our discussion of individualistic andcollectivist cultures in Chapter 2. Cultures thatstress individualism generally demand more spacethan do collectivist cultures and will defend spacemore closely (p. 217). Seating and furniture place-ment may also vary by cultural expectations. Forexample, Americans in groups tend to talk to thoseseated opposite them, but Chinese prefer to talk tothose seated next to them. Furniture arrangementin the United States and Germany often emphasizesprivacy. In France or Japan, furniture is arranged forgroup conversation or participation (pp. 218–219).

Artifacts and PhysicalAppearanceThere are cultural and gender influences regard-ing artifacts and physical appearance. Differentclothing styles signify masculinity and femininitywithin a culture. In the United States, women’sand feminine clothing is more decorative, whilemen’s and masculine clothing is more functional(Wood, 2007).

ChronemicsAs you probably recognize, the dominant U.S. cul-ture has a monochronic time orientation; Swiss andGerman cultures are even more oriented in this way.On the other hand, many Latin American and Arabcultures have polychronic orientation. The large-scale immigration that is occurring across the globeis leading to an influx of Arab workers into northernEurope and Latin American workers into the U.S. Asa result, it is likely that you will encounter peoplewhose use of time is different from your own.

Guidelines for ImprovingNonverbal CommunicationBecause nonverbal messages are inherentlycontinuous, ambiguous, multichanneled, andsometimes unintentional, it can be tricky toaccurately decode them. Add to this the fact thatthe meaning for any nonverbal behavior can varyby situation, culture, and gender, and you begin tounderstand why we so often “misread” the behav-ior of others. The following guidelines can help youimprove the likelihood that you will make accurate


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we are not aware of what nonverbal cues we aredisplaying or when we are anxious, certain nonver-bal behaviors will hinder our communication.Fidgeting, tapping your fingers on a table, pacing,mumbling, using vocal interferences, and usingadaptors can hinder the other person’s interpreta-tion of your message. It is especially important touse nonverbal behaviors that enhance rather thandistract from your message during a formalspeech.

• Make Communication MatchMake your nonverbal communication match yourverbal communication. When nonverbal messagescontradict verbal messages, people are more likelyto believe the nonverbal, so it is important to haveyour verbal and nonverbal communication match.In addition, the various sources of nonverbal com-munication behavior should match each other. Ifyou are feeling sad, your voice should be softerand less expressive, and you should avoid lettingyour face contradict your voice by smiling. Peopleget confused and frustrated when receiving incon-sistent messages.

• AdaptAdapt your nonverbal behavior to the situation.Situations vary in their formality, familiarity amongthe people, and purpose. Just like you would selectdifferent language for different situations, youshould adapt your nonverbal messages to the situ-

ation. Assess what the situation calls for in termsof body motions, paralanguage, proxemics andterritory, artifacts, physical appearance, and useof time. Of course, you already do some situa-

tional adapting with nonverbal communication.You do not dress the same way for a wedding as you

would to walk the dog.You would not treat yourbrother’s space and territory the same

way you would treat your doctor’sspace and territory. But the moreyou can consciously adapt yournonverbal behavior to what seems

appropriate to the situation, themore effective you will be as acommunicator.

you can get confirmation or correction of yourinterpretation. It may be helpful to use perceptionchecking when faced with gender or cultural varia-tions in nonverbal behavior.

Sending Nonverbal MessagesWhen considering what kinds of nonverbal mes-sages you are sending, here are some things youshould be aware of.

• Be ConsciousBe conscious of the nonverbal behavior you are dis-playing. Remember that you are always communi-cating nonverbally. Some nonverbal cues willalways be out of your level of consciousness, butyou should work to bring more of your nonverbalbehavior into your conscious awareness. It is a mat-ter of just paying attention to what you are doingwith your body, voice, space, and self-presentationcues. If you initially have difficulty paying attentionto your nonverbal behavior, ask a friend to point outthe nonverbal cues you are displaying.

• Be PurposefulBe purposeful or strategic in your use of nonverbalcommunication. Sometimes, it is important tocontrol what you are communicating nonverbally.For instance, if you want to be persuasive, youshould use nonverbal cues that demonstrateconfidence and credibility. These mayinclude direct eye contact, a seriousfacial expression, a relaxed posture, aloud and low-pitched voice with novocal interferences, and a professionalstyle of clothing and grooming. Whilethere are no absolute prescriptions forcommunicating nonverbally, there arestrategic choices we can make toconvey the message wedesire.

• Do Not DistractMake sure that yournonverbal cues do notdistract from your mes-sage. Sometimes, when©

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