Commonwealth of Australia

Copyright Act 1968

Notice for paragraph 135ZXA (a) of the Copyright Act 1968

Warning

This material has been reproduced and communicated to you by or on behalf of Charles Sturt University under Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act).

The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under the Act. Any further reproduction or communication of this material by you may be the subject of copyright protection under the Act.

Do not remove this notice.

Reading Description:

Hamilton, C. (2014). Conflict, culture, and relationships. In Communicating for results : a guide for business and the professions (10th ed.) (pp. 65-107). Boston, MA. : Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Reading Description Disclaimer:

(This reference information is provided as a guide only, and may not conform to the required referencing standards for your subject)

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

©India Picture!Corbis

C NF IC , C LTURE,

types of conflict and strategies for managing conflict in the workplace; explain when each strategy works best.

individualistic and col/ectivistic cultures and low­context and high-context cultures; explain how different cultures view and react to conflict.

the role that interpersonal relationships play in organizational success.

AND RELATIONSHIPS

your personal communication style by taking the Survey of Communication Styles, both long and short forms, discussed in this chapter.

the terms clear expectations, reciprocal relation­ships, self-fulfilling prophecy, and trust cycles, and explain what role each plays in developing and maintaining relationships.

the four main communication styles typically used in the workplace and summarize tips for relating with people of different styles.

65

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

111 m m m m m m e1 m m m 111 m m m m l!l !li' m

• Today is my last day at Goldman Sachs. After almost 12 years

• at the firm-first as a summer intern while at Stanford, then • in New York for 10 years, and now in London-1 believe I have

• worked here long enough to understand the trajectory of its • culture, its people and its identity. And I can honestly say that

the environment now is as toxic and destructive as I have • ever seen it.

To put the problem in the simplest terms, the interests

• of the client continue to be sidelined in the way the firm oper-• ates and thinks about making money. Goldman Sachs is one of

the world's largest and most important investment banks and

it is too integral to global finance to continue to act this way.

• The firm has veered so far from the place I joined right out

of college that I can no longer in good conscience say that I

• identify with what it stands for.

lt might sound surprising to a skeptical public, but •

culture was a lways a vital part of Goldman Sachs's success.

lt revolved around teamwork, integrity, a spirit of humi l-· • ity, and always doing right by our cl ients. The culture was

• the secret sauce that made this place great and a l lowed

us to earn our cl ients' trust for 143 years. lt wasn't just

about making money; this alone will not sustain a firm for • so long. lt had something to do with pride and belief in the

• organization. I am sad to say that I look around today and

• see virtual ly no trace of the culture that made me love •

working for this firm for many years. I no longer have the • pride, or the belief.

But this was not always the case. For more than a

decade I recruited and mentored candidates through our • grueling interview process. I was selected as one of 10

people (out of a firm of more than 30,000) to appear on our

recruiting video, which is played on every col lege campus

• we visit around the world. In 2006 I managed the summer

intern program in sales and trading in New York for the 80

• college students who made the cut, out of the thousands

who applied.

I knew it was time to leave when I realized I could no

longer look students in the eye and tell them what a great • place this was to work ....

How did we get here? The firm changed the way it • thought about leadership. Leadership used to be about ideas,

llt i!J ll m !ll lil lll lll 'l!l !ll i! m ll'l m m l!l ll lll ill lJ !!I ll l!l M! Iil lll m m m

l'ia Getty Images

setting an example, and doing the right thing. Today, if you

make enough money for the firm (and are not currently an ax

murderer) you will be promoted into a position of influence.

What are three quick ways to become a leader? a) Ex­

ecute on the firm's "axes," which is Goldman-speak for

persuading your cl ients to invest in the stocks or other

products that we a re trying to get rid of because they

a re not seen as having a lot of potential profit. b) "Hunt

Elephants." In Engl ish: get your clients-some of whom are

sophisticated, and some of whom aren't-to trade what­

ever will bring the biggest profit to Goldman. Call me old­

fashioned, but I don't l ike sel l ing my cl ients a product that

is wrong for them. c) Find yourself sitting in a seat where

your job is to trade any i l l iqu id , opaque product with a

three-letter acronym ....

lt astounds me how little senior management gets a ba­

sic truth: If clients don't trust you they will eventually stop do­

ing business with you. lt doesn't matter how smart you are ....

*This is a shortened version of the resignation letter by Sachs executive director Greg Smith that appeared on page A27 of the New York Times on

March 14, 2012. 66

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

I hope this can be a wake-up call to the board of direc­

tors. Make the client the focal point of your business again.

Without clients you wil l not make money. In fact, you will

not exist. Weed out the morally bankrupt people, no mat­

ter how much money they make for the firm. And get the

culture right again, so people want to work here for the

right reasons. People who care only about making money •

wil l not sustain this firm-or the trust of its cl ients-for very •

much longer.

Greg Smith is resigning today (March 14, 2012) as a Go/dman •

Sachs executive director and head of the firm's United States eq­

uity derivatives business in Europe, the Middle East and Africa.

1 m D lll li ii D IIJ m !!I 111 111 m Ill: 111 il lll lll ll m 1!1 11 18 11 • lll lil lll l!l a m m m m m u m lB w • Bl lll ll!l llf UJ ill m 111 lll lll lil lll ll lll m 11

areas of importance that affect organizations in the workplace, re­gardless of their size or the organization model they prefer, are conflict, cultural differences, and interpersonal relationships. Employees who han­

dle conflict positively, realize that cultural differences add variety and depth to decisions and products, and develop and maintain strong interpersonal relation­ships with their bosses, coworkers, and customers are more productive and have a higher level of employee satisfaction. Lack of employee satisfaction was apparent from the resignation letter by Sachs executive director Greg Smith presented in this chapter's case study. As we discuss tips for handling conflict, cultural differ­ences, and interpersonal relationships, see if you can apply them to the informa­tion presented in Smith's letter as well as to your own personal work experiences.

MANAGING CONFLICTS IN THE WORKPLACE Conflict is impossible to avoid. Whenever we deal with individuals or teams for any length of time, some kind of conflict is sure to occur. According to a survey conducted in 2000, "handling conflicts and managing workplace relationships were the issues that most seriously threatened productivity" (Murtha, 2005, p. 42) . Fortunately, if managed effectively, conflict can result in improved team relationships, communication, and productivity ( Chen, Liu, & Tjosvold, 2005; Frantz & Jin, 1995) . The discussion of conflict will begin by looking at two types of conflict, then move on to five conflict strategies and how to use each. To compare U.S. responses to conflict with strategy preferences of other coun­tries see the section on "Cultural Differences in the Workplace;' below.

Teams experience two basic types of conflict: A-type and C-type (Amason et al., 1995). A-type conflict is relationship conflict and sidetracks the team from the issues and creates defensiveness and anger; the A stands for affective (emotional). C-type conflict is task conflict and improves team productivity and relationships and creates a feeling of satisfaction; the C stands for cognitive. Although it seems obvious that teams should strive for C-type and avoid A-type, it's not as easy as it sounds. If team members have a strong relationship and trust each other, C-type conflict works well. During cognitive conflict, team members are open to seri­ous debate and disagreement on the issues. They come prepared to support their 67

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

ideas with facts, experiences, and solutions but don't take it personally when someone disagrees with them. A basic ground rule for successful C-type conflict is "ideas are separate from the person:' Another ground rule is that feedback that is often in the form of a question should be descriptive (tactfully honest and objective), not evaluative (judgmental and accusatory); see Chapter 1 for more details. Comments might include "How will this design work for someone in a wheelchair?" or "This idea is a good start to our problem; can it be designed to stay in our limited budget?" C-type groups can experience negative conflict oc­casionally; when this happens, one of the conflict strategies discussed in the next section can be used.

When team members do not have a strong relationship and trust is weak, A-type conflict will likely occur, especially when group members are emotionally attached to the topic. In affective conflict, members may

feel awkward giving and receiving feed­back, and disagreements often become personal with people getting angry or avoiding comments entirely. When an­ger occurs, it distracts us from "relevant cognitive processing" (Zillmann, 1 994) . And, of course, making no comments at all is nonproductive. Feedback in A-type conflict tends to be evaluative, and corn­ments might include "You apparently have no compassion for people in wheel­chairs" or "You obviously haven't looked at our budget careful�y enough-that de­sign will be way too expensive!" or "No one likes my idea, as usual:'

Teams with A-type conflict spend most of their energy dealing with emo­tions instead of solving complex prob­lems and arriving at innovative ideas.

Daniel Acker/Bloom/Jerg l'ia Gctty Images Although the conflict strategies dis-cussed next might help, the chance that

A-type teams will be productive is slim unless definite steps are taken to provide change. Suggestions include bringing in a new leader from outside the team, replacing some of the members with people who work well with C-type conflict, or providing relationship and trust-building training for the team (the last one probably has the best chance of working) . An excellent story of how this can be done is included in The Five Dysfunctions of a Team by Patrick Lencioni (2002) .

Take a moment and think how you typically handle conflict. When conflict occurs, are you more likely to (a) withdraw from it, (b) give in to others' wishes, (c) implement compromise, (d) convince others your way is best, or

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

::!:::: Q) Vl L... 0 -c L... Q) u c 0 u I

Ill Ill IV !: IV .�

-'-(!j VI VI <(

(j) > -+-'

'­(j) Vl Vl <{

(j) > -+-'

'­(j) Vl Vl m c

::l

F IGURE 3.1

Uncooperative

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONS H I PS 1 69

Accommodating

Cooperative

Cooperativeness-concern for others

Conflict styles Adapted from K. W. Thomas (1992). Conflict and Conflict Management: Reflections and Update. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, pp. 265-274.

(e) search for a solution agreeable to all? Each of these methods of handling conflict is called a conflict strategy. Figure 3 . 1 illustrates these five strategies of avoidance, accommodation, compromise, competition, and collaboration (Kilmann & Thomas, 1975; Rahim & Magner, 1 995; see also Thomas, 1992a, 1992b ). Other researchers use slightly different terms. For example, in their well-known conflict grid, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton (1985) refer to the five strategies as withdrawal, smoothing, compromising, forcing, and problem solving. Compromise may be used by communicators of any style; the other four strategies correspond to specific communication styles to be discussed at the end of this chapter.

As Figure 3 . 1 illustrates, the way you deal with conflict depends on the ex­tent of your concern for self (low to high assertiveness) and for others (low to high cooperativeness). Which of the following methods ofhandling conflict best describes the way you typically resolve conflict? The way your manager, employ­ees, or team resolve conflict?

Avoiding/Withdrawal By employing the avoiding strategy, this person:

• Feels equally little concern for others and for self; places low value on both assertiveness and cooperation.

• Maintains neutrality at all costs; views conflict as a worthless and punishing experience.

• Removes self either physically or mentally from groups experiencing any type of conflict; stays away from any situation that might possibly produce conflict.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Accommodating/Smoothing By employing the accommodating strat­egy, this person:

Feels a higher concern for others than for self and, therefore, values coopera­tion over assertiveness.

• Views open conflict as destructive; gives in to the will of others when necessary.

• Believes that surface harmony is important to maintain good relationships and receive personal acceptance; tries to smooth over or ignore conflicts in an attempt to keep everyone happy.

Compromising By employing the compromising strategy, this person:

• Takes a middle-of-the-road stance on assertiveness and cooperation and believes that a high-quality solution is not as important as a workable or agreeable solution.

• Views conflict as solvable but uses voting and other methods of compromise as a way to avoid direct confrontation.

• Tries to find a solution that everyone can live with, although all parties must sacrifice something important to reach a compromise. Usually views compromise as a second, backup choice.

Competing/Forcing By employing the competing strategy, this person:

• Views personal goals as much more important than the goals of oth­ers; therefore, values assertiveness (even force when necessary) over cooperation.

• Views conflict as a win-lose situation or as a contest of power: One person must fail so the other can succeed; compromise is not acceptable.

• Has great respect for power and will submit to arbitration only because the arbitrator's power is greater.

Collaborating/Problem Solving By employing the collaborating strategy, this person:

• Gives equal consideration to others and self; values high cooperation and assertiveness.

• Views conflict as beneficial if handled openly; lays all cards on the table. • Guides groups through the basic problem-solving procedure (see

Chapter 9). • Attempts to reach a consensus; willing to spend a great deal of time and

effort to achieve consensus.

Although individuals (regardless of their cultural background) may use any of the preceding methods to resolve conflict, it is interesting to note that Western cultures (like the United States and Canada) often select strategies different from those of Eastern cultures (like Japan, China, and Taiwan) when solving conflict (Ting-Toomey et al., 1 991) . Ting-Toomey ( 1988) found that competition was preferred by Americans, accommodation by the Chinese, and avoidance by the Taiwanese.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

CHAPTER 3 CONfliCT, CULTURE, AND R ELATIONSHIPS j T

When selecting a conflict strategy for a specific situation, consider (a) the strat­egy you feel the most comfortable using, (b) the strategy your organization or team prefers, and (c) the advantages and disadvantages of each strategy. Each conflict strategy is productive in some cases and best avoided in others (Amason, 1996; Conrad & Poole, 2012; Thomas, 1992a, 1992b). In the words of Johnston and Gao (2009), "No one seems to benefit if they stick to one style" (p. 106)­meaning that to achieve the best results, different situations require different methods of conflict resolution.

Avoiding Avoiding (withdrawal) may be the best response to conflict when:

The issue is trivial. * Power relationships make successful resistance impossible. ® Parties lack the communication skills necessary to prevent destructive

escalations. ® Potential losses from an open conflict outweigh potential gains. • There is insufficient time to gather needed information or to work through

the issue adequately (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 323).

The drawback to handling conflict by avoidance is that the confrontation is usu­ally only delayed or transferred to another issue.

Accommodating Accommodating (smoothing) may be the best response to conflict when:

• The issue is minor. • The damage to the relationship would harm both parties. • A temporary reduction in conflict is needed to give time for additional

research or information. • Tempers are too hot for productive discussion.

The drawback to handling conflict by accommodation is that it solves the problem only temporarily; it's like putting a bandage on a cut that requires stitches.

Competing Competing (forcing) may be the best response to conflict when:

• A decision or action must be immediate. • The parties in the conflict expect and appreciate the force and power neces­

sary in a win-lose situation. • The combatants recognize the power relationship between themselves.

The drawbacks to handling conflict by force are (a) the real cause of the conflict is usually not resolved, and (b) the solution may be only temporary; when the losers gain more power, they may reinstate the conflict.

Compromising Compromising may be the best response to conflict when:

Both parties stand to gain. • An "ideal" or "quality" solution is not required.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

71 1 COMMUNICA Tl NG FOR R ESUlTS' A GUIDE fOR BUSINESS AND T H E P ROfESSIONS

If managed effectively, conflict can result in improved group communi­cation and productivity.

Time is short. • A temporary solution is needed for a corn­

plex problem (with a problem-solving dis­cussion held later to determine the best so­lution).

• The parties in the conflict are equals.

The drawbacks to handling conflict by com­promise are that everyone loses something and the best solution is probably not reached.

Collaborating Collaborating (problem solv­ing) may be the best response to conflict when:

• Members are trained in problem solving. * The parties have common goals that require

everyone's cooperation. • The conflict has arisen from misunderstandings or communication break­

down and parties are willing to reframe their conflict in a new manner. • The conflict occurs during a crisis.

One drawback to collaboration is that it may not be successful when the par­ties have different values or goals. For example, a person who feels that conflict should be resolved in a competitive manner has goals and values completely opposed to the "everyone wins" view of the collaborator. Another drawback to the collaboration is that it usually takes longer to achieve than other strategies.

One final thought about choosing the best conflict strategy comes from Raymond Friedman and his colleagues (Friedman et al., 2000) whose research combined A-type (task) and C-type (affective or relationship) conflict with con­flict strategies. They found that:

• Collaborating reduces both C-type conflict and A-type conflict. However, because C-type conflict usually creates A-type conflict, it must be handled carefully. Simons and Peterson (2000) suggest that high levels of trust can keep A-type conflict from developing when group members are emotionally involved in the task outcome.

• Avoiding and competing increase C-type conflict, which almost always results in an increase in A-type conflict as well.

• Accommodating decreases A-type conflict and the stress that goes with it; however, because people who use this strategy do not assert their own needs, C-type conflict remains.

The five conflict strategies discussed above can be divided among three catego­ries according to type of outcome (Gelfand, et al., 2010; Weaver, 1984):

• Win-lose. Only one party achieves objective. Competition and voting are examples of the win-lose category. Organizations that use these methods

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

CHAPTER 3 CONfliCT, CUlTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS j 13

view conflict resolution as open confrontation in a setting resembling a bat­tle or war.

® Lose-lose. Neither party achieves their objective, or both get only a small part of what they wanted. Compromise, arbitration, accommodation, and avoidance are examples of the lose-lose category. Even in compro­mise situations, no one gets exactly what they wanted-therefore, every­one loses something. Organizations that use these methods view conflict as a dangerous thing and tend to avoid or ignore conflict when at all possible.

® Win-win. All parties receive acceptable gains. Collaboration and consensus are examples of the win-win category. Organizations that use these meth­ods view conflict resolution as a normal, collaborative procedure that occurs openly. Southwest Airlines uses collaboration and views it as a way to learn and build relationships (Gittell, 2005, p. 1 13) .

Although all of these strategies can be used to handle conflict, the most productive and satisfying over the long run is usually collaboration (Friedman et al., 2000; Thomas, 1992b) . The collaborating problem solver (who values both assertiveness and cooperation) helps the group reach a consensus; that is, all members agree to accept a specific decision even though some mem­bers originally preferred a different choice. They agree to this final decision either because they have come to like it better than their original choice or because they feel that their original choice, although not selected, was given a fair hearing.

Of course, sometimes it is impossible to reach a consensus. But keep in mind that settling for just any solution could be worse than reaching no solu­tion. If the group seems to have reached a stalemate-that is, if collaboration appears impossible-try the following procedure before yielding to compro­mise or force:

1 . Clarify the situation. Include such comments as "We seem to have reached an impasse. Further discussion along the same lines would be a waste of time. Let's try a new approach:'

2. Urge the person or group to set the two conflicting solutions aside temporarily and to pretend they do not exist.

3. Guide the person or group to seek new solutions through brainstorming or the two-step nominal group technique. (The rules for these procedures are cov­ered in Chapter 9.) Once a new list has been created, work with the person or group to evaluate these solutions and select the best one.

4. Finally, join the person or group in comparing the original two solutions with the new solution to see which of the three is now the best. Often, the new solution is more creative and effective than either of the original conflicting solutions and is selected as the new best solution.

This four-step procedure is not a compromise because no concessions are required to reach a consensus agreement. The discussants believe that the new solution is better than the original solutions and usually wonder why they didn't think of it sooner. If a consensus is still not possible, the conflict will have to be resolved by another method-perhaps compromise, mediation, or even force.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Tom Selleck's character in the movie Mr. Baseball, is an excellent example of communication problems that can occur when different cultures with little understanding of the other try to interact. Selleck plays Jack Elliot-a base-

Global teams don't always view conflict in the same way as Western teams. Even so, C-type conflict is possible.

ball player with an attitude-who is unex­

::J pectedly traded by the New York Yankees

.f to a Japanese team, the Chunichi Dragons £' in Tokyo. Selleck shows up in Japan know­'-' >:: ing nothing about the Japanese culture; he .� � is unaware of the ritual of exchanging busi-j ness cards, shows no respect for elders,

6 rebuffs attempts at friendship, and makes � inappropriate jokes. He has no idea how to

communicate with the Japanese players and, at first, doesn't really care. Thr,ough many humorous situations, the movie shows how Selleck learns to understand and respect the Japanese culture while becoming a better player with a future in baseball. Two other movies with similar communication prob­lems are Gung Ho, in which the character played by Michael Keaton flies to Japan to try to persuade a Japanese company to in­vest in a joint venture to save a failing au­tomobile assembly factory in Pennsylvania. and Lost in Translation, 'in which the char­acter played by Bill Murray visits Tokyo to film a commercial and experiences a variety of communication problems.

Not all cultures view the conflict and conflict strategies discussed earlier in the same way. In fact, it's probably safe to say that no two cultures (even those within our own country) are identical in how they view conflict and conflict resolution. Yet, understanding these differences, as well as similarities, is crucial to business and team success. It would be impossible to discuss every culture's differences, but we can identify several similarities and differences by looking at three dimensions: individualistic-collectivistic cultures, low­context-high-context cultures, and monochromic-polychromic cultures.

Western cultures like the United States tend to be individualistic cultures because the individual and individual rights are valued more highly than group identity or group rights. Asian cultures like Japan tend to be collectivistic cultures because they put more value on group membership, group obligations, and group goals than on the individual. Individualistic cultures are problem-oriented; collectivistic cultures are more relationship-oriented. Individualistic cultures value autonomy,

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

United States 91 India

Australia 90 Argentina

Great Britain 89 Japan

Canada 80 I ran

Netherlands 80 Brazil

New Zealand 79 Greece

Italy 76 Phil ippines

Denmark 74 Mexico

Sweden 71 Portugal

France 71 Hong Kong

Switzerland 68 Chi le

Germany 67 Thailand

South Africa 65 Taiwan

Finland 63 Peru

Austria 55 Pakistan

Israel 54 Colombia

Spain 51 Venezuela

*Higher scores are more individualistic; lower scores are more collectivistic.

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 1 75

48

46

46

41

38

35

32

30

27

25

23

20

17

16

14

13

12

Source: Geert Hofstede, Gert fan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, Cultures and Organizations, Software of the Mind, Third Revised Edition, McGrawHill2010, ISBN 0-07-166418-1. ©Geert Hofstede B. V. quoted with permission.

assertiveness, and democracy and prefer competing strategies ( Croucher et al., 2012; Triandis, 1995), although they also use collaborating and compromising to solve problems. Collectivistic cultures value empathy and listening and prefer avoiding and accommodating strategies to preserve friendships and save face for themselves and others (Choi, 1991; Croucher et al., 2012; Morris, et al., 1994). Notice in Table 3 .1 (which includes a list of countries and an individualistic score for each on a lOO-point scale) that the United States, Australia, Great Britain, and Canada rank the highest on individualism while Venezuela, Colombia, Pakistan, and Peru rank the lowest and are, therefore, more collectivistic.

The second dimension that enriches our understanding of cultural differences deals with high and low context (Hall, 1 976; Hall & Hall, 1 990). Context does not refer to the words in a message; it is defined as "the information that sur­rounds an event" (Hall & Hall, 1 990, p. 6) . Ting-Toomey (2000) notes that peo­ple who communicate with low-context messages tend to come from individu­alistic cultures; people whose messages are high-context tend to come from collectivistic cultures. In low-context cultures, messages are clearly spelled out-that is, they are direct and explicit. It is the speaker's responsibility to

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Daniel Acker/Bloomberg via GetfJ' Images

make sure the meaning is provided by the words and to be well organized and structured. The person's gestures, facial expressions, status, and so on may add subtle meaning but are not considered to be of major importance. On the oth­er hand, high-context cultures rely only minimally on spoken words that tend to be brief, indirect, and implicit. Words have the power to hurt, so they are used very carefully (Cohen, 1991). This is the reason high-context nations like Japan find it hard to say and receive a direct "no:' It seems like the person, not the idea, is being rejected (Stefani et al., 1997). Therefore, disagreeing publicly causes loss of face and is considered rude and immature. Instead of the speak­er, it is the receiver's responsibility to determine the meaning-usually from the setting, the speaker's face and nonverbal gestures, the speaker's friends, family background, age, status, silence, and so on. High-context cultures are

homogeneous, tightly bound by experiences, family, and tradition; messages and responses are basi­cally consistent (Hofstede, 2001; Samovar & Porter, 2004).

Companies or individuals who design websites for international audiences should note the finding by Usunier and Roulin (2010), who analyzed 597 websites in 57 coun­tries: Global websites designed us­ing a high-context communication style were generally harder to locate using a search engine, were more difficult to navigate and read, pro­vided less information about prod­ucts and prices, were less effective when using colors and graphics, and

had fewer opportunities for interaction than low-context websites (pp. 214-217). Even so, websites designed from a low-content perspective still need to implement different -language versions "to make full use of the Internet as a global communi­cation tool for doing business worldwide" (p. 222).

The third dimension that enriches our understanding of cultural differences deals with the time dimension called monochromic-polychromic. Monochromic (m-time) cultures, such as those in the United States, Switzerland, and Germany, view time as a "scarce resource which must be rationed and controlled through the use of schedules and appointments" (Smith & Bond, 1994, p. 149), "Saving" time is good; "wasting" time is not. When a business meeting is set for a specific time, people from m-time cultures will do their best to be "on time" and may even be early. They want to get right down to business and will likely view people who are "late" and/ or want to socialize before beginning the meeting as "time wasters:' People from m-time cultures are likely to thank you for your "time" when you do a favor for them.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS

On the other hand, polychromic (p-time) cultures, such as those in Af­rican, Arabic, Asian, and Latin American countries, see "the maintenance of harmonious relationships as the important thing, so that the use of time needs to be flexible in order that we do right by the various people to whom we have obligations" (Smith & Bond, 1 994, p. 149) . "Saving" time is not as important in these cultures, where arriving late is expected and rarely deserves an apology. P-time people generally feel the need to get to know you and even socialize before starting a meeting. M-time relates closely to low-context, individualis­tic cultures, whereas p-time corresponds more to high-context, collectivistic cultures. Of course, not everyone in a particular culture views time in the same way, which is probably a source of irritation to their colleagues and friends.

So, what do these three dimensions tell us about how different cultures handle conflict? The preceding information is summarized in Table 3 .2, which includes important cultural assumptions about conflict. Research continues to support these assumptions. For example, research by Croucher et al. (2012) found that India and Thailand-both high-context countries-preferred handling conflict by withdrawing and accommodating whereas the United States and Ireland showed a preference for competing, collaborating, and compromising.

Remember that the information in this section should be used as a starting point only; behaviors vary greatly within each country. As more and more corn­parries expand into other nations, we are likely to experience intercultural conflict. Individualistic, low-context team members need to be aware that solving intercul­tural conflicts requires some careful reframing such as, "It is not a conflict that is resolved but a relationship that is mended" (Cohen, 1991, p. 51) . Collectivistic, high-context team members also need careful reframing, such as "It is not just a relationship that was mended but a conflict that was resolved:' Chen, Liu, and Tjosvold (2005) indicated that Chinese management teams, rather than avoiding

• Conflict viewed from "problem-solving " model. • Conflict viewed from "face-maintenance" model.

• Conflict can be functional or dysfunctional. • Conflict is mainly dysfunctional.

• Conflict is dysfunctional when not confronted openly.

• Conflict shows lack of self-discipline and emotional immaturity and is cause for ]

"' embarrassment and distress. � !���������-��-�����-��--�----·----�------·---------��.���

• Conflict is functional and exciting when it • Conflict, when forced upon one, provides � provides open opportunity to solve problems. testing g round for skillful "facework." �

""' •. �

C�o

�nt

�e

�xt

�u

-'a·l--a

�n

�d

c.cr._e_l�at

�io--

n�a�l

�is

�su

·-�e

�s

�s

�ho

�u�l d�

be��+�

. �C

�o

�nt

�e�x-'tu

-a

�1 a

�n-d

�r

�e

�1 a

�ti�o�na

�l

�fa

�c

-e-is�s-u

�es

-a-

r�e�-1 ·�

>-1 handled separately. intertwined. � i2" • Conflict should be handled openly and directly. • Conflict should be handled discreetly and subtly. <.':l

Source: Ting-Toomey, S. (2000), Managing Intercultural Conflicts Effectively. In L. A Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural Communication: A Reader (9th ed., pp. 388-400). Belmont, CA: Wads worth; Stefani, L. A, Samovar, L. A, & Hellweg, S. A (1997), "Culture and Its Impact on Negotiation." In L. A Samovar & R. E. Porter (Eds.), Inter­cultural Communication: A Reader (8th ed., pp. 307-317). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

@

L

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

781 COMMUNICA liNG FOR RESULTSo A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFFSSI ONS

conflict as many collectivistic countries do, have learned to approach conflict in a cooperative manner.

Regardless of the culture, team members could improve communication by using the following tips from Hall (2002):

Realize that there is more than one reasonable position in a conflict. • Look for the "trigger" to the conflict (triggers are "small acts or comments

that push already difficult situations into open conflict;' p. 255). Use storytelling as a way to talk about conflict when a direct approach is undesirable.

• Use a neutral third party to mediate really serious conflicts.

INTE PERSONAL RELATI NSHIPS IN THE

Conflict and culture definitely affect the success of organizations in the work­place. But just as important to success are the development and maintenance of relationships, which are mutual liking and interests between people. Regardless of your status in it, your organization's success is influenced by the quality of your relationships with your coworkers (Williams, 201 1), supervisors, and customers. The quality of employee relationships affects (a) job satisfaction, (b) trust, (c) ability to meet others' communication needs, (d) absenteeism and turnover, (e) creativity and innovation, (f) productivity, and (g) commitment to and knowledge of the organization (Conrad & Poole, 2012, pp. 142-146; Feeley et al., 2008; Yager, 1997).

The quality of supervisors' relationships is equally important. Studies conclude that 40% of newly hired managers remain less than 18 months in their jobs mainly because of their "failure to build good relationships with peers and subordinates" (Fisher, 1998, p. 3) . Managerial characteristics that are important to "high-quality" boss-subordinate relationships include praise, understanding, trust, friendliness, honesty, and openness to subordinates' disagreement (Goldhaber, 1993, p. 1 1 ) . The need for strong interpersonal relationships is especially important in the new organization models-the multiunit and the virtual organizations-in which elec­tronic commerce, globalization, cyberspace offices, and constant change can cause employees to feel both physically and emotionally isolated. In Organizational Communication, Eisenberg, Goodall, and Trethewey (2010) note the following:

It is highly likely that the development of virtual teams will increase exponen­tially with the development of more realistic telepresence and absorption of younger people into the workplace . . . . From an employee perspective, members of the "millennial" generation are much more comfortable than their predeces­sors with multitasking and multiple, mediated forms of communication. (p. 218)

Although technology-driven organizations often believe that the key to success is the number of messages sent, the key is actually using the media to build relationships and trust (Tapscott, Tiscoll, & Lowy, 2000), which in turn affects our work environments and may even influence our lives at home. Re­search analyzed up to 1991 concluded that job satisfaction spills over into life

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, ANO RELATIONSH I PS j 79

satisfaction (Rain, Lane, & Steiner, 1991). Thus, you need to be careful in select­ing the organization for which you work because its atmosphere can directly affect your communication style, your relationships, and your communication behavior. Likewise, the organization must be careful about the type of person it hires because the way employees relate to others can affect the organization's communication success and even its culture, as Southwest Airlines indicated in the discussion in Chapter 2.

The strong, lasting relationships that we develop with people at work (or any­where, for that matter) fulfill a need for us. As long as the relationships are mutually satisfying, they will endure; if not, they will deteriorate. In developing and maintaining relationships, it is important to keep in mind several relationship keys, which include expectations, the reciprocal nature of relationships, trust, and technology.

Make Expectations Clear Every person in a relationship has certain expectations of other people and the job. If employers, employees, and even customers make their expectations clear from the start, job satisfaction and quality relationships have a better chance of developing (Chell & Tracey, 2005). For example, if we join an organization expecting a warm, social working envi­ronment but find a task -oriented, no-talking environment, we are likely to re­act with frustration and anger, and the quality of our working relationships will deteriorate or never develop and we may leave the job or even get fired. This is illustrated by a UPS distribution center in Buffalo, New York, that had an unex­plained turnover rate of 50% until they discovered the problem and took steps to solve it. The job was part-time with almost no chance for full-time employ­ment, yet this information was not given to job candidates-most of whom were really looking for full-time employment. When they realized that their expec­tations couldn't be met by the warehouse job, they quit-sometimes after only a few weeks. Once the job was offered to people who really wanted part-time work (like students and mothers), the turnover rate dropped to 6% (Daft, 2008). Apparently, most of our "expectations remain unspoken until they are violated" (Kreps, 1990, p. 150) because we assume that others know our expectations, as well as what is expected of them, without being told. Also according to Kreps, not only do most expectations remain unspoken until violated, but also our ex­pectations "continually change, making the potential for the fulfillment of these expectations less likely" (p. 150) .

Making expectations clear is also important in virtual organizations, where virtual team members and telecommuters are physically isolated from others. Email, instant messaging (IM), blogs, teleconferencing, and social networldng "enable 'virtual coworkers' to become 'virtual friends"' (Sias et al., 2002, p. 634). One woman who works on a virtual team said the following:

"We've had more challenges than your typical office team. However, we've also had advantages over other teams, including improved relationships and the ability to avoid endless, pointless meetings." (Carter-]ackson, n.d.)

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

80 j COMMUN ICA liNG fOR RESULTSo A GIIIOE fOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Make Use of the "Reciprocal Nature" of Relationships Interperson­al relationships are reciprocal-which means that a favor from one person is usually returned in kind. For example, if a coworker helps you with a problem, you will most likely "reciprocate" and help out the coworker at a later time. No one actually said, "If you help me, I'll help you;' but because of the reciprocal nature of relationships, "people communicate with others in accord with the way they perceive these others communicating with them'' (Kreps, 1990, p. 153). As long as we continue to reciprocate, the relationship will grow. On the other hand, if you do considerably more for me than I am able to do for you, the reciprocal quality of our relationship is out of balance, and the relationship will deteriorate or at least stagnate until the balance is restored.

Watch Out for Self-Fulfilling Prophecies When you predict that some­thing will happen and it actually occurs, we call it a self-fulfilling prophecy­our behavior helped ensure the outcome. For example, if a manager believes that a subordinate is dishonest or ineffective, the manager is likely to unknowingly communicate these feelings to the subordinate through verbal and nonverbal behaviors, such as unwarranted criticism, rejection of ideas, and unfriendly facial expressions. As a result, the subordinate picking up on these cues now realizes that the manager doesn't trust or like him or her and, therefore, hesitates to present new ideas or disclose full and honest information. Seeing this hesi­tancy, the manager now feels justified in his or her previous assessment -thus, the manager's expectations about the subordinate are fulfilled. Relationships are fragile enough without behaviors that contribute to self-fulfilling prophecies.

Maintain Mutual Trust and Respect Trust may be ·bile of the most important results of manager-employee relationships (Hubbell & Chory­Assad, 2005) . In their article, "Relationship Building in Small Firms;' Chell and Tracey (2005) found trust and mutual respect to be "an intangible bond that secures the relationship in the present and prospectively into the future" (p. 606) . High trust levels can be developed without a long acquaintance if the participants believe that the other is trustworthy based on such things as group membership, reputation, or information gained from a brief interac­tion about the other's intentions and motives (McKnight et al., 2006). This is fortunate because so many temporary and virtual teams must begin work im­mediately and have little time to spend developing trust. On the other hand, researchers have found that employees aren't necessarily feeling trust for their employers. For example, Kanter and Mirvis (1990) reported that 72% of em­ployees felt their managers were taking advantage of them, and 66% believed their managers could not be trusted. To create trust in situations like this, relationship-building is a must.

Provide Feedback and Self-Disclosure When Appropriate Without feedback and disclosure, relationships would stagnate. Feedback includes the responses to others' messages in the form of information, opinions, and feel­ings; self-disclosure includes voluntarily revealing information, opinions, and feelings to others that they would not know otherwise. Too much or too little

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CUlTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS j 81

feedback can hurt communication and relationships, and too much or too little disclosure can hurt communication and relationships.

Guidelines for giving feedback to others as covered in Chapter 1 include that it should (a) be directed toward behavior rather than toward the person, (b) be descriptive rather than evaluative, (c) involve sharing ideas rather than giving advice, (d) include only as much information as the person can handle at one time, and (e) be well timed. Because an unusual interest in feedback may be viewed with suspicion by those who don't know you, move slowly, identify the specific type of feedback you want, and tell them why you want it. Remember also that you must accept any feedback in a positive manner. A negative or de­fensive response will convince others that sharing ideas with you is dangerous.

Although for most people disclosure is more difficult to use effectively than feedback, there are three important guidelines to follow:

• First, disclosure should be mutually shared. All people involved in the rela­tionship must be willing to trust the others and to share openly with them. There is a reciprocal aspect to disclosure-the surest way to get others to disclose with you is to disclose with them. Disclosure normally results in trust and respect (Wheeless & Grotz, 1977), and people who trust each other are more likely to disclose (McAllister, 1980).

• Second, disclosure should be a gradual process. Most people don't disclose too much, they just disclose too soon. To maintain a good image when you are the new member of a team, you should begin with conservative disclo­sures. Relationships do not happen overnight. A truly open relationship may take months or years to develop fully. It would be a mistake to open up suddenly and dump your feelings on someone; the other person would probably wonder what game you were playing. Be cautious-lead up to disclosure slowly (Miell & Duck, 1986). Pay attention to others' nonverbal reactions. They will tell you if you are moving too fast or disclosing inap­propriate information. Wait for your disclosures to be reciprocated before you disclose more.

• Third, communication is generally best at a moderate level of disclosure. High lev­els of disclosure occur in relatively few communication transactions (Bochner, 1984) and even less in the business environment (Pearce & Sharp, 1973). Ac­cording to Gilbert (1976), the relationship between disclosure and satisfaction is a curvilinear relationship, meaning that satisfaction is low when disclo­sure is both low and high; it is best when disclosure is at a moderate level (Figure 3.2). Not all cultures view self-disclosure (even moderate disclosure) as a positive influence on relationships. For example, Chinese people tend to view disclosure as rude or in poor taste, whereas Japanese people often prefer to "put on a 'good face'" rather than risk displeasing another and may actually say yes when they really mean no (Caputo et al., 2000, p. 108).

Use Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) Carefully Information and communication technologies (ICTs) have changed the way people "foster relationships in organizations" (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 140) . Not only are personal relationships formed by using ICTs such as email, blogs,

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

821 COMMUNICATING fOR RESULTS' A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

c .� .... u Ill -.!!!

.... Ill V)

ib ::a

<)) 1;! .... <))

"d 0 :;s

;;:: 0

....:!

None Moderate Disclosure

High

FIGURE 3.2 Curvil inear relationship between satisfaction and disclosure

and social media, but in savvy organizations, employee-to-employee and employee-to-customer relationships are formed and maintained as well. Al­though ICTs will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6, it's important to mention here that using technology requires care. As mentioned earlier, online messages are generally less "rich'' than messages sent face to face. Although "the infor­mation exchanged via electronic media does not seem to be any more or less accurate than information exchanged through other media" '( Conrad & Poole, p. 140), it is easy to misinterpret the intent and tone of online messages. Also, online relationships take longer to develop than most face-to-face relationships, so be patient.

Strong interpersonal relationships are not only the heart of a successful organization but they are also the foundation of our own business successes. To mal<e relation­ships work, we need to understand our communication styles. Our communica­tion styles affect relationships with bosses, coworkers, teams, and customers. Each of us has a distinct communication style that we feel the most comfortable using. Many professions and businesses also seem to have preferred communication styles. The strategies we use to solve conflict also depend on our communication styles .

In this section, we will look at four styles that managers, employees, and cus­tomers typically use when communicating: the private, dominant, sociable, and open styles. Few people are ever completely one style. Although a person may have some characteristics of all four styles, most people have one or sometimes two central styles they typically use when things are going well and another style (or styles) they use under stress. None of these styles is totally good or totally bad; each has its "best" and "worst" side.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

, Elder Relationships

A poll by "PBS NewsHour" found that 43% of Americans considered living in a nursing home "totally unacceptable"

' for themselves, and 45% felt that elders are actually worse off after moving into a nursing home (Dentzer, 2002).

• According to William Thomas, physician, author (1999 and 2004), and creator of Eden Alternative-the typical nurs­

, ing home is "utterly devoid of hope, love, humor, [and] meaning" (Salter, 2002, para. 2). He claims that America's

• institutionalized elders who live in nursing homes resemble ' convicted criminals who live in our prisons (Bell, 2002, , para. 4).

What's the answer? "Relationships are the foundation of

• good health care," says Thomas (Bell, 2002). For relationships • to flourish, elders need a sanctuary that feels like home-a

place that is warm, uses smart technology, is connected with a green environment (Thomas, 2004, p. 221), and has

' a staff interested in relationships. Over 300 nursing homes and 15,000 care providers are now associated with Thomas's

' Garden of Eden approach, which includes well-treated, empowered staff who work in teams, elders who participate

' in personal and nursing-home operations when able, an environment that looks and smells like home (with personal

• furniture, home-baked bread, pets and children from the on­site day-care center), and an inviting garden full of flower and vegetable beds, benches, and shade trees (Bell, 2002; Eden

• Alternative, 2012; Thomas, 2004). Eden Alternative nursing

• homes provide an environment that encourages relationships. Does this approach work? Residents bloom in the new

homes (all the homes have long waiting lists), and research • shows significant drops in the overall number of drug

prescriptions, infection rates, pressure sores, behavioral • incidents, bedfast residents, and mortality rates (NCAOn­

l ine.org, 2006; Eden Alternative, 2012; Thomas, 2004).

CHAPTER 3 CONfliCT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSIIIPS 1 83

Employees, who traditionally have been encouraged not to develop relationships with the residents, are also happy, as indicated by the staff motto at a home in South Bend, Indi­ana: "Our elders do not live in our facility. We work in their home" (EdenAit.com, 2006). One staff member expressed the value of relationships this way:

Today I had fried chicken and macaroni and cheese for lunch. lt made me miss my friend Foby. She almost made it to her 99th birthday, missing it by only five days . . . . When I held her hand in the hos­pital bed that last day, I thought how lucky I was to have known her. Five years ago, I would have never thought that I would so dearly love this woman who stuck out her tongue when you walked by and would never let anyone sit with her. Oh, what I would have lost out on. And maybe, just maybe, I gave a little back to her. (CultureChangeNow.com, 2006, para. 9)

Not only are good relationships the foundation of good health care, but they are also good for business. A registered Eden home in Michigan reported staff turnover and absenteeism drops of 75% and 60%, respectively, re­sulting in savings of approximately $100,000 (Steiner, 2004; Thomas, 2004). Although change is slow and a great deal of work remains, Eden homes seem to be a good alternative.

WHAT DO YOU THINK? • How does the success experienced by the Eden Alterna­

tive nursing homes relate to the quality of communica-tion between the elders and the employees who care for , them?

• In general, which communication style should the employees use to communicate with the elderly patients receiving nursing home care? Why?

To communicate more successfully and establish more meaningful working relationships, employees need to (a) determine their personal communication styles, (b) understand the strength and weaknesses of each style, and (c) learn how to communicate effectively with people using styles different from their own (whether they are supervisors, coworkers, or customers).

You should realize that this classification system of four styles is not intended to serve as a method for stereotyping people but as a practical way of understand­ing your own and others' frames of reference. You will note that these styles are

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A G U I DE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Before reading further in this chapter, complete the following two surveys:

I. The Styles Survey­

Short Form on page 85.

2. The Survey of Communi- •

cation Styles (both the Manager and Employee •

sections) located at the •

end of this chapter and •

on line at the Course­Mate website for Corn- •

municating for Results •

was first created in 1981 and last updated in May 2011. When you take the survey, it will be automatically scored and plotted for you and will include the option to e-mail the results to your instructor.

very closely aligned with the organization models discussed in Chapter 2. As you read the following sections, remember that the descriptions of these styles are not perfect or even complete; rather, they describe tendencies. As such, I hope you will find them as helpful in your daily business and professional careers as my many students and business seminar participants have over the years.

Note that these four styles are a composite of several different styles ap­proaches as listed in the footnote1 and do not mirror any of them exactly. I have attempted to alter any criticisms or weaknesses of these approaches and have developed a survey located at the end of this chapter to help you determine your main styles used as an employee and your main styles used as a manager. Waldherr and Muck (20 1 1) conducted a literature review of research on com­munication styles and concluded that two reliable dimensions stand out in the research so far-high and low assertiveness and high and low responsiveness. Although the dimensions used in the Survey of Communication Styles-Long Form use different terms-disclosure and feedback-they are similar in mean­ing. People who are high in assertiveness are more likely to disclose ·information and feelings, while people who are high in responsiveness are more likely to seek and reply to the feedback of others. The disclosure/assertiveness and the feed­back/responsiveness dimensions have been combined in this edition as you can see in Figure 3.3.

When you complete the Survey of Communication Styles, you may find that you use the same style as an employee as you do as a manager, or you may

Low Feedback/ Responsiveness 1--

Low Disclosure/ Assertiveness

] .tl � �

� Private Sociable

.,;, .I

High Feedback/ � ----+-----------1 Responsiveness 15\, c§

Dominant Open

High Disclosure/ Assertiveness

@

FIGURE 3.3 ! Feedback/responsiveness and disclosure/assertiveness d imensions with communication styles

'The manager, employee, and customer styles presented in this section are a composite of Luft and Ingham's

(Luft, 1969) "JoHari window" concept; J. A. Hall's (1975) "interpersonal styles and managerial impacts;" Lefton's

(Lefton, Buzzotta, Sherberg, & Karraker, 1980) "management systems approach;" Bradford and Cohen's (1984) "manager-as-conductor" and "manager-as-developer" middle manager style;" and Merrill & Reid's (1981) "Social Style Model" (SSM). The final result is my own product and, therefore, does not parallel any of the other

approaches exactly.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

CHAPTER 3 CONfliCT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 1 85 discover that you use a different style for each. This survey is especially helpful for teams and provides some excellent feedback that you can use to improve your communication with each other. You may want to ask your colleagues, boss, or team members to take the Survey of Communication Styles-Long Form located at the end of this chapter. It can also provide some interesting feedback for spouses, significant others, or family members as well.

When you complete the Long Form survey please note:

1 . Your largest total (or two totals if the totals are only one or two points apart) represents the style( s) that you typically use when things are running smoothly.

2. The next largest total (or two if the totals are only one or two points apart) represents the style(s) you use under stress.

3. You will have a set of totals for both the MTI (Manager Tendency Indicator) and the ETI (Employee Tendency Indicator).

Which style is the most effective in a particular situation depends on (a) which styles you can use comfortably, (b) with which styles you could best handle the conflict or problem, and (c) which styles are preferred by your team,

· Styles Survey-Short Form

• Take this styles survey and compare your results with the results you get when you take the Survey of Communication • Styles-Long Form. You can take both surveys online. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication Course­

Mate for Communicating for Results.

• DIRECTIONS: Answer each of the following questions by writing on the line a number from 1 to 10 that represents how true or • false each statement is to you: completely false = 1; completely true = 10. This number represents your points for that question.

• POINTS:

1 . I feel more comfortable around things than around people. 2. To keep the peace, I usually give in. 3. I find that I'm usually right on most issues. 4. I make sure that my opinions are known. 5. it's important to me that people l ike me; if they don't, I feel very uncomfortable. 6. I usually withhold my opinions until I know what other people think. 7. I l ike most people I meet. 8. Working on teams is enjoyable and is a productive way to solve problems.

"ti • � • SCORiNG: � . .:E •

Add the points from questions 7 and 8: total = Open Style. � • Add the points from questions 5 and 6: total = Sociable Style. ':;i! • Add the points from questions 3 and 4: total = Dominant Style. <t;, • -� •

Add the points from questions 1 and 2: total = Private Style. iil ' � •

Your largest total represents the communication style you use when things are going smoothly. The next largest total (or two

8: totals if the scores are very close) i s the style o r styles you jump back to under stress.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

COM MUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUID E FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

TABLE 3.3 PRIVATE-STYLE MANAGER

supervisor/employees, coworkers, or customers. Knowing the strengths and weaknesses of each style can help you adjust your own style and adapt to the styles of others. 1. Key word:

2. Motivation for being closed:

3. Communicates expectations?:

4. Handles conflict:

The Private Style If you had the choice of a job in a room with five or six other people whom you would work with each day or a job in a room by yourself, working with a machine that only one person could operate at a time, which would you choose? If you selected to work alone, you probably have strong private tendencies. Private-style communicators simply feel more comfortable working with things than with people-does this seem like you? For example, a private-style

�=================-�-�I.,; employee might do well working at restocldng items or finding glitches 5. Handles employee appraisals: j in a software program but be inefficient when handling customers at a

1-·-================-�--l:t complaint window or working in a group. A private-style manager may � enjoy inventory control, ordering supplies, and detail work but be less � successful dealing with employees and employee problem�.

6. Motivates employees by:

1.-=========-·-1 As Figure 3.4 indicates, private-style communicators seek little feed-7. Organization models used: back, which makes them low on the responsiveness continuum, and dis-close little information, which also makes them low on the assertiveness � !.-=================-·--� �

'-"F�il_l_ i._n�th�e�b_l�a�nk_s._w.�hi�le�r_e_a�d�in_g_·�-----·�"'� continuum. In other words, they are noncommunicators, who not only

Rarely seeks

feedback

Rarely discloses

Discloses excessively

feel uncomfortable around people, they may actually fear them. Because private-style people find it difficult to communicate their

expectations to others, they are often disappointed by and disappointing to those around them. For example, the boss who expects private-style employees to ac­tively participate in group meetings and decision making will be disappointed. Asldng their opinion in meetings does not make it easier fot them to participate; instead, it increases their anxiety. Private-style customers are often disappointed by salespeople (they really want to be led by the hand but are afraid to ask) . If the product or service recommended by the salesperson turns out to be poor, rarely will private-style customers openly complain. Instead, they may change stores without letting the store or letting the salesperson know why.

Private-style people spend much of their energy in seeking safety to keep from looking like fools, being blamed for something, or even losing their jobs. They try to avoid conflict and avoid making decisions. When decisions have to be made,

they use safe procedures such as "going by the book;' following tradition, .,; and treating everyone alike. Actions taken by private-style managers in i an attempt to remain safe include treating all employees the same re­� gardless of their performance, giving only brief, superficial employee ap-

Seeks <Z praisals (and then only when absolutely necessary), and never initiating excessive � upward communication. feedback �

·� Private-style people can be quite productive as long as only minimal

FIGURE 3.4 � The private communication style

-;; interaction with others is required. However, because of their commu­� nication anxiety, relationships with private-style people are difficult­� especially in the work environment. As a result, creative employees and

employees who need guidance often become frustrated with the private­style manager. On the other hand, other private-style employees and highly trained and motivated employees who like to make their own

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 1 87

decisions appreciate the private-style manager, who stays out of their way and concentrates on computers, equipment, and other "things:'

TABLE 3.4 DOM INANT-STYLE MANAGER

To summarize, the private style is most successful when little interper­sonal interaction is required for the job, when going by the book is the pre­ferred company stance, when subordinates are professionals who need little supervision, and when others in the department are private or prefer things to people. The private style is less successful when the job requires a high level of interpersonal interaction; when the organization is in a high-risk profes­sion with creative, high-strung individuals; when subordinates need or want guidance; and when the profession or business is productivity-oriented.

Motivation for being blind:

Communicates expectations?:

Handles conflict:

The Dominant Style If you are looldng for someone you can de­pend on to get the job done, someone to train a group of overconfident new hires, someone with the self-assurance to troubleshoot a problem department, or someone who can command authority in a crisis, you couldn't do better than to hire a dominant-style communicator. Whereas private-style communicators would experience disabling anxiety in these situations, dominant -style communicators thrive in situations in which they can demonstrate their expertise and experience-does this sound like you?

Handles employee appraisals:

Motivates employees by:

Organization models used:

in the blanks while reading. As Figure 3 .5 indicates, dominant-style communicators tend to

fall on the low-feedback/responsiveness and high-disclosure/assertiveness ends of the two continuums, which causes others to view them as authori­tarian. As with private-style people, dominant-style communicators seldom ask for feedback, and yet they are the opposite of private communicators in several ways. Instead of having a low self-image, dominant-style communica­tors tend to be very confident (even overly confident) and are not afraid to express their views, expectations, or needs. People know where they stand with a dominant-style communicator. Dominant communicators don't ask for feedback from others because they don't feel they need it; they already know what's best. Instead of avoiding others, dominant-style communicators tend to overuse disclosure, telling others their opinions, how things should be done, and what others are doing wrong, even when their advice may not be wanted. For example, it's very difficult for dominant -style managers to delegate re­sponsibility. They want employees to do the work but to do it the way they themselves would do it. Private and dominant communicators .,; also differ in the way they handle conflict. Instead of ignoring con- ;

"< flict, dominant communicators jump right in and solve the problem � � their way, using force if necessary. Often, dominant -style managers

solve conflicts without asking for employee agreement or input. "< Rarely ':;! seeks '\o feedback

] t', � �

Rarely discloses

Discloses excessively @

FIGURE 3.5 ! The dominant

Seeks excessive feedback

Actually, dominant -style communicators are often right when they say their ideas are better. They are usually experienced and very lmowledgeable on the topic. But when people are not allowed to give feedback, to try things their way, or to make mistakes, they can't devel­op their potential. Therefore, even though dominant-style managers are good trainers, they don't allow their employees the freedom to develop to the point at which they can take over for the boss. When the manager is

communication style

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

© 2004 Ted Goff E

"I don't have time to write per­formance reviews, so I'll just criticize

you in public from time to time."

8 � � i " "

promoted or leaves, the organization usually discovers that there is no one ready to fill the position.

Dominant -style communicators are seen as very critical and demanding. For example, al­though dominant-style managers mention em­ployee strengths in appraisal sessions, they spend the majority of the time on weaknesses. Their comments probably don't include "face support­ive" communication (Carson & Cupach, 2000)­comments and nonverbal gestures designed to show employee approval and give the employee some choices. In the same way, dominant -style employees (feeling that their ideas are better than those of their bosses) are argumentative and have problems gracefully receiving criticism or orders. Even dominant -style customers are very critical (often knowing more about a product than the salesperson) and are usually the first to tell their

friends when they are unhappy with a particular organization. Vocal unhappi­ness like Kevin Smith posted on Facebook and Twitter when he was removed from a Southwest flight for being overweight (see Chapter 6) can reduce a company's business (Finkelman & Goland, 1990).

If you have dominant-style tendencies, you have probably discovered that most people are not interested in the perfect way to do things. Most people want the job completed but are not impressed by all the hard work that "per­fection'' requires. If you often feel dismayed by the quality of pthers' ideas and think to yourself, "If I want something done right, I've got to do it myself;' you are exhibiting dominant-style tendencies as are often found in the traditional organization.

Occasionally, a person who appears to be dominant is really a very inse­cure, private-style person who notices that dominant communicators get more desired results (such as more job promotions) than private ones and decides to try the dominant style. Therefore, these people-we'll call them neurotic dominant communicators-hide their insecurity behind an authoritarian mask. Instead of the constructive criticism given by a dominant manager, the neurotic dominant manager's criticism is angry and includes unrealistic personal attacks. To hide the fact that they feel threatened by knowledgeable, hardworking employees, neurotic dominant managers find a minor employee weakness and blow it out of proportion-often in front of other employees. Therefore, don't confuse the true dominant communicator with the neurotic dominant communicator. Dominant-style communicators may be critical and demanding, but they appreciate quality work; neurotic dominant communica­tors feel threatened by quality and are impossible to please.

To summarize, the dominant style is most successful when untrained sub­ordinates need their expertise, during a crisis or time of organizational change, or when an immediate decision is needed. The dominant style is less successful when the organization has many personnel problems, when subordinates are

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 1 89 professional people who expect to make their own decisions, or when creativity and risk taking are critical to the organization's success.

The Sociable Style If you had to choose between an efficient, highly productive office in which people were friendly but not social, or a less efficient but social environment in which birthdays were cel­ebrated, employees freely chatted while working, and everyone was treated as a family member, which would you pick? People with so­ciable tendencies prefer a social environment and want to be friendly with everyone as is found in the human relations model. Sociable­style communicators are interested in people, are good listeners, and are generally well liked. It's very important to them that everyone gets

1. Key word:

2. Motivation for being hidden:

3. Communicates expectations?:

4. Handles conflict:

along and that conflicts are avoided. However, sociable-style commu- ] 5. Handles employee appraisals:

nicators may limit what they choose to share and may hide their "true" :;; feelings and knowledge from others. � �-

6�.:::M

=ot

=iv=at

=e=s

=em

=p=lo=ye=

e=s

=by

=:==-�---�

As Figure 3.6 indicates, sociable-style communicators fall on the � low-disclosure/assertiveness, high-feedback/responsiveness ends of the ��=========-� two continuums. Although they like social environments, they find it dif- ] 7. Organization models used:

ficult to disclose their opinions and expectations to others. For example, �� �=========:,___-� �r-a sociable-style boss may cover only strengths in an employee appraisal <.':l Fi l l in the blanks while reading. @

-� and skip over weaknesses; a sociable-style employee may be unable to -�- -�----�---

disagree with an unfair comment from the boss during an appraisal; and a sociable-style customer may agree with a salesperson's suggestions even if they don't reflect what the customer prefers.

Don't confuse the sociable communicator with the private communicator. Sociable communicators are not afraid of people, and they don't hide from them like the private-style communicator does. They do listen carefully to others and ask them how they feel, but they tend to keep their own opinions and feelings private-does this sound like you?

Why do sociable-style people hide their opinions and feelings from others? They are motivated by mistrust of people or by the desire for social acceptance-or even both. Sociable people who tend to mistrust others feel more comfortable when they know what people are up to; they want to find out what is going on and to get feedback-someone is bound to let something slip. For example, a sociable­style customer who is motivated by mistrust will be suspicious that the salesperson is taking advantage in some way and will try to confirm these .,; suspicions by asking questions. j

� .., <Z � Rarely

. seeks \<> feedback

·� >-1

Rarely discloses

Sociable-style people who are motivated by the desire for social acceptance want, above all, to please others. For example, sociable­style managers feel that keeping people happy is more important than productivity. After all, employee complaints can get you fired; moderate productivity usually doesn't. Sociable-style customers who are motivated by a desire for social acceptance would rather deal with friendly, sociable salespeople even if they have to pay more for the product.

� !1:" \:) Discloses excessively

@ FIGURE 3.6 � The sociable

Seeks excessive feedback

Sociable-style people often appear to be sharing because they ask questions and stimulate others to share, thereby disguising their lack of

communication style

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GU IDE FOR BUSI N ESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

TABLE 3.6

t Key word:

2. Motivation for being open:

3. Communicates expectations?:

4. Handles conflict:

disclosure. Sociable people disclose only on impersonal, safe topics and don't disagree with others. Sociable-style employees often appear overly friendly and eager to please ("yes" people). Sociable-style managers cre­ate the facade of being open in meetings when important decisions are to be made, but they usually speak up only after the majority opinion is clear or the top bosses' views are known. Sociable people fear conflict and disagreement and try to smooth over any discord.

As you can see, relationships with sociable-style people are basically one-way; they do most of the listening, while others do most of the shar­ing. Often, when others realize this, they withdraw their trust or at least stop confiding as much to the sociable-style person.

· To summarize, the sociable style is most successful when a social

] environment is expected; when the climate of the organization makes

.:€ caution and political maneuvering necessary; when teamwork is a so-1-6-.

.::M=ot

=iv=at=

e=s

=em

=p=

lo=y=ee

=s=by

=:==---1 !t cial occasion and rarely involves problem solving; and when adequate � performance is all that is expected. The sociable style is less success-

1--==========---J .s ful when the climate is more work-oriented than social; when tasks

5; Handles employee appraisals:

7. Organiz�tion models used: � require a high degree of trust among workers; when tasks are complex � and involve team problem solving; and when excellent performance

Fill in the blanks while reading. Cl is expected. '------------'------' @

Rarely seeks

feedback

Rarely discloses

The Open Style Open-style communicators tend to use both disclosure and feedback and are equally interested in people's needs and company pro­ductivity. Of the four styles, open-style communicators are the ones who most appreciate other people (private communicators are nervous around people, dominant communicators tend to view others as relatively unimportant, and so­ciable communicators don't always trust people). As Figure 3.7 indicates, open­style communicators fall on the high-disclosure/assertiveness, high-feedback/ responsiveness ends of the two continuums. In fact, they may disclose too much too often and may ask for too much feedback. This type of forward commu­nication makes many people uncomfortable-like the stranger sitting next to you on an airplane who tells you all about his or her family, latest surgery, and marital affair.

For most open-style people, the problem is not that they are too open but that they are too open too soon. In The Open Organization, Steele ( 1975) warns that the order in which we disclose different aspects of ourselves will determine

how others react to us. For instance, new members of a group should first show their responsible, concerned side. When this stance results in

� � Seeks �

excessive � feedback �

]

their acceptance, then they can start to show their less perfect aspects

1!o &o Discloses excessively c§

I @ FIGURE 3.7 .1. The open communi-

and even make a critical observation. These same aspects or observa­tions could get a nonmember rejected out of hand. For example, men­tioning a problem you observed to your colleagues when you are a new hire of less than a week would likely get more of a negative response than if you had worked for the company for 2 to 3 months. In new environments, open-style employees need to listen and observe others to determine the openness of the climate. Openness is most effective when it produces a gradual sharing with others. cation style

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

CHAPTER 3 CONfliCT. CULTURE, ANO RELATIONSHIPS j 91

Open-style people are generally sensitive to the needs of others and real­ize that conflict can be productive. Open-style managers are more likely to em­power employees to take active roles in the affairs of the organization. These empowered employees usually develop quality relationships and increase pro­ductivity. Generally, "employees in open, supportive communication climates are satisfied employees" (Conrad & Poole, 2012, p. 143; see also Daft & Marcic, 2013, Chapter 12) .

Do not assume from what has been said so far that the open style is ad­vocated in all situations. If the organization's climate is open, if upper man­agement favors the open style, if employees and managers are basically open, and if customers appreciate an open style, then the open style is appropriate. Within reason, the more open we are, the better communicators we are likely to be because we are better able to share our frames of reference and expecta­tions with others. Many organizations, however, do not have an open climate. Upper management may not approve of open-style managers and may fail to promote them. Some employees may be uncomfortable around open manag­ers and consider their requests for employee input as proof that they cannot make decisions. Some customers consider open-style salespeople as pushy or even nosy. But keep in mind that what is too open for one group may be just right for another.

In general, a moderately open style is most successful when employee in­volvement in decision making is desired; when change is welcomed as a new opportunity; when tasks are complex and require teamwork; when quality work is expected; and when the organization is involved in global communication us­ing one of the transformational models. The open style is less successful when upper managers or workers view the open style negatively; when tasks are ex­tremely simple and require no teamwork; and when an immediate decision is needed.

Your communication success and your ability to establish and maintain rela­tionships both at home and in the workplace depends on realizing two impor­tant facts about communication styles. First, all communication styles have strengths and all have weaknesses. Realizing this simple fact indicates to all communicators that we should analyze our own strengths and weaknesses to see whether any changes are needed. This knowledge also indicates the need for flexibility when dealing with other people who also have styles with strengths and weaknesses. Second, successful relationships depend on our knowing how to relate to people of different styles. Therefore, this section includes both the best and worst of each style as well as some suggested ways to relate to people in our lives who use different communication styles.

The chances are that you have a boss, a coworker, or a customer with whom you have some difficulty communicating. If their communication style differs from yours, your expectations are probably different, which makes the relationship difficult to develop and maintain and negative

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

COM M U NICATING FOR RESULTS: A GU I D E FOR BUSINESS A N D T H E PROFESSI ONS

Private-Style Communicators . . .

At their best are: • Productive as long as they can work in an environment free of

interpersonal demands. • Seen as reserved. ® Considered similar to the laissez-faire leader, who lets employees

do whatever they want. At their worst are: • Likely to spend most of their energy looking for security; there­

fore, productivity is fairly low. • Seen as difficult to get to know and unresponsive to needs of

others. Thought to be aloof and noncommunicative.

self-fulfilling prophecies more likely. This section offers some advice on how to communicate with people who have different styles-for additional advice, see the CourseMate website for Com­municating for Results. Remember, no one person exemplifies any one style perfectly; therefore, the advice should be taken as a guide to understanding, not as the complete answer to communication problems.

Private Communication Style

How to communicate with private-style managers: Take care-don't threaten them or increase their insecurity. Avoid asking questions-better to ask other

employees or make the decision yourself if you can do so quietly. Don't make waves-better to downplay new procedures you develop. Don't expect any praise, guidance, criticism, or help from the boss-better to provide these for yourself. How to communicate with private-style employees: Put closed employees in environments that feel safe-that require little interaction with others. Give specific instructions about how, what, when, and where. Make the

Dominant-Style Communicators . . .

At their best are: Clear on what they want and where you stand with them-not afraid to exercise authority.

• Usually very loyal, organized, and dependable; others know the job will get done.

• Very helpful to those who want to learn as long as the help is appreciated.

At their worst are: • Unable to delegate effectively. • Very demanding and impatient; insist their way is best. • Quick to offer advice and criticism to others but unable to take it.

By choice, in control at al l times. • Liable to stifle growth and creativity of others by making most of

the decisions. • Predisposed to expect others to mess things up ("To get things

done right, do them yourself"). • Apt to punish failure and mistakes. • Often poor listeners.

chain of command clear-to whom are they responsible? Litnit criticism-they are overcritical of themselves already. Don't expect their participation in meet­ings or appraisal interviews. • How to communicate with private­

style customers: Don't expect them to openly express what they really want­you must search for it. Help them make good choices and you could have a customer for life. Avoid techni-cal jargon-they may be overwhelmed by it. A flip chart presentation may give them a sense of security-avoid a team presentation-it may increase their insecurity. Treat them with respect.

Dominant Communication Style

How to communicate with dominant­style managers: Take their criticism well and expect to learn from them. Meet the blind manager's expectations.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

Communicator Styles

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, ANO RELATIONSHIPS j 93

: To check your knowledge of the four communicator styles, take the following quiz. Compare your answers to those at the back of this book. You can also take this quiz on line. Go to cengagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication Course­Mate for Communicating for Results.

DIRECTIONS: Identify the communicator style each question describes: (A) private, (B) dominant, (C) sociable, ' or (D) open.

1 . Which style employee prefers not to take any part in office discussions?

2. Which style employee has trouble accepting criticism and is usually argumentative?

3. Which style communicator may make others feel uncomfortable by using too much feedback and too much disclosure?

4. Which style customer prefers to deal with sociable salespeople even at the risk of paying more for the

�� .

5. Which style person more likely communicates expectations to others?

6. Which style communicator is motivated by mistrust of others?

7. Which style communicator uses low feedback/responsiveness and high disclosure/assertiveness?

8. Which style communicator is more likely to take responsibility for his or her mistakes?

9. Which style manager tends to concentrate more on an employee's strengths than on weaknesses during an appraisal session?

10. Which style communicator prefers working with things to working with people?

Accept that your proposals will be changed by the boss. Ask questions to see what information the boss has assumed you already know and to determine whether the boss already has a "correct" solution in mind. If the boss is a neurotic blind type (a closed boss pretending to be blind), expect personal attacks on your ego.

• How to communicate with dominate-style employees: Expect that blind employees are very self-assured, often argumentative, and usually not team players but know the rules of the game and can play when it is to their advantage. Encourage blind employees to deal with others more flexibly because these employees could well become managers in the fu­ture. Show them that you will reward team involvement. Let them see that you are in charge but that you appreciate the skills and knowledge of others.

• How to communicate with dominate-style customers: Give a polished, well-supported sales presentation-avoid reading a canned flip chart presentation. A team approach, if professional, will probably impress them. Be prepared for suggestions on how to improve your selling tech­nique. Dominant customers like to feel in control; let them feel that they negotiated an exceptional deal (they probably did) . Don't keep them waiting.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

94 1 COMM U N I CA T ING FOR RESUl TU G U I D E FOR B USIN ESS AND T H E PROFESSIONS

Sociable-Style Communicators . . .

At their best are: • Well l iked, fun to be around, organizers of social events. • Concerned with people and willing to listen. • Busy smoothing over minor conflicts and keeping a happy office. At their worst are: • Suspicious of the motives of others. • Not really interested in quality; adequate performance accepted. • "Yes" people; pretend to agree to be liked. • Unable to disclose opinions and ideas that might be rejected. • Not always loyal and appear to be two-faced.

Sociable Communication Style

• How to communicate with sociable­style managers: If you are too knowl­edgeable or have come from another department, you may be considered a spy. You will not always know where you stand. Don't expect the boss to dis­close fully-watch for nonverbal signs that the boss could say more. Show how your work or ideas will bring rec­ognition to the department and thus to the boss, who wants social acceptance. Don't be afraid to use tactful confronta­tion; the boss will often back down.

• How to communicate with sociable employees motivated by d�sire for so­

cial acceptance: Expect these employees to be "yes" people because they believe that pleasing you and others is the way to success. Motivate them by public praise (but criticism given in private), posting their names on a wall chart, asking them to give special talks, and other actions that will enhance their social acceptance. Show that you feel positive toward them.

• How to communicate with sociable employees motivated by lack of trust: Realize that sociable-style employees are hard to spot because they have learned how to play the game. Demonstrate (by promotions and performance appraisals) that honest team cooperation is the way to get ahead. Establish a climate in which differing opin1ons will not be

Open-Style Communicators . . .

At their best are: Flexible in meeting needs and using communication styles.

• Able to give and receive both praise and criticism. • Considered genuine and good listeners. • Seen as trusting, friendly, and dependable. • Willing to share feelings, as well as knowledge. • Productive. • Able to empower others through team decisions and feedback. At their worst are: • Seen as ineffective managers, especially by blind bosses. • Frustrated by lack of creative opportunities under nonopen

bosses. • Impatient with the time needed to implement organizational

changes. So open that others feel uncomfortable around them.

• Open at inappropriate times.

penalized. Expect your comments to be searched for a double meaning. Be specific, use examples, don't assume meanings are clear.

• How to communicate with sociable­style customers: Spend time establish­ing a friendly feeling before giving your pitch. Use referral-they are more likely to buy if they feel that others they re­spect are sold on the idea, product, or service. Listen carefully and keep your opinions out of the picture (at least un­til the client's views are known) because hidden customers may say they agree even if they don't.

Open Communication Style

• How to communicate with open man­agers: Be honest and open, but use tact. Look at all sides of a problem. Don't

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

Should CFO Be Fired for What He Tweeted? ' Using Facebook, blogging, and Tweeting are some of

the ways that people use technology to create relation­ships. According to Pewlnternet.org (2012), 80% of American adults (18 or older) use the Internet, 66%

' use social networking sites, 14% maintain a personal journal or blog online (although 32% post comments on other people's blogs), and 12% use Twitter.

Although sharing information about the company, personal experiences, and personal lives with others

' helps relationships grow in the workplace, there is a limit to what should be shared-as indicated in the Zit's cartoon below. As the number of people using social networking sites and blogs grows, so does the number of people getting fired for the information they post-for example, approximately 10% of companies surveyed have fired at least one employee for comments made on a blog (Singel, 2007). Take for example Mark Jen, a new Google employee, who decided to chronicle his experiences, posting both the good and the not so good. He even discussed Google's health benefits package,

' which he said wasn't as good as Microsoft's-he was fired (Palan, 2008). Or Peter Whitney who worked as an administrative assistant for a brokerage owned by Wells

What about the decision to fire these employees? Was ' their desire to relate with others by sharing information

CHAPTER 3 CONfliCT, CULTURE , AND RELATIONSHIPS 1 95

Fargo and wrote about personal and work-related issues on his blog. One thing he remembers including is his un­happiness about being asked to contribute to a birthday card for a manager he disliked-he was fired (Wallack, 2005). Even Gene Morphis, CFO of fashion retailer Francesca's Holdings Corp. was fired for comments about company matters he posted online. He had a blog called "Morph's View," a Twitter account with "theoldcfo" as his handle, and a Facebook profile viewable by the public (Silverman, 2012).

Most individuals are surprised when their blogs are discovered-thinking that only family and friends read them. The Pew/lnternet survey by Lenhart and Fox found that 49% of bloggers "believe that their 'blog readership is mostly made up of people they personally know" (p. 19). How to Blog Safely (2005) warns that the people who find your site "may be the people you'd least want or expect. These include potential or current employers, coworkers, and professional colleagues; your neighbors; your spouse or partner; your family; and anyone else cu­rious enough to type your name, e-mail address or screen name into Google or Feedster and click a few l inks." Because only 55% of bloggers use a pseudonym (lenhart & Fox, 2006, p. 10), more firings,are sure to occur.

"Youa be swrprim,'' I

coolly replied.

by blog a breach of ethics? If so, did it warrant such drastic action? If not, what action would you recommend and why?

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

96 l COMMUNICA l iNG FOR RESULTS' A GUIDE FOR BUSIN ESS A N D THE PROFESSIONS

hesitate to share job feelings, doubts, or concerns. Share part of your per­sonal life; follow the boss's lead. Accept shared responsibility and power.

• How to communicate with open employees: Share confidences-open em­ployees respond well. Place them in an environment in which some friend­ships can develop. Give them constructive criticism-they usually want to improve and are the first to sign up for special courses offered by the corn­pany. Employees who are too open may talk too much, but don't assume that people can't talk and work at the same time-some talkative employees are more productive than quiet ones.

• How to communicate with open customers: Don't be pushy or manipulative. Listen carefully to their needs and wants-they are usually able to articulate them well. Build your persuasive appeals around these needs. Treat them as equals-don't talk down or defer to them. Canned flip chart presentations may be tolerated but are normally not impressive. Open customers are less im­pressed by flashiness and more impressed by facts-brief demonstrations can work well.

in Styles Is your communication style (or styles) and the way you typically manage conflict appropriate to your work environment? (If you have not yet done so, take the Survey of Communication Styles discussed on page 100.) As a result of your self-analysis, you may have found some discrepancies between your style and your work environment-in other words, some communica­tion problems. The key to good communication is flexibility p£ styles. There is a big difference between being private, dominant, sociable,

'or open because

that is the style we generally use and deliberately choosing a certain style because it best suits the needs of the individual or group with whom we are dealing.

If you discovered some discrepancies, you may be down to two choices: either change your job (remember, we tend to become like the environment in which we spend our time) or adapt your style. The latter is a good choice even if a job change is in order; flexibility may well be your key to effec­tive communication wherever you work. However, I don't recommend that you try a complete style change, at least not all at once. Before making any change, you should get enough feedback to be sure that a change is warranted and then start gradually. Adapt some of your responses to mirror those used by a person with a different style. When you feel comfortable with that new behavior, try another one. Communication behaviors can be changed, but not without hard work and patience. Few people find it easy to break an old habit. For example, a person with strong dominant tendencies can learn to communicate in an open style and even solve conflict in a collaborative man­ner but will normally retain some dominant-style behaviors, especially in times of stress.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS 1 97

Adapting or changing a style will require changes in your use of feedback, disclosure, or both:

• The person with dominant tendencies needs to ask for more feedback from others to discover areas needing change.

• The person with sociable tendencies needs to disclose more and should slow­ly begin to share more information, opinions, and feelings with others. People with private or open styles need to work equally on both feedback and disclosure; the private person to use more of each, and the overly open person to use less of each.

accommodating strategy (70) A-type conflict (67) avoiding strategy (69) collaborating strategy (70) collectivistic cultures (74) communication styles (82) competing strategy (70) compromising strategy (70) conflict strategy (69) consensus (73) context (75) C-type conflict (67) curvilinear relationship (81)

dominant-style communicator (87) expectations (79) feedback/responsiveness (80) flexibility (96) high-context cultures (76) individualistic cu ltures (74) information and communication

technologies (ICTs) (81) lose-lose (73) low-context cultures (75) monochromic (m-time) (76) mutual respect (80)

neurotic dominant communicator (88) open-style communicator (90) polychromic (p-time) (77) private-style communicator (86) reciprocal (80) relationships (78) self-disclosure (80) self-fulfilling prophecy (80) sociable-style communicator (89) trust (80) win-lose (72) win-win (73)

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

Conflict is impossible to avoid, but we will do a better job of han­dling it if we can identify the two basic types of conflict: A-type and C-type. People using A-type are more affective and emotional; peo­ple using C-type view conflict more cognitively and objectively. lt is also important to know the five strategies of dealing with conflict­avoiding, accommodating, compromising, competing, and collabo­rating as well as who uses them most and when each is successful.

Culture also plays an important role in successful communi­cation in the workplace. lt is important to compare and contrast the individualistic versus collectivistic cultures; the low-context versus the high-context cultures; and the monochromic (m-time) versus the polychromic (p-time) cultures. These three cultural di­mensions help show why people behave the way they do and how to communicate successfully with people from different cultures.

Building and maintaining relationships in the workplace are also important. Several tips were presented in this chapter. lt is easier to communicate successfully with our bosses, employees,

Before continuing to the next chapter, check your understanding of Chapter 3 at the Speech Communication CourseMate for Com­

municating for Results. CourseMate gives you quick and easy ac­cess to this text's resources to help improve your communication skills and prepare you for quizzes and exams. These resources include:

Study tools including the student companion workbook, digital g lossary, flashcards, and review quizzes.

" Activities and assignments including Awareness Checks, Checkpoints, and Collaborative Learning Activities. Media resources such as Web Links (explore communica­tion concepts); Speech Builder Express (develop your speech outlines); Interactive Video Activities (watch and critique videos of professional communication situations and sample speeches); and Speech Studio (upload your speech videos for peer reviewing and critique other students' speeches).

For more information or to access this book's online resources, visit cengagebrain.com.

98

1 . Go to the Communication Situation, "Hasty Resignation," at the end of Chapter 6. Read the situation or watch a video of it at the CourseMate website for Communicating for Re­

sults. Then in small groups, discuss the situation, looking

customers, and colleagues if we understand their frames of ref­erence. One way to do this is to determine their style of com­munication. Do they tend to be more private, dominant, sociable, or open? And which is our preferred communication style? Are the styles compatible? Each style varies in the amount of feed­back and responsiveness to the feedback obtained from others and disclosure and assertiveness volunteered to others. We need to realize that there is no perfect style. Each style has its own strengths and weaknesses; each style is effective in some situations and less so in other situations. If you are interested in changing your style or becoming more flexible in style use, carefully monitor your feedback and disclosure and plan to make minor changes in how you use them as needed for specific situ­ations. l t is not recommended that you make a drastic change in your communication style; it's better to know your style's best and worst sides and then build on your strengths and minimize your weaknesses.

for the communication style (i.e., open, dominant, sociable, or private) that seems to most closely describe police chief James Ferguson and the style that best describes police sergeant Cal Richards. Make a list of al l the specific events that convince you that your style choice is correct. As a group, be prepared to share your i.�eas with other groups.

2. In groups of three to five, discuss and select a character from a current or well-known movie that clearly i l lustrates each communication style. Some movies to consider in­clude No Reservations (2008), The Devil Wears Prada

(2006), Ambulance Girl (2005), Crash (2005), 50 First

Dates (2004), Lost in Translation (2003), My Big Fat Greek

Wedding (2002), Jerry Maguire (1996), Groundhog Day

(1993), and Mr. Baseball (1992). Search for the movie trail­ers on YouTube.com.

3. In small groups, share the way conflict was handled when you were growing up-was it considered beneficial or something to be ignored? Was conflict usually A-type or C-type? What is your main conflict strategy today: avoiding, accommodat­ing, compromising, competing, or collaboration, and how has it changed since you were a child? Now that you know the various conflict styles you have in this small group, how ef­fective would this group be as a problem-solving team? Give specific reasons to support your position.

4. Career Activity: In small groups, compare the four commu­nication styles used by individuals with the five organization

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

models discussed in Chapter 2. Which styles would likely feel the most and least comfortable working in or with each or­ganization model (e.g., would the private employee/manager/ customer feel more comfortable in the traditional or the hu­man resources models?) Give reasons for your answers.

5. Read the Goldman Sachs opening case study for this chap­ter. In small groups, complete the "Revisiting the Case Study" questions on page 76 taking either the perspective of a collectivistic, high-context culture or an individualistic/ low-context culture. Share your answers when finished.

6. After reading the cultural differences discussed in this chapter, is it any wonder that people from different coun­tries find it difficult to get along. Communication problems are especially likely when it comes to allowing people to save face. In small groups, assume that you are from an indi­vidualistic country and that your company plans to conduct business with an organization from a collectivistic country. Complete the following: a . Define the role that face and face saving plays in col­

lectivistic and individualistic cultures. What are the dif­ferences? What are the similarities?

b. Make a list of specific suggestions that your colleagues could follow that would allow people to save face while still solving group problems. For example, one sugges­tion might be to avoid complimenting individuals while directing any complements to the group.

c . Check your text for suggestions, use your personal ex­periences, and conduct research using the terms "saving face" and "facework."

d. Discuss your list and highlight the two most valuable suggestions-be sure to get group agreement.

e . Be prepared to share your list of suggestions with other groups.

7. Career Activity: Complete the Survey of Communication

Styles-Long Form either here using the Awareness Check on pages 100-107 or online at the CourseMate website for Communicating for Results. In groups of five to seven, com­plete the following: a . Determine the largest MTI and ETI totals for each group

member (the largest score indicates the communication style you likely use when things are going smoothly). If the group is hesitant to disclose their scores, have each member write their MTI style and ETI style on a piece of paper and place it in a cup. Shake them up and then write the styles on a flip chart, markerboard or chalk board.

b. Determine the next largest MTI and ETI totals for each group member-or sometimes two scores if they are one or two points apart (the second largest score indicates the style you typically use when under stress). Follow the same procedure as above.

c. Based on the discussion of each style earlier in this chapter, what strengths and weaknesses could your group expect if involved in a team project togeth­er? Keep in mind that all styles have strengths and weaknesses-the situation will determine specific style needs.

99

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

COMMUNICATING FOR R ESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Survey of Communication Styles­long Form The Survey of Communication Styles includes two parts:

(1) the Manager Tendency Indicator (MTI) and (2) the

Employee Tendency Indicator (ETI). Each part is designed

to give you an indication of the style you tend to use

when communicating with others.

Everyone should take both the MTI and the ETI. If

you are, or have been, a manager (at any level), take the

MTI first and the ETI second. If you have never been a ' manager, take the ETI first; then, when you take the MTI,

assume that you are a manager and answer the questions

the way you would most likely respond as a manager.

You can complete this survey online. Go to cen­

gagebrain.com to access your Speech Communication '

CourseMate for Communicating for Results.

Directions:

Read each question carefully: First put an 8 in the

answer box in front of the answer that most closely

represents your feelings and the way you would react

in the situation described. Next, put a 1 in front of the

answer that least closely represents your feelings or the

way you would react to the situation. Final ly, for the two

remaining answers, select the one that is most like what

you would do and place a 4 in its answer box; put a 2 in

the answer box for the last answer. I n other words:

8 means that the answer to the question is most like you

4 is moderately like you

2 is barely like you

1 is least or not at all like you '

You may not like any of the answers, or you may like , all of the answers. Regardless, you may not assign any

question all 8s, all 4s, all 2s, or al l 1s. In other words,

each question has four answers; one question must

receive 8 points (most like you); one question must

, receive 4 points (moderately like you); one question ' must receive 2 points (barely like you); and one question '

must receive 1 point (least or not at all like you).

Be careful not to answer what you wish you would

do or what most people would do. Instead, select the

answers that most clearly represent what you would

likely do in the situation described.

1 . A new procedure is implemented by upper manage­

ment. All supervisors are requested to monitor the

success of the procedure and to let management

know if any problems result. Your response:

a. Wait until a direct order for information is re­

ceived before making any response. The wise

person never volunteers information upward­

it isn't safe. What is said is often distorted in

some way.

b. If the new procedure is working well, don't

wait for a direct request-send the report

now. Promptness makes you look efficient. If

the procedure isn't working, be very careful

how the message is worded. There is no sense

in upsetting the big bosses. Edit and word

the report in such a way that any negative

aspects are minimized.

c. If the procedure works, there would be no

reason to report. However, if the procedure

doesn't work, tell them about it. After al l ,

they were the ones who suggested the idea.

If it doesn't work, it should be dropped and

replaced with something better.

d . lt is best to send regular reports to upper

management regardless of the success of

the new procedure. Reports should include

successes, failures, and attempts to solve

problems. Even when a report contains infor­

mation that may disappoint management, be

complete and truthful.

2. Your employees have become lax on a few of the

company's minor restrictions. Your response:

a. No regulation or rule should be inflexible.

Discuss the problem with the employees to

see whether they have valid reasons for their

disapproval. If so, work with the group to

determine an alternative. However, until the

change is implemented, request the employ­

ees to abide by the regulation.

' *The Survey of Communication Styles was developed by Cheryl Hamilton in 1981 and last revised in May 2011. ro l!l 'lli m iU m ,.. lil w 111 m m m m 1!1 m m RI m m Ill l!l Ill Ill il m m 111 m !ll 1>1 Ill m 1!1 1!1 m ll! Ill !il a a Ill m ru m 1!1 m m m

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

b. Strict rules and regulations are essential

in well-run organizations. If employees are

al lowed to ignore some regulations, they may

also begin to ignore others. No exceptions

should be a llowed.

c. Informality and harmony among employees is

more important than a few minor regulations.

If necessary to keep employees satisfied,

overlook their behavior as long as possible.

d. The only way to stay out of trouble is to hope

your employees follow the organization's

policies and procedures. If they complain,

simply tell them the truth-the company made

the rule, not you. Neither you nor they have

any choice in the matter if you all want to

keep your jobs.

3. The company has asked for your suggestions on

how to motivate employees. Your response:

a. People are definitely motivated by praise and

rewards-so use them often. Avoid criticism

and punishment because they harm relation­

ships and create bad feelings.

b. Praise makes people think they are better

than they really are. Therefore, the best way

to motivate employees is through criticism.

The best criticism occurs immediately after

an employee makes a mistake.

c. Praise and reward are good motivators when

given to employees who deserve them. Other

employees are then inspired to strive for

similar rewards. There are times, however,

when criticism and punishment are the best

motivators depending on the employee.

d. Employees rarely change no matter what the

boss does or what motivational techniques

are used. Therefore, the safest thing is to

avoid trying to motivate others.

4. A serious conflict has arisen among several employ­

ees in your department. Your response:

a. Because conflict among employees disrupts

work and decreases productivity, immedi­

ate action is necessary. Listen carefully to

al l sides and then tell them how you have

decided the problem wil l be solved.

b. Conflict can be productive when handled cor­

rectly. Therefore, if the problem doesn't solve

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHI PS 1 10 1

itself fairly quickly, gather those involved in

the dispute and encourage them to express

their complaints openly. When conflicts are

examined openly, a workable solution can

usually be found. If not, you may have to

arbitrate a solution.

c. First of all, try to make sure that serious

conflicts between employees never occur.

Such conflicts only draw unwanted attention

to the department. However, when conflict

does occur, try to stay out of it. After al l , it's

their problem, so they should solve it.

d . Because conflict can permanently damage

the friendly working environment of a de­

partment, smooth over the situation as soon

as possible. I f necessary, distract employees

from the conflict by sponsoring a social or

athletic event.

5. One of your colleagues feels that managers not only

should relate to employees in a friendly manner but

also should share personal information with them.

Your response:

a. I disagree. Smart managers keep their

distance from employees. All employees

should be treated in the same general man­

ner. No employee should be given special

consideration.

b. I disagree. The best way to handle employees

is to be firm yet impersonal with them. They

will respect you more that way.

c. I agree. Employees react best when managers

share experiences and feelings with them.

People who are friendly work together better.

Being friendly with employees doesn't have to

harm the boss-employee relationship.

d. I agree in part. Managers should be friends

with their employees. Employees will produce

more if they think you like them. Ask them

about their families and so on, but keep fairly

quiet about yourself. Personal information

could be used against you in some way.

6. lt is time for your company's annual performance

appraisals of all employees. Your method of han­

dling employee evaluations:

a. Performance appraisals are basically a waste

of time-employees never seem to change.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

102 1 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS: A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Therefore, if you are required to conduct

appraisals, keep them short and general and

keep as few records as possible. Also, since

employees talk, give the same basic evalua­

tion to all .

b. Performance appraisals are an excellent

time for evaluating the employee's past

performance and setting new goals for the

future. Both strengths and weaknesses should

be considered. Get the employee actively

involved in the evaluation so that the final

appraisal will be agreeable to both of you.

c. Criticism serves only to hurt people's feel­

ings, and few people can be objective when

discussing their weaknesses. Appraisals are

more productive when you concentrate on the

employee's strengths and make them happy.

d. Employee appraisals are quite valuable when

used to instruct the employee on how to im­

prove. Although some managers tend to beat

around the bush, the direct approach works

best. I f they have done something wrong, tell

them.

7. How much individual responsibility for decision

making should employees be given? Your response:

a. After careful training, employees should be

given as much individual responsibil ity as they

can handle and want. To be effective, they

must be free to implement their decisions but

must be accountable for them as well. The

manager serves in an advisory capacity.

b. Although some employees have enough train­

ing to take responsibility and make decisions,

it is important to monitor them careful ly.

When given a free hand, employees often

make decisions for their personal gain rather

than for the good of the company. Watch for

abuses.

c. Employees should be responsible for tasks

assigned to them. However, because manag­

ers know more about employee jobs than

employees do, any decisions made must re­

ceive manager approval. Of course, important

decisions should be made by management.

d. Employees can make personal decisions as

long as they keep a low profile. Their actions

should not draw attention to themselves or

the department and should not require time,

money, or attention from management.

8. Which approach to management actually works

best? Your response:

a. Firm control at all times is the best approach

to management. Getting suggestions from

employees usually results in a needless waste

of time. lt is the manager's responsibility to

make the necessary decisions.

b. Teamwork is the best approach to manage­

ment. When managers and employees work

together as a team and when al l members

make suggestions and feel free to agree or

disagree, better solutions are reached.

c. Management works best when ma'nagers stay

out of the way of employees and concentrate

on physical items like quality office suppl ies,

computers, and furniture. Avoid interpersonal

issues.

d . One of the most important things a man-

ager can do is keep harmony in the office.

Employees turn out more work when they feel

friendly with each other.

9. As a manager, how do you view the company grape­

vine? Your response:

a. The grapevine is an excellent way to discover

what employees are up to and what they are

hiding from their manager.

b. Listening to the grapevine allows managers

to determine areas of misunderstanding that

need to be corrected, and leaking information

into the grapevine is a good way to test ideas

by judging employee reactions.

c. The grapevine is ful l of misinformation and

should be ignored.

d. Listening to the grapevine helps managers

maintain control over their employees.

10. One of your employees is having a personal problem

that is beginning to interfere with quality work.

Your response:

a. When managers try to get involved in the

personal problems of employees, new (and

sometimes worse) problems result. There­

fore, ignore the situation as long as possible;

hopefully it will resolve itself.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

b. Let the employee know that regardless of the

reason for the lack of productivity, certain

standards must be met. If immediate improve­

ment does not occur, the employee should be

terminated.

c. lt is important for managers to show they

care by listening to and consoling the em­

ployee with problems. However, make sure

the employee isn't taking advantage of you.

d. As much as possible, managers need to

meet the needs of employees. Listen to the

employee's problem and share experiences

and possible solutions. See if either you or the

company can do anything to help the employee

solve his or her problem in a timely manner.

11. During a meeting with your employees, you are

explaining each person's role in a forthcoming

departmental task. Several employees express

unhappiness with their assignments. Your response:

a. To avoid conflict, blame upper management

for the assignments and tell the employees

that the department's standing depends on

how well they complete their tasks.

b. Tell the employees that the assignments have

been given and that no changes will be made.

c. Listen to all the arguments and then inake

whatever changes are necessary to keep

group harmony.

d. Listen to al l the arguments and work with the

group in determining what, if any, changes

should be made.

12. Your department is assigned an important task.

Unintentionally, you give your people the wrong

instructions. Work is well underway when you

discover the error. Your response:

a. Admit the mistake and request their best

efforts to complete the new assignment on

schedule.

b. At the next meeting, revise the instructions

and make a joke of the mistake.

c. Explain that upper management has issued

new guidelines that will require a change in

previous instructions.

d. Tel l the employees that they apparently

misunderstood the previous instructions. Ask

them to listen more closely this time.

CHAPTER 3 COHFLICT, CULTURE, AND RElATIONSHIPS j 103

1. From your experience, what is the only realistic

way to deal with fellow workers?

a. To get ahead, you must actively compete with

other employees. Try to stay one step ahead

of everyone.

b. You can't be too careful. People will stab

you in the back if it helps them get ahead.

Keep your tasks to yourself and avoid group

projects.

c. A friendly approach is best even if your

personal opinions make it necessary for you

to pretend friendship.

d . A friendly but truthful approach works

best. However, when a misunderstanding

occurs, it is important to express your true

feel ings.

2. While your boss is giving you instructions on how

to complete a particular task, you realize that the

instructions are wrong. What would you do?

a. Question the boss to make sure you didn't

misunderstand the instructions. Then explain

why you are confused and ask if another

procedure might work better.

b. Errors such as this are/ typical, because a

good employee usually knows twice as much

as the boss. Press your advantage by pointing

out the error.

c . Pointing out an error to the boss is a good

way to lose your job. Do whatever the boss

tells you, regardless of what it is.

d. If you point out the error, it could make the

boss feel uncomfortable and even ruin your

standing with the boss. Therefore, complete

the task correctly, but say nothing.

3. During your employee appraisal, your boss criticizes

you for something you feel is unfair. How would you

respond?

a. Accept the criticism quietly. Any comment on

your part will only prolong the interview.

b. Unless it is a big issue, keep quiet about it.

Otherwise, briefly disagree in a good-natured

way; then drop it.

c. Defend yourself. Let the boss know you

think you are being treated unfairly. Insist

that a different evaluation be submitted.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

104 1 COMMUNICA liNG FOR RESUL !So A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS ANO TilE PROFESSIONS

Supervisors respect you more when you stand

up for what you believe.

d. Paraphrase the boss's view to verify what you

heard. Then offer your own opinion, sup­

ported with facts and data.

4. After receiving a detailed explanation of a new job

from your supervisor, you still aren't clear on some

of the instructions. What would you do?

a. If you are good at your job, you should be

able to figure out what to do as you go along.

There's probably a better way to complete

the task anyway.

b. Never ask questions. You only look stupid. If

necessary, get help from a coworker.

c. Ask questions of your boss any time you

aren't completely sure about an assignment.

d. I f your boss believes that asking questions

shows employee interest, ask for clarification.

If not, pretend you understand and find out

the missing information in some other way.

5. Your supervisor calls a meeting to evaluate the

success of a new procedure and asks for everyone's

opinion. How would you respond?

a. Listen carefully to everyone's comments.

Openly agree with people when possible. How­

ever, if your experiences with the procedure

differ from those being expressed, keep them

to yourself.

b. Inform those present about the success

you've had in implementing the procedure

and recommend that your method be adopted

by the group.

c. Don't volunteer any comments. Let the others

do the talking. If the supervisor specifically

asks for your opinion, keep your answer gen­

eral so you won't have any reason to regret

what you have said.

d. Participate actively in the discussion. Don't

hesitate to express your experiences (both

positive and negative) even if they differ from

the experiences of the other employees.

6. Almost by accident, you discover an easier and

faster way to perform one of your daily tasks. As a

result, you can finish the other duties of the day in

a more relaxed manner. Would you tell anyone else

of your discovery?

a. Employees who can perform their duties

better than others are the ones who get the

raises and promotions. Therefore, the only

way to get ahead is to keep such discoveries

to yourself.

b. If the boss knew that a task could be

completed in less time, you and your fellow

employees would be given an additional job

to do, and the smooth pattern of office life

would be disrupted. Therefore, say nothing.

c. Because it is everyone's responsibility

to share job-related discoveries with one

another, offer to do so. Then, if they are

interested, give them specifics.

d . A discovery such as this gives yo� the perfect

opportunity to prove that you are more

capable than your fellow workers. If you can

impress your boss during a departmental

meeting by presenting your new discovery,

then do so.

7. In a last-minute check of a rush job that is due

immediately in the boss' office, you discover a

minor mistake that you have made. How would

you handle it?

a. If the error is small enough to pass by without

notice, keep the problem to yourself. However, , if the error is sure to be noticed and could

hurt your relationship with the boss, mention

the error in a joking manner and ask for extra

time to correct it.

b. Immediately phone or go see the boss and

explain that you have discovered an error in

your work and wil l need to postpone delivery

of the project until it is corrected.

c. The best defense is a good offense. Because

you did what the boss told you to do, the

mistake is obviously the result of the boss'

instructions. Point this out when you deliver

the project.

d. Keep quiet about the error and hope it passes

unnoticed.

B. You are aware of a situation that has the potential

for creating a serious problem for your department

or even for the company. What would you do?

a. lt is management's responsibility to be aware

of potential problems. As an employee, it

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

is not your responsibility to report on such

things. Unless you could benefit by discussing

your observations, keep quiet.

b. Meddling in things that are none of your busi­

ness is a good way to lose your job. So keep

quiet.

c. Because management depends on and should

appreciate the input and observations of em­

ployees, mention your observations to your

boss, but do it privately.

d. No one wants to hear negative things. Point­

ing out the problem to management will only

cause trouble and make people unhappy. Also,

if your observation is wrong, you will look like

a fool. Therefore, just keep the information to

yourself.

9. A serious conflict has arisen between you and

another worker in your department. How would you

handle it?

a. If you give in, the other person will lose

respect for you, so try to win the argument.

If no decision can be reached, select a person

(such as your boss) to serve as an arbitrator.

b. Discuss the conflict in detail, making sure both

of you get a chance to express your feelings.

Honest discussion usually leads to a mutual

agreement and an end to hostilities. In some

cases, it may be necessary to compromise.

c. Continuing the conflict will only bring you

unwanted attention from other employees

and even the boss. If necessary to end the

conflict, give in.

d . Continuing the conflict could permanently

damage your friendship with this employee.

Do your best to smooth over the argument

and regain a friendly footing with the person.

10. Your immediate work group has failed to complete its

assignment on time for three of the last four projects.

The boss is starting to put pressure on your group and

wants to know who's causing the slowdown. You know

who the person is. What would you do?

a. Suggest that al l members of the group

meet to discuss the problem. If you find

that the problem is caused by an unfair load

distribution or some other group-related

cause, try to find a workable answer.

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS j lOS

b. Blaming the individual either personally or in

front of others only creates a strain on the

relationships in the group. The best thing to

do is to blame circumstances, such as the in­

structions weren't clear, there wasn't enough

time, or someone outside the group was slow

in supplying information.

c. Nothing is gained by keeping quiet. A single

individual is making you and the entire group

look bad. Put pressure on the person to admit

causing the delays. If that doesn't work, tell

the boss yourself.

d. Do nothing. lt is not wise to volunteer this

type of information.

11. While working on a project, a highly, unusual prob­

lem arises that is not covered in your department's

procedures manual. Even your boss is uncertain

about it. What would you do?

a. Postpone making a decision. If you put the

decision off long enough, someone else will

probably make it and any mistakes will be

their responsibility.

b . Discuss the problem with your boss, your

coworkers, and even knowledgeable people

outside your department. Okay your final de­

cision with your boss before making it official.

c. Ask your boss and your fellow workers to see

what they would do. Base your decision on

the majority opinion. That way no one can put

the blame on you.

d. This is a chance to prove your abil ity. You

don't need anyone else's opinion if you are a

good employee. Make the decision yourself.

12. How important is your boss to your individual

success?

a. Except for a few years, you are as knowledge­

able as or more knowledgeable than the boss.

Therefore, the boss plays only a minor role in

your success.

b. Extremely important. Without the boss to tell

you what to do, there could be no success.

c. Success depends on how happy the boss is with

what you do and how well the boss l ikes you. If

the boss is satisfied, you will be successful.

d. You and the boss work as a team. Both are

equally necessary for success.

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

1061 COMMUNICATING FOR RESULTS' A GUIDE FOR BUSINESS AND THE PROFESSIONS

Scoring Directions: ' Copy the scores you selected for answers a, b, c, and d

for each of the 12 questions onto the score sheets below.

Notice that each score sheet puts your answers in an

order different from the way you answered them on the

surveys. Total the numbers in each column; plot your

totals on the following graph.

Plotting Directions: Plot your four MTI and four ETI totals onto the graph

below. Use a dashed arc to indicate each MTI score and a • solid arc to indicate each ETI score. Note that the graph is

divided into four sections by a vertical and horizontal line­

each section is a different communication style. To plot

MANAGER TENDENCY I NDICATOR SCOR E SHEET:

1 1 I l l IV

1 . d [ c [ b [ a [

2. a [ b [ c [ d [

3. c [ b [ a [ d [

4. b [ l a [ d [ c [

5. c [ b [ d [ a [

6. b [ d [ c [ a [

7. a [ c [ b [ l d [ l

8. b [ a [ d [ c [

9. b [ d [ a [ c [

10. d [ b [ c [ a [

11. d [ b [ c [ a [

12. a [ d [ b [ c [

Totals [ l [ l [ l [ l Open Dominate Sociable Private

each score, begin at the zero in the center of the graph

and locate and mark the score on both the vertical and

horizontal lines running on each side of the proper style.

Connect the two marks with a solid or dashed arc that

is curved like 1/4 of a circle or a pie-shaped wedge. When

finished, each section of the graph will contain both a solid

and a dashed arc. With just a glance, you can tell which

styles represent you.

Score Evaluation: The two highest scores on either the MTI or the ETI

are probably the most descriptive of your commu­

nication behavior. The highest score represents the

communication style you typical ly use when things

are going wel l . The next highest score (or perhaps

EMPLOYEE TENDENCY I N DICATOR SCORE SHEET:

1 1 I l l IV

1 . d [ a [ c [ b [ l

2. a [ b [ d [ ·r. ( 3. d [ c [ b [ l a [

4. c [ a [ d [ b [

5. d [ b [ a [ c [

6. c [ d [ l b [ l a [

7. b [ l c [ a [ d [ l

8. c [ a [ d [ b [

9. b [ a [ d [ c [

10. a [ c [ b [ d [

11. b [ l d [ l c [ a [

12. d [ a [ c [ b [ l

Totals [ l [ l [ l [ l Open Dominate Sociable Private

1!1 1!1 m 111 ID 111 .!1 iiil m m '1.1 lll w w m m n 111 � 111 a Ill !il w m 111 111 l!l m m m Ill m w m 111 a 111 w m m m 1!1 !!! 111 w m m m m w

. ,; � m � ' � m � - � w � · � ' ·� ' iil

"-1 ' '" � ' !1:" • c3 • @

Cop

ied

on b

ehal

f of D

eaki

n U

nive

rsity

4/1

2/15

CHAPTER 3 CONFLICT, CULTURE, AND RELATIONSHIPS L

two scores if they are very c lose in size) represents

the style you use under stress. Remember that these

tests are not infal l ib le and should be considered only

indicators of tendencies in your communication be­

havior. Each communication style is explained in detai l

in Chapter 3.

Low Disclosure/ Assertiveness

96 -84 72 60 48

Private 36 Sociable 24 12

Low Feedback/ f-1--t---

12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 High Feedback/ Responsiveness 1-9+6-8+-4-172-+60-48 36 24 12 o12

+-+--+--1 Responsiveness

24 Dominant 36 Open

48 60 72 84 96

High Disclosure/ Assertiveness