CHAPTER XVI

ON G. E. MOORE'S DEFENCE OF

COMMON SENSE*

I. In this paper I shall critically discuss G. E. Moore's Defence of Common Sense! with the purpose of showing that Moore's idea of defending common sense was entirely mistaken. This mistake is based, as I shall try to show, firstly on a mistaken notion about the nature of common sense and, secondly, on a mistaken notion about the relation between common sense beliefs and philosophy. Nothing that I say in this paper regarding the value and the validity of Moore's Defence of Common Sense should be taken as reflecting my opinion about the other aspects of Moore's philosophy.

2. Let me state at the outset that the word 'common sense' is used by Moore in a somewhat unusual sense. Ryle has rightly drawn attention to the fact that 'common sense' is ordinarily used to stand for "a particular kind and degree of untutored judiciousness in coping with slightly out of the way, practical contingencies".2 To make common sense therefore a partisan in philosophical dispute would appear monstrous to common sense itself. For, 'common sense', in its ordinary unphilosophical use, does not stand for a set of beliefs or a set of propositions like those listed by Moore. Men who possess common sense of course do believe in many or even all of these propositions; but so also do men who, we say, lack common sense. Moore, therefore, when he takes upon himself, as one of his philosophical jobs, the task of defending common sense in the sense of defending a set of

* First published in the Indian Journal of Philosophy, II, 1960, NO.4, 1-10. 1 J. H. Muirhead (ed.), Contemporary British Philosophy (Second Series), London,

1925, pp. 193-223. 2 G. Ryle, Dilemmas, Cambridge, 1954, p. 3.

J. N. Mohanty, Phenomenology and Ontology© Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, Netherlands 1970

ON G. E. MOORE'S DEFENCE OF COMMON SENSE I7I

propositions in which he along with most of us believes, must be using the word 'common sense' in a very uncommon way.

2.I. In reply to the above, one may quite well agree to dis­pense with the word 'common sense' while appealing instead to the beliefs that are common to the plain men of Europe and North America! This is in fact what Thomas Reid means when in his Reflections on the Common Theory of Ideas, he says, re­ferring to Berkeley's philosophy:

If a plain man, uninstructed in Philosophy, has faith to receive these mysteries, how great must be his astonish­ment! ... After his mind is somewhat composed it will be natural for him to ask his philosophical instructor: Pray, Sir, are there then no substantial and permanent beings called the sun and moon, which continue to exist whether we think of them or not? ... 3

It is the beliefs of 'the plain man, uninstructed in Philosophy' which, it might be suggested, Moore was defending. This how­ever cannot be Moore's intention. For, firstly, Moore certainly does not believe in all that the plain man, uninstructed in phi­losophy, believes to be true. And he seeks to defend the truth only of some of the beliefs of the plain man. Secondly, the beliefs of the plain man, depending largely upon his religious and cul­tural background, may - and, in fact, do - include a large num­ber of beliefs which Moore, I presume, would not undertake to defend. 4

3. Let me therefore pursue this point a little further with a view to bringing out the nature of the beliefs Moore sought to defend. It seems to me that Moore's interest consists as much in defending his belief in certain propositions as in proving certain beliefs of philosophers to be false. Many philosophers have be­lieved in such propositions as 'Time is unreal', 'There are no other selves', 'Matter is unreal', etc .. Moore's purpose is to show that these propositions contradict the beliefs of common sense. N ow the truth of the proposition 'Time is unreal' contradicts the

3 I am indebted to my friend Eberhard Bubser for pointing out this passage to me. 4 When the words 'common sense', 'commonsense beliefs' are used in the rest of

this paper, they are to be understood in the light of the remarks in para. 2.

I72 ON G. E. MOORE'S DEFENCE OF COMMON SENSE

truth of the proposition 'Time is real'. The belief that Matter is unreal contradicts the belief that Matter is real. Since it often happens that what a person is refuting throws light upon what he is at the same time defending, we may presume that Moore seeks to defend the beliefs 'Matter is real', 'Time is real', etc. But of what kind are these latter beliefs? Can we attribute these beliefs to the 'plain man, unschooled in Philosophy'? The plain man, unless he is also an unschooled philosopher, does not bother about such propositions as 'Time is real' or 'Matter is real'. Defending the truth of these propositions may therefore be taken as amounting to defending a certain philosophical theory and not what a plain man believes in.

3.1. In reply to the above criticism, it may be suggested that although the plain man does not say, or explicitly formulate his belief by saying 'Matter is real' or 'Time is real', yet the other propositions5 which he believes to be true certainly imply the truth of the propositions 'Matter is real' and 'Time is real'. Some examples of these other propositions which the plain man belie­ves to be true are: 'Here is my right hand which I am raising up', 'There exists at present a human body which is my body', 'I was born in the year I928'. Belief in the truth of these propositions implies belief in the reality of matter, time and space and there­fore contradicts the philosophers' beliefs in the unreality of mat­ter, time and space. The contradiction, therefore, which Moore detects subsists, not between the said philosophical beliefs and certain beliefs of common sense, but between the said philosophi­cal beliefs and certain other beliefs implied by the above-men­tioned beliefs of common sense. That the said philosophical beliefs are not necessarily incompatible with the truth of the propositions in which common sense believes is admitted by Moore; but he nevertheless reminds us that the philosophical propositions may be understood in such a way that they con­tradict the common sense beliefs. In other words, although the proposition 'Matter is unreal' is not incompatible with the proposition 'There is a human hand here', the former proposition may be so understood (or formulated, analysed, or interpreted) that belief in it amounts to believing that the latter proposition

5 Contemporary British Philosophy (Second Series), p. 200.

ON G. E. MOORE'S DEFENCE OF COMMON SENSE I73

is false. It seems to me that in stressing this latter possibility, that is to say, the possibility that the said philosophical beliefs may contradict the said beliefs of common sense, Moore is on the wrong side.

For, first, as I have already emphasized, the said philosophical beliefs do not directly contradict the commonsense beliefs; they contradict only certain other beliefs which are implied by these commonsense beliefs. On no interpretation of them, that is to say, on no interpretation either of the philosophical beliefs or of the commonsense beliefs would they come to a direct conflict. But even as to this indirect conflict, two questions should be raised: first, what is the nature of these other beliefs which are implied by the commonsense beliefs? Secondly, can we at all say that these other beliefs, whatever may be their nature, are implied by the commonsense beliefs? I have already suggested my answer to the first of these questions: these other beliefs are themselves not beliefs of the plain man but are as much philo­sophical beliefs as the philosophical beliefs which they contradict. So the conflict is between two sets of philosophical beliefs. To the second question, my answer would be in the negative. The said commonsense beliefs do not imply the philosophical beliefs 'Matter is real', 'Time is real', 'Space is real', etc.

3.2. It may be suggested in reply to the above that the proposi­tion 'Matter is real' could be understood in such a manner that it would thereby become an implicate of the commonsense be­liefs. With this I agree, but so far as I can see, the proposition 'Matter is real' if suitably interpreted so as to become an impli­cate of the commonsense beliefs would be, in effect, nothing other than a restatement of these latter beliefs. In that case, to believe in the proposition 'Matter is real' would be the same thing as to believe in all propositions like This is a human hand', etc., etc. If the proposition 'Matter is real' is thus nothing but shorthand for a number of propositions in which commonsense believes, then only it is not a philosophical proposition and is also an implicate of commonsense beliefs; but in that case it would not be the contradictory of the philosophical proposition 'Matter is not real'. To sum up : the philosophical proposition 'Matter is not real' contradicts the proposition 'Matter is real'

I74 ON G. E. MOORE'S DEFENCE OF COMMON SENSE

only when the latter proposition is a philosophical proposition, but in that case the proposition 'Matter is real' is not an impli­cate of the commonsense beliefs and therefore no contradiction could be shown to subsist between these beliefs and the philo­sophical proposition 'Matter is real'. On the other hand, if the proposition 'Matter is real' is taken to be an implicate of com­monsense beliefs, then it would not be a philosophical proposi­tion but would be reduced to a mere shorthand for the innumer­able propositions about physical objects in which we believe ordinarily; but in that case it would cease to be the contradic­tory of the philosophical belief that matter is unreal. Again, no contradiction could be shown to subsist between the philosophi­cal belief that matter is unreal and the commonsense beliefs. It follows that in no case does the philosophical proposition 'Matter is unreal' contradict the commonsense proposition like 'Here is a human hand'. Moore's defence is therefore not called for.

3.3. Nor would it help to insist that what Moore is doing is to defend, not beliefs, but ordinary use of words. For neither of the two propositions 'Matter is real' and 'Matter is unreal' makes an ordinary use of the word 'real'. Both make philosophical uses. Malcolm has drawn attention to the fact the doubt which Moore aims at dispelling by asserting 'I know for certain this is a human hand' is a philosophical doubt and that his use of 'know' in this context is not an ordinary use. 6 What I want to insist on is that in his zeal to defend common sense Moore has ended up by dis­torting it.

From what has been said before, it would follow that there is no question of the same proposition being true from the common­sense point of view and false from the philosophical point of view.

3+ I cannot imagine common sense saying 'Time is real', for the assertion 'Time is real' is uttered only when the doubt 'Is time real?' is dispelled. And I wonder if common sense is ever haunted with this last doubt. Common sense, on the other hand, may be haunted, given suitable circumstances, by the doubt 'Is this a real tree?' and this doubt is dispelled by the assertion 'This is a real tree' or by the assertion 'This is only a painted one.'

6 In Philosophical Review, 1949.

ON G. E. MOORE'S DEFENCE OF COMMON SENSE I75

4. This brings us to a certain paradox which belongs to what I should like to call the existential situation of the philosopher - a paradox out of which Moore develops a set of arguments against the philosopher who denies the reality of matter and of time. No philosopher, Moore seems to be insisting, has ever been able to hold such views consistently. "One way in which they have be­trayed this inconsistency is by alluding to the existence of other philosophers. Another way is by alluding to the existence of the human race, and in particular by using "we" in the sense in which any philosopher who asserts "we sometimes believe propositions that are not true" is asserting ... that very many other human beings. .. have had bodies and lived upon the earth ... "7

The philosopher in the course of his philosophical activity assu­mes the reality of those very objects that his philosophy regards as unreal. This is indeed a paradox. But what does it point to? Does it show that a philosophical transcendence is not possible? I would rather say that the paradox would not exist if philosophi­cal transcendence of common sense were not possible. Just be­cause there is this paradox, philosophical transcendence is a fact. I am aware that there are philosophers who would deny the para­dox and a paradox is denied the moment you resolve it, - either following Moore or following the Absolutist! I for one do not believe that resolution of such paradoxes is either necessary or possible. They are there; they have to be recognized as such. In fact, they provide the tragic ethos that characterizes the exis­tence of the philosopher. They neither call for a rejection of the philosophic pursuit in favour of the certainty of common sense nor do they call for a denial of the common sense beliefs in favour of the philosophic truths.

4.I. Imaybetold that though common sense has its limitations yet the limitations themselves belong to common sense so that the philosopher could love common sense as Cowper loved Eng­land in spite of all her faults. 8 The point that concerns us here is whether it is possible to transcend common sense. Making use of the analogy of the poet's England, let me suggest that al-

7 Contemporary British Philosophy (Second Series), p. 203.

8 I am indebted to my friend and colleague Prof. K. K. Banerjee of Jadavpur University for suggesting this metaphor.

176 ON G. E. MOORE'S DEFENCE OF COMMON SENSE

though one loves one's homeland in spite of all her faults, one can transcend that love to reach a wider love of humanity. What however is more important is that one understands one's love only when one can contemplate it from a distance. What I wish to suggest ;s this: the true character of common sense belief as a belief cannot be revealed to me unless I can look at it from outside, as a neutral spectator - that is to say, unless in so far as I philosophize, I suspend my beliefs, neutralize them as it were, do not live in them, do not let myself to be merged in them, and so on. It is true that I have thereby to experience an existential paradox to which I have just now referred.

There are certain limitations that fall within that whose limi­tations they are: they fall within it in the sense that you can grasp them while confining yourself to the same level of exper­ience. But there are certain other limitations - which are really fundamental - which you can grasp only when there is a radical transcendence of the level of experience concerned. The inac­curacies, inadequacies, hesitations, ambiguities and the vague­ness of common sense belong to the first group of limitations. I would even say that when science corrects common sense, it improves upon limitations of the first kind. Science does not therefore bring about a radical reformulation of the notions of common sense. A radical transcendence, and therefore a funda­mental understanding, of common sense requires what has been characterized as a neutralization of common sense beliefs or what Husserl would have called a 'phenomenological bracketing' of them. Moore - should I say even at the risk of appearing audacious? - has not given us a genuine philosophy of common sense, for he has not gone into the roots of common sense be­liefs. He has not exhibited these beliefs as beliefs. He has not been able to do this, for he wanted to defend common sense. Thereby he played the role of a partisan and not of an enquirer.

5. In the light of the above remarks on Moore's defence of common sense, it will be now of interest to pay some attention to the very puzzling proof of an external world which Moore has advanced in his British Academy Lecture. After going through Moore's proof, one is left wondering what precisely could have led Moore to advance such a proof. Which philosophers he could

ON G. E. MOORE'S DEFENCE OF COMMON SENSE I77

have had in mind, that is to say, to which philosophers was he attributing the view that there is no external world? 'Berkeley!' of course, is the first choice. But as we know, Berkeley certainly did not mean to deny the existence of the external world in the sense in which Moore proves it. Nor was Moore, in trying to give a proof, refuting what Kant called 'problematic idealism', that is to say, the position that we never know for certain that there is an external world. Moore, of course, has something to say against 'problematic idealism'; it is in this context perhaps that he draws the distinction between knowing something and pro­ving something. His main proof however is concerned with showing not that we know for certain but that there is an exter­nal world. Presumably, he thought that Berkeley had denied the external world. Whatever that may be, let us go into his proof.

By 'external things', he means 'things outside of our minds'. Things to be met with in space are of course things outside of our minds, though not all things outside of our minds (e.g., pains or visual images of animals) are to be met with in space. Now if Moore can prove that there are two things to be met with in space, it would follow that there are two things outside of our minds. "By holding up my two hands, and saying, as I make a certain gesture with the right hand, "Here is one hand", and adding, as I make a certain gesture with the left, "and here is another", Moore claims to have given a most rigorous demonstrative proof of the existence of the external world.

Moore himself has given expression to his apprehension that what he proves may be accepted as true but may at the same time be declared as unimportant. But quite apart from that, does the proof succeed?

I am aware that in questioning Moore's premiss I am in com­pany with many of Moore's critics. Malcolm9 has, for example, questioned if Moore is justified in saying 'I know here is a human hand'. I, however, wish to urge a quite different point. I would say that Moore cannot, on the basis of his theory of perception, say with certainty 'this is a human hand'.

Just consider some features of his own analysis. The proposi­tion 'I am now perceiving a human hand' is analysed into (Moore

9 In Philosophical Review, 1949.

178 ON G. E. MOORE'S DEFENCE OF COMMON SENSE

says: is a deduction from 10) two further propositions: 'I am perceiving this' and 'This is a human hand'. He is sure about 'I am perceiving this', but what exactly is known thereby he is not sure of. The analysis which is accepted is that the principal subject of the proposition 'I am now perceiving this' is a sense­datum. And he is besides sure that this sense-datum is not a hand. He finds reasons to doubt - although he himself does not doubt - that this (i.e., to say, the sense-datum) is a part of the surface of the hand,11 How can he under such circumstances be sure of the proposition 'This is a human hand?' The distinction between 'knowing a proposition to be true' and 'not knowing the correct analysis of the proposition' does not help us here.

5.1. In his essay on Hume's philosophy, written much earlier, Moore admits that it is quite impossible for anyone to prove, as against the sceptic, that one knows any external fact. 'I can only prove that 1 do by assuming that in some particular instance, I actually do one',12 On this, Stebbing remarks: 'The notion that we may have a reason, though not a logically conclusive reason for certain statements concerning direct observation, is, I be­believe, one of Moore's important contributions to philosophy.'13 Hume showed that demonstrative knowledge of matters of fact is not possible; Moore, I would suppose Stebbing to mean, shows that even our non-demonstrative knowledge of the external world has its own certainty which should not be underestimated just because it is other than demonstrative certainty. This, if it were Moore's contention, would have been ranked as one of his valuable insights. When we turn however to Moore's reply, we are disappointed: Moore rejects this suggestion,14 1 can appre­ciate why Moore should object to the use of the word 'probable' in connexion with our knowledge of the external world. Steb­bing in fact is aware of the misleading associations of this word. Let me call the type of knowledge Stebbing had in mind 'non­demonstrable certainty.'

Instead of emphasizing this 'non-demonstrable certainty' of

10 Contemporary British Philosophy (second series), p. 217.

11 Ibid., p. 218.

12 Philosophical Studies, p. 160.

13 In P. A. Schilpp (ed.), The Philosophy of G. E. Moore, p. 524. 14 Ibid., p. 677.

ON G. E. MOORE'S DEFENCE OF COMMON SENSE I79

the external world and instead of exhibiting the phenomenolo­gical nature and roots of that certainty, Moore proceeds to offer a rigorous demonstrative proof. And no wonder that he should fail. The external world is neither in need of nor is capable of a logical proof. That such a proof is necessary is what the sceptics persuade us to believe though knowing fully well that we would not succeed. Moore has succumbed to their persuasion and has offered a proof that hopelessly fails.

6. To sum Up: Moore is wrong in presenting common sense as a party in philosophical disputes. He was misled into thinking that philosophical statements could come in conflict with common sense beliefs. A philosophical understanding of common sense requires a measure of transcendence of the level of common sense; it must be added that even Moore in his distinction be­tween the common sense beliefs and their correct analysis makes room for transcendence. As in his defence of common sense, so also in his proof of an external world, Moore's task is ill-conceived. What is important for us is to realize that there is a common source of the two errors: in his eagerness to combat the specu­lative philosophers, he misses the proper task of a truly pheno­menological philosophy both of common sense beliefs and of our belief in the external world.