A COMMENTARY ON THE JEWISH ROOTS OF

ACTS

A COMMENTARY ON THE JEWISH ROOTS OF

ACTS

Joseph Shulamwith

Hilary Le Cornu

Netivyah Bible Instruction Ministry

Lederer Books

A division ofMessianic Jewish Publishers

Clarksville, Maryland

Unless otherwise noted, English Scripture quotations are from TheNew American Standard Bible

copyright ©The Lockman Foundation1960, 1962, 1963, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977Hebrew quotations are from Delitzsch’s translationcopyright ©The British and Foreign Bible Society

© Joseph Shulam with Hilary Le CornuAll rights reserved. Published 2003, 2011

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Le Cornu, Hilary, 1959–A commentary on the Jewish roots of Acts / Hilary Le Cornu,Joseph Shulam

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and indices.ISBN 978-0-9818730-5-31. Bible. N.T. Acts – Commentaries. 2. Bible. N.T. Acts –

Chronology. 3. Bible. N.T. Acts – Theology. 4. Judaism–Relations–Christianity.

I. Shulam, Joseph, 1946–. II. Title

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the

prior permission of the authors.

Joseph Shulam with Hilary Le CornuNetivyah Bible Instruction Ministry

P.O. Box 8043Jerusalem 91080

IsraelE-mail: netivyah@netivyah.org.il

Website: www.netivyah.org

Lederer BooksA division of

Messianic Jewish Publishers6120 Day Long LaneClarksville, MD 21029

Distributed byMessianic Jewish Resources

InternationalOrder Line: (800) 410-7367

E-mail: Lederer@messianicjewish.netWebsite: www.messianicjewish.net

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Volume I

Glossary ………………………………………………..……. viiAbbreviations …………………………………………………. xiHow to Use the Commentary ……………………………...… xxiChronology …………...…………………………………...… xxvIntroduction ………………………………………………… xxixby Joseph Shulam

Chapter 1 ……………………………..………...………….….... 1Chapter 2 …………………………….….……………………. 53Chapter 3 …………………………………………………...... 163Chapter 4 ………………….…………………………….....… 215Chapter 5 ………………….………….…………………....… 259Chapter 6 ……….…...……………...……………………..…. 301Chapter 7 ……………...…….………...…………………..…. 339Chapter 8 ………………….…………...…………………….. 383Chapter 9 ……………………………………………………. 439Chapter 10 ……………………………...…………………..... 545Chapter 11 ………………………………………………….... 607Chapter 12 ………………………………………………...…. 637Chapter 13 ……………………………….…………………... 671Chapter 14 ………………………………………………….... 763Chapter 15 ……………………………..…………………….. 797

Volume II

Chapter 16 ……………………………..………....………….. 857Chapter 17 ……………………………………………...……. 925Chapter 18 ……………………………………………...……. 977Chapter 19 …………………………………………….....…. 1041Chapter 20 …………………………………………….…… 1089Chapter 21 ……………………...……...…………………..... 1147Chapter 22 …...………………………...…………………..... 1211Chapter 23 ..……………………...………………………...... 1235Chapter 24 …...………………………….………………….. 1283Chapter 25 ………………………………………………...... 1351Chapter 26 …………………………………………………. 1383Chapter 27 …………………………..…………………...…. 1421Chapter 28 ………………………………………………...... 1475Index of Sources ………...………………………………….. 1529Index of Authors …………………..……………………….. 1679General Index …….…………..………………………….…. 1689Bibliography ………………………………………………... 1725

GLOSSARY

Aggada:The term denotes all Scriptural interpretation which is non-halakhic(non-legal) in character and came to refer mainly to homiletic material andstories.

Halakhah:The term comes from the Hebrew root “to walk” and refers generally tothe body of legal rulings derived by various forms of exegesis fromScripture. A (one) halakhah is a specific ruling given regarding a particularissue, “the halakhah” being the ruling accepted and observed by thecommunity.

Intertestamental Literature:The body of literature ascribed to the post-biblical period until the NewTestament writings. It traditionally includes the apocryphal literature –documents preserved in the Greek Old Testament (the Septuagint) butnot in the Hebrew Tanakh – and the pseudepigrapha – extra-andpost-canonical Jewish and Christian texts whose authorship is ascribed tobiblical characters (cf. “with false superscription”).

The apocrypha includes the books of 1 Esdras (= 2 Ezra) and 2Esdras (= 4 Ezra), Tobit, Judith, Additions to Esther, Wisdom ofSolomon, Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), 1 Baruch, Letter of Jeremiah, Prayer ofAzariah with the Song of the Three Men, Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, 1and 2 Maccabees, and the Prayer of Manasseh.

viii A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

The pseudepigrapha (under which the apocrypha is sometimessubsumed) includes nine collections: The works of Philo (c. 20 B.C.E. – 50C.E.); the writings of Josephus Flavius (c. 37 C.E. – c. 100 C.E.); theQumran texts; the Targumim or Aramaic translations of the Tanakh;Jewish magical papyri; the Hermetica, texts of the first few centuries C.E.attributed to Hermes and describe the means to personal salvation; theCoptic codices from Nag Hammadi (C1-4 C.E.), which are mostly gnosticwritings; and the New Testament apocrypha and pseudepigrapha, usuallylegendary expansions of the New Testament texts.

LXX (Septuagint):The “official” Greek translation of the Tanakh, dating from the thirdcentury B.C.E. through the fourth century C.E. The original translation wasof the Torah (Pentateuch, the first five books), which the Letter ofAristeas records was allegedly made by seventy(-two) Jewish scholars inAlexandria (Egypt) from which it gained its name (Septuaginta). It iscommonly referred to by the abbreviation, LXX (70).

Masoretic Text:The “official” text of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) edited by the“Massoretes” or Jewish grammarians during the sixth to tenth centuriesC.E. This text is “pointed” with vowel signs (and accents) which werelacking in the previous texts.

Midrash:Midrash is a comprehensive term for the Jewish exegesis of Scripture andindividually collected works of scriptural interpretation (cf. “GenesisRabbah” or “Midrash Psalms”). It also refers to a specific mode ofinterpretation, based primarily on “verbal analogy” in which one scripturaltext is interpreted through a second text (cf. commentary on 13:32-41,17:2-3). It can then refer to a specific midrash on a specific scripturalverse or theme (cf. commentary on 7:30-34). According to the context itthus refers either to a text (textual tradition) or a mode of interpretation.The term comes from the post-biblical root “to search out” or“expound”.

Mishna:The first body of the “oral Torah” which comprises the Talmud. It iscomposed of halakhah (halakhot) or traditional and categorical statementsof law and aggada (aggadot), Scriptural expositions in the form ofnarrative, parables and proverbs. The Mishna is attributed to the Tannaimor early Sages (Rabbis) and its editing is usually ascribed to Judah haNasi

Glossary ix

around 200 C.E. It is divided into six Orders which contain a number oftractates. The tannaitic material is complemented by two further sources:The Tosefta – “addition” or “supplement” – which is a collection oftannaitic statements and traditions not included in the Mishna, whichfollows the divisional order of the Mishna; and baraitot (baraita), tannaiticstatements “extraneous” to R. Judah’s Mishna.

Qumran:The documents which were discovered at Khirbet Qumran on the DeadSea and frequently known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. These texts includecopies of most of the biblical books, apocryphal writings (such as Enoch),and texts produced by the community itself (cf. the manual of Disciplineand the Thanksgiving Hymns). The texts are referred to according to thenumber of the cave in which they were discovered (e.g., 1QS [CommunityRule], 11QTemp [Temple Scroll]).

Talmud:The major body of rabbinic literature which embodies the “oral law” ofJewish tradition. The name is given both to the whole corpus of the “oralTorah” (mishna and gemara) and to the gemara alone. The mishna waswritten in Hebrew by the tannaim and is generally held to have beenedited around 200 C.E. It consists of legal rulings based on the Tanakh;the gemara is a later commentary upon the mishna, written in Aramaic byseveral generations of Amoraim (as well as some Savoraim [C6] andGeonim). The Talmud exists in two recensions, the earlier Jerusalem(Palestinian) Talmud and the later Babylonian Talmud (c. 500 C.E.). TheBabylonian Talmud is often considered more authoritative in the WesternJewish intellectual tradition, which is reflected in the fact that only thePalestinian Talmud is noted as such in the present volume (e.g., JPe’ah,JSotah). The Talmud is divided into six Orders (e.g., Mo’ed, Nashim)which contain a number of tractates (e.g., Shabbat, Ketubot). Sometractates contain only mishna with no gemara (e.g., Pe’ah, Shekalim). Eachtalmud page is divided into a folio page and numbered “a” and “b,”although the Palestinian Talmud is referred to according first to thechapter, then to the halakhah, and finally to the folio page (e.g., JNed. 9,1, 41b). Each page contains, in addition to the mishna and gemara, Rashi’scommentary on the text, written in “Rashi script” and found on the innerside of the page, the commentary of the Tosafot (medievalcommentators), printed on the outer column of the page, and severalother commentaries. The capital letters which the Soncino Englishtranslation uses to designate the Mishna as a piska have normally beenreplaced with ordinary text.

x A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Tanakh:The Hebrew acronym denoting the three sections of the Hebrew Bible:the Torah, the Prophets (nevi’im), and the Writings (ketuvim).

Targumim:The Aramaic translations of the Tanakh, which were read aloud in thesynagogue as a vernacular aid to understanding the biblical text.

Torah:The term refers comprehensively to the Hebrew Bible in its entirety.More strictly speaking, it is restricted to the first five books of Moses (thePentateuch or Chumash). In Jewish thought, the Torah is primarily usedin the latter sense, and is also divided into the “Written Torah” and the“Oral Torah.” The latter is embodied in the Talmud (mishna and gemara)and its halakhah, and constitutes the “tradition” or commentary of latergenerations on the original biblical text. In Jewish tradition both theWritten and the Oral Torah are regarded as “inspired” and authoritativetexts, the Oral Torah being held to be have been given to Moses onMount Sinai simultaneously with the Written Torah.

ABBREVIATIONS

Mishna and Talmud (London: Soncino Press, 1952; Mishna also from H.Danby [London: OUP, 1933]):

Abbr. Tractate OrderArak. Arakhin (Vows of valuation) Kodashim (Holy things)

AZ Abodah Zarah (Idolatry) Nezikin (Damages)BB Baba Bathra (Last Gate) "Bek. Bekhoroth (Firstlings) KodashimBer. Berakoth (Benedictions) Zera’im (Seeds)Betza Betzah (Festival days) Mo’ed (Festivals)Bik. Bikkurim (First fruits) Zera’imBK Baba Kamma (First Gate) NezikinBM Baba Mezia (Middle Gate) "Dem. Demai (Uncertainly-tithed produce) Zera’imEduy. Eduyoth (Testimonies) NezikinEruv. Erubin (Shabbat boundaries) Mo’edGit. Gittin (Bills of divorce) Nashim (Women)Hag. Hagigah (Festal offering) Mo’edHal. Hallah (Dough offering) Zera’imHor. Horayoth (Instructions) NezikinHul. Hullin (Animals killed for food) KodashimKel. Kelim (Vessels) Toharoth (Purity)Ker. Kerithoth (Extirpations) KodashimKet. Ketuboth (Marriage contracts) NashimKid. Kiddushin (Betrothals) "Kil. Kil’ayim (Diverse kinds) Zera’imMaas. Maaseroth (Tithes) "

xii A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Maas.Sheni Maaser Sheni (Second Tithe) "Mak. Makkoth (Stripes) NezikinMaksh. Makshirin (Predisposers) ToharothMeg. Megillah (Scrolls of Esther) Mo’edMe’ilah Meilah (Sacrilege) KodashimMen. Menahoth (Meal offerings) "Mid. Middoth (Measurements) "Mikv. Mikwaoth (Immersion pools) TohorothMK Moed Katan (Mid-festival days) Mo’edNaz. Nazir (Nazirite vows) NashimNed. Nedarim (Vows) "Neg. Negaim (Leprosy signs) TohorothNid. Niddah (Menstruant) "Ohal. Ohalot (Tents) ToharothOrla Orla (Fruit of young trees) Zera’imPA (Pirkei) Avot

(Sayings of the Fathers) NezikinPar. Parah (Red Heifer) ToharothPe’ah Peah (Corners/gleaning) Zera’imPes. Pesahim (Passover) Mo’edRH Rosh Hashanah (New Year) "San. Sanhedrin (Sanhedrin) NezikinShab. Sabbath (Shabbat) Mo’edShek. Shekalim (Shekel dues) "Shevu. Shebuoth (Oaths) NezikinShevi. Shebiith (Seventh year) Zera’imSot. Sotah (Suspected adulteress) NashimSuk. Sukkah (Tabernacles) Mo’edTa’anit Taanith (Fast days) "Tam. Tamid (Daily whole-offering) KodashimTem. Temurah (Substituted offering) "Ter. Terumoth (Heve offerings) Zera’imToh. Tohoroth (Cleannesses) TohorothYad. Yadaim (Hands) ToharothYev. Yebamoth (Sisters-in-law) NashimYoma Yoma (Day of Atonement) Mo’edZav. Zabim (Fluxes) TohorothZev. Zebahim (Animal offerings) Kodashim

Abbreviations xiii

Minor Tractates:ARN Aboth D’Rabbi Nathan, version A (ARNa) (Soncino);

version B (ARNb), The Fathers According to RabbiNathan, ed. A. Saldarini (Leiden: Brill, 1975)

DER Derek ’Erez Rabbah (Soncino)DEZ Derek ’Erez Zuta (Soncino)Ger. Gerim (Soncino)Kal. Kallah (Soncino)Kal.Rab. Kallah Rabbathi (Soncino)Kut. Kuthim (Soncino)Sef.Torah Sefer Torah (Soncino)Sem. Semahot (Soncino)Sof. Soferim (Soncino)Tefillin Tefillin (Soncino)Tzitzit Zizit (Soncino)

The Babylonian Talmud is cited without any further identifying marks(e.g., San. 43a). The Jerusalem Talmud is marked “JSan.” It is cited fromtwo sources and in two alternative forms: When the text has been derivedfrom the Bar Ilan DBS CD-Rom, the citation corresponds to theBabylonian (e.g. JSan. 43a). Otherwise, the text refers to the Ms. Or. 4720(Scal. 3) of the Leiden University Library, published by The Academy ofthe Hebrew Language (Jerusalem: 2001).

Tosefta:Tos. Tosefta (Zuckermandel)

Midrashim:Ag.Ber. Aggadat BereshitBer.Rab. Bereshit RabbatiCant.R. Canticles Rabbah (Song of Solomon) (Shir

Hashirim Rabbah)Cant.Zuta Canticles ZutaDt.R. Deuteronomy Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah,

Soncino) (Devarim Rabbah)Eccl.R. Ecclesiastes Rabbah " (Kohelet Rabbah)Esth.R. Esther Rabbah "Ex.R. Exodus Rabbah " (Shemot Rabbah)Gen.R. Genesis Rabbah " (Bereshit Rabbah)Kal.Rab. Kallah Rabbati (Minor Tractates of the Talmud,

Soncino)

xiv A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Lam.R. Lamentations Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah,Soncino) (Eikha Rabbah)

Lam.Zuta Lamentations ZutaLev.R. Leviticus Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah, Soncino)

(Yayikra Rabbah)Meg.Ta’anit Megillat Ta’anit (Lichtenstein; HUCA 1931/2)Mekh. Mekilta de-Rabbi Ishmael (Lauterbach; JPS:

1961)Mekh.de Rashbi Mekilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai (Horowitz)MHG Midrash Ha-GadolMid.Abba Gorion Midrash Abba GorionMid.Tannaim Midrash TannaimMid.Prov. Midrash on ProverbsMid.Ps. Midrash Psalms (Braude; Yale University Press:

1959)Mid.Sam. Midrash on SamuelNum.R. Numbers Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah, Soncino)

(Bamidbar Rabbah)PB Prayer Book (Hertz; Bloch: 1982)Pes.Rab. Pesikta Rabbati (Braude; Yale University Press:

1968)PRE Pirkei de Rabbi Eliezer (Friedlander;

Sepher-Hermon Press: 1981)PRK Pesikta de-Rab Kahana (Braude and Kapstein;

JPS: 1975)Ruth.R. Ruth Rabbah (Midrash Rabbah, Soncino)Sifra Sifra on Leviticus (Torat Cohanim)Sifre Sifre NumbersSif.Dt. Sifre Deuteronomy (Hammer; Yale University

Press, 1986)Sifre Zuta Sifre Zuta on Numbers (Horowitz)SOR Seder Olam RabbahTanh. TanhumaTanh.B. Tanhuma, ed. S. BuberTBE Tanna debe Eliyyahu (Braude and Kapstein; JPS:

1981) (EZ = Eliyyahu Zuta)Yalk. Yalkut Shimoni

Abbreviations xv

Qumran:F. Martínez and E. Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition(Leiden/Grand Rapids: Brill/Eerdmans, 1997)

CD-A Damascus DocumentCD-B Damascus Document, manuscript B1QapGen. Genesis Apocryphon1QHa (Thanksgiving) Hymns1QpHab Commentary on Habakkuk1QpHos Commentary on Hosea1QM War Rule1QS Rule of the Community1Q28a Rule Annexe1QS28b Book of Blessings4QFlor. Florilegium (= 4Q174)4QMMT Miktzat Ma’asei ha-Torah (Halakhic Letter)4QNab Prayer of Nabonidus (= 4Q242)4QpHos Commentary on Hosea (= 4Q166/167)4QpIsa Commentary on Isaiah (= 4Q161-165)4QpMic Commentary on Micah (= 4Q168)4QpNah Commentary on Nahum (= 4Q169)4QpPs37 Commentary on Psalm 37 (= 4Q171-173)4QPat.Bless. Patriarchal Blessings (= 4Q252)4QTest. Testimonia (= 4Q175)11QMelch Melchizedek text (= 11Q13)11QTemp Temple Scroll (= 11Q19)

Pseudepigrapha:J. Charlesworth (ed.), The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (NY: Doubleday,1985)

Add.Est. Additions to the book of EstherAp.Bar. Apocalypse of Baruch (KJV)Apoc.Abr. Apocalypse of AbrahamApoc.Elijah Apocalyse of ElijahApoc.Mos. Apocalypse of MosesApoc.Zeph. Apocalyse of ZephaniahArtapanus ArtapanusAsc.Isa. Ascension of IsaiahBar. Baruch (2, 3, and 4)Bel et Draco Bel and the DragonEn. Enoch (1, 2, and 3)

xvi A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Ep.Arist. Letter of AristeasEsd. Esdras (1 and 2)4 Ez. 4 EzraHell.Syn.Pray. Hellenistic Synagogal PrayersJos.Asen. Joseph and AsenethJub. JubileesJud. JudithLet.Jer. Letter of JeremiahMacc. Maccabees (1and 2, KJV; 3 and 4, Charlesworth)Mart.Isa. Martyrdom of IsaiahOdes Sol. Odes of SolomonPray.Man. Prayer of ManassehPs.-Philo Pseudo-PhiloPs.-Phoc. Pseudo-PhocylidesPs.Sol. Psalms of SolomonSib.Or. Sibylline OraclesSir. Ben Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) (KJV)Sib.Or. Sibylline OraclesSus. SusannaTest.Abr. Testament of AbrahamTest.Adam Testament of AdamTest.Asher Testament of Asher (Testament of 12

Patriarchs)Test.Ben. Testament of Benjamin "Test.Dan Testament of Dan "Test.Gad Testament of Gad "Test.Isaac Testament of IsaacTest.Iss. Testament of Issachar (Testament of 12

Patriarchs)Test.Jac. Testament of JacobTest.Job Testament of JobTest.Jos. Testament of Joseph (Testament of 12

Patriarchs)Test.Jud. Testament of Judah (Testament of the Twelve

Patriarchs)Test.Levi Testament of Levi "Test.Mos. Testament of MosesTest.Naph. Testament of Naphtali (Testament of 12

Patriarchs)Test.Reuv. Testament of Reuben "Test.Sim. Testament of Simeon "Test.Sol. Testament of Solomon

Abbreviations xvii

Test.Zev. Testament of Zebulun (Testament of 12Patriarchs)

Tob. TobitVis.Ezra Vision of EzraVit.Proph. Lives of the ProphetsWis.Sol. Wisdom of Solomon (KJV)

Josephus:Loeb Classical Library

Ant. Antiquities of the JewsCA Contra Apion (Against Apion)Life LifeWar Jewish War

Philo:Loeb Classical Library

Conf.Ling. De Confusione Linguarum (On the Confusionof Tongues)

De Abr. De Abrahamo (On Abraham)De Aeter. De Aeternitate Mundi (On the Eternity of the

World)De Agr. De Agricultura (On Husbandry)De Cher. De Cherubim (On the Cherubim)De Cong. De Congressu quaerendae Eruditionis gratia (On

the Preliminary Studies)De Fuga De Fuga et Inventione (On Flight and Finding)De Prov. De Providentia (On Providence)De Virt. De Virtutibus (On the Virtues)Dec. De Decalogo (On the Decalogue)Hypoth. Hypothetica (Apologia pro Iudaeis)In Flac. In Flaccum (Flaccus)Jos. De Iosepho (On Joseph)Leg. De Legatione ad Gaium (On the Embassy to

Gaius)Leg.All. Legum Allegoriae (Allegorical Interpretation)Mig.Abr. De Migrationes Abrahami (On the Migration of

Abraham)Mut.Nom. De Mutatione Nominem (On the Change of

Names)Opif.Mun. De Opificio Mundi (On the Creation)

xviii A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Praem. De Praemiis et Poenis (On Rewards andPunishments)

Quod Deus Quod Deus immutabilis sit (On theUnchangeableness of God)

Quod Omnis Quod Omnis Probus Liber sit (Every Goodman is Free)

Rer.Div.Her. Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres (Who is the Heirof Divine Things)

Sac. De Sacrificiis Abelis et Caini (On the Sacrificesof Abel and Cain)

Somn. De Somniis (On Dreams)Spec.Leg. De Specialibus Legibus (On the Special Laws)Virt. De Virtutibus (On the Virtues)Vit.Cont. De Vita Contemplativa (On the Contemplative

Life)Vit.Mos. De Vita Moses (On the Life of Moses)

Targumim:Targ. TargumTarg.Neof. Targum NeofitiTarg.Onk. Targum OnkelosTarg.Ps.-Jon. Targum Pseudo-JonathanTarg.Jer. Jerusalem TargumTarg.Jon. Targum Jonathan

New Testament Apocrypha, Early Christian, and Patristic Writings:1 Clem. First Letter of Clement (Loeb Classical Library)Apoc.Pet. Apocalypse of PeterAthan. AthanasiusAug. AugustusClem. Clement of AlexandriaConst.Ap. Apostolic ConstitutionsDid. Didache (Loeb Classical Library)Dio Chrys. Dio ChrysostomEp.Barn. Epistle of Barnabas (Loeb Classical Library)Epiph. EpiphaniusEus. Eusebius (Loeb Classical Library)Gos.Pet. Gospel of PeterHipp. HippolytusIgnat. IgnatiusIren. IrenaeusJust. Justin Martyr

Abbreviations xix

Mart.Pol. Martyrdom of Polycarp (Loeb Classical Library)Orig. OrigenTert. Tertullian

Maimonides (Rambam):Guide Guide for the PerplexedYad Mishneh Torah

Greek and Latin Authors:Aesch. AeschylusApul. ApuleiusDemosth. DemosthenesDio Cass. Dio CassiusDiodorus Diodorus SiculusDiog. Diogenes LaertiusDiony. DionysiusEpict. EpictetusJuv. JuvenalMart. MartialPhilost. PhilostratusPlut. PlutarchSuet. SuetoniusTac. TacitusThuc. ThucydidesXeno. Xenophon

HOW TO USE THE

COMMENTARY

The Commentary’s primary purpose is to provide the reader a reading ofthe text of Acts informed by its Jewish context. A correlation of the NewTestament material with the literature of the time offers an important toolfor understanding both the larger context of the biblical events and thetelling of the story in its natural setting and circumstances. Where theactual quote from contemporary sources was felt to be of benefit to thereader, it has been cited in full. Perhaps the most difficult passages will bethose dependent upon halakhic explanations – together with themethodology employed in these texts. The reader is asked to havepatience with these, since they are generally important for the argument.Although those who find the intricacies rather too heavy may need tosatisfy him/herself with a more general understanding, it is hoped thatwherever possible, s/he will devote some time to reach an understandingof these difficult passages.

In order to make the explanation intelligible, it was considered prudentto include much of the background material which would otherwise befound in a biblical dictionary or other aid. For example, in exegeting thestory of Ananias and Sapphira, the customs related to death, mourning,and burial are discussed in full – as well as the laws of karet (“cuttingoff”), which help clarify the reasons for the couple’s untimely death. Thereader who understands the interpretation may skip the detailed excursi.If s/he does not know any ancient languages, s/he should ignore thefootnotes and read only the main text. The argument is usually notdependent on the original language, and in those places where it is it is

xxii A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

duly noted. The more scholarly reader should check the language notesand material given in the cross-references.

The Commentary’s user-friendly format includes the following features:

1. All bibliographical references have been included in the text. Thus(Bruce: 208), for example, refers to F.F. Bruce, The Acts of the Apostles,the full bibliographical details being given in the Bibliography. Wherean author has more than one publication or where more than oneauthor shares the same surname, an abbreviated reference to the titleis added (e.g., Stern, Identity). The footnotes have been confined tocross-references and translations of primary sources (Aramaic, Greek,Hebrew, Latin).

2. Internal cross-references – i.e., to other places within thecommentary – have been developed in order to enable the reader togain a full picture of the topic under discussion. Where a particularverse deals with a specific aspect of prayer, for instance, the reader isdirected to those verses where other aspects are covered. The readerwho wishes to make a comprehensive study of prayer (or any othertheme) thereby has at his fingertips a list of passages where the topicis reviewed. Where a secondary subject is mentioned under aparticular issue, references to where its own discussion is presented,ensuring that the reader is not hindered in his/her understanding ofthe exegesis through lack of secondary knowledge.

3. These cross-references related to the verses which theCommentary treats as a unit. These are marked, in brackets, by “see”(when the reference is primary/direct) or by “for . . . see” (when thesubject is secondary) – in contrast to external cross-references whichare marked, also in brackets, by “cf.” The reader will find a fulldiscussion of angels in 1:9-11, 5:19-20, 7:30-34, 51-53, 8:26, 9:7,[10:3-8, 17-22], 12:5-11, 14-17, 23:6-9, [27:21-26], for example, or thescriptural canon in 1:15-20, 6:2-4, 8:32-34, 13:5, [18:24-28], 26:6-8,28:23-28. Where a list of additional places is appended, referencesappearing in square brackets [ ] are not primary sources but dealindirectly in some way with the topic. This is also true when thephrase “See also” occurs.

How to use the Commentary xxiii

4. The external cross-references follow a consistent order and areseparated by a semi-colon: a) Tanakh and New Testament (notseparated); b) Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha (not separated); c)Qumran; d) Josephus; e) Philo; f) Strabo; g) Targumim; h) Rabbinictexts – Midrashim, Mishna, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, BabylonianTalmud, Prayer Book, Yad (Mishneh Torah); i) New Testamentapocrypha; j) Patristics; k) Classical writers.

While the glossary is confined to terms relevant to primary sources andterms, the reader is encouraged to use the Index as a source of basicdefinitions. The Index gives both Hebrew and English versions of termswhere both are used (e.g., Passover and Pesach), and a rudimentarydefinition of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin terms (e.g., Bikkurim – firstfruits).

Like the internal cross-references – upon which it builds – the Indexrelates to the verses treated as a unit by the Commentary. We haveendeavoured to make the Index as detailed as possible to give the readerthe maximum information and to aid him/her in understanding whichideas and concepts occupy the Commentary, are central to its focus, andserve as hermeneutical building blocks. By adding sub-references (See also)it is also hoped that the reader will be able to broaden his/her knowledgeof specific themes/topics.

CHRONOLOGY

The references in brackets refer to the places in the Commentaryin which the dating is discussed.

6-15 C.E. Annas (4:6)14-37 Tiberius18-36 Caiaphas (4:6)20-40 Gamaliel I

(5:34, 9:1)26-36 Pilate

(7:54,3:13-15)

30 Jesus’ crucifixion (9:2)31/32 Stephen’s execution (7:54, 9:2)

Paul’s calling (7:54, 9:2, 26)33/34 Paul in Jerusalem I (9:26)34-41/2 Paul in Syria-Cilica (11:22-26)

Peter travelling37-41 G.Caligula37-43/4 Agrippa I

(7:54, 12:1-4,20-23)

41-54 Claudius(18:2-3)

42-43 Paul brings Antiochian collection to Jerusalem(II) (11:27-30)

xxvi A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

43-45 Paul and Barnabas in Antioch II45-47 Paul and Barnabas in Cyprus/

south Galatia I44-?46 Cuspius?46-48 Fadus47-49 Ananias (23:2-5)48 Paul in Antioch III

(Galatians?)Council in Jerusalem (III) (9:26, 15:2, 7-11)

48/49 Paul in Asia Minor II and Macedonia I48-49 Cumanus49-59 Ishmael b.Phiabi

(11:27-39, 23:2-5)Felix(22:23-24,23:2-5,24:10-21)

49/50 Paul in Thessalonica/50 Paul in Athens (17:10, 18:1)

1 Thessalonians (18:1)Claudius’Jewishexpulsionedict

50 Paul in Corinth I (18:1f)Agrippa II(24:1, 25:13f)

51 Paul before Gallio (18:12)51/52 Paul in Ephesus I/

Jerusalem IV/Syria (18:19-21)

52-55 Paul in Ephesus II(19:1, 10, 22)

54-68 Nero(25:6-11,28:30-31)

55 1 Corinthans (20:1)(Philippians? Philemon?)Paul in Troas (20:1)

56 Paul in Macedonia

Chronology xxvii

2 Corinthians (20:2-3)56/57 Paul in Corinth II

Romans (20:2-3)57 Paul in Jerusalem

(21:15-16, 24:10-21)57-59 Paul imprisoned in

Caesarea (24:26-27)(Philemon?)

58 Paul sent to Rome (24:26-27, [25:1], 27:4ff)

60-62 Paul imprisoned in Rome (28:30-31)

62-64 Paul travelling (28:30-31) Albinus64 Paul’s death? (28:30-31)64-66 Florus

INTRODUCTION

The New Testament is a Jewish document from the first century C.E.,reflective of the lifestyle and theology of the Jewish community of theSecond Temple period. A closer look at the New Testament showswithout a doubt that the New Testament is representative of the Jewishcommunity of faith and understanding and possesses a Torah-worldview.Such an affirmation is hard for both Jews and Christians to accept,because the two communities have been alienated from each other bycenturies of animosity, hate, and persecution. Like its predecessor – ACommentary on the Jewish Roots of Romans – this Commentary endeavors todemonstrate the Jewishness of the book of Acts by demonstrating itsfirst-century Jewish literary, historical, cultural, and theological context.Produced mainly by Jews interested in promoting a Jewish understandingof the messianic promises made by Israel’s prophets, Acts constitutes aninalienable part of Second Temple Judaism and can only properly beunderstood in its original Jewish cultural and religious milieu.

Authorship and datePatristic tradition states that Luke, Paul’s companion (cf. Col. 4:14; 2 Tim.4:11; Phlm 24), is the author of Acts. This likely supposition is supportedby the so-called “we”-passages in the book (cf. 16:10-17; 20:5-15; 21:8-18;27:1-28:16). In these sections, the writer suddenly shifts fromthird-person to first-person narration, suggesting the presence of aneyewitness. The traditional reasons cited for arguing that Luke-Acts werewritten by Luke include the following: 1. Both books are addressed to a person named Theophilus. 2. The author traveled with Paul in the “we”-sections of the book.Several of Paul’s letters indicate that Luke accompanied him: Paulmentions him in his letter to the Colossians (cf. Col. 4:14), in Romans(16:21), and in 2 Timothy (4:1). 3. The language and style of the Gospel and Acts closely resembleone another, Luke beginning and ending with Temple-context and

xxx A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

language and Acts opening with it.Colossians 4:11-14 indicates that Luke is not Jewish and that he is

Paul’s disciple and companion. His purpose in writing is to vindicate histeacher Paul and the ministry among the Gentiles by proving that Paulhas not betrayed his Jewish faith and that the mission to the Gentiles is indirect fulfillment of the prophetic promises to Israel – which Jesus’commission to witness to the “ends of the earth” (cf. Acts 1:8) alsoconfirmed.

Although some scholars have argued that the purposes of Luke-Actsfit later circumstance, a late date for Luke-Acts would automaticallydisqualify any companion of Paul from authorship. Other than a scholarlyitch, there is no sufficient reason to doubt the patristic tradition that Lukethe physician wrote Luke and Acts. If he was around 30 years old whenhe joined Paul around the year 48/49 C.E., for example, he could easilyhave written his accounts during Paul’s imprisonment in Caesarea and/orRome. The fact that Luke does not mention any of Paul’s letters to thedifferent communities also indicates that Acts was written at an early date.It is most unlikely that a later writer would have ignored letters whichwere already well accepted and canonized. Luke’s presence with Paul inRome (cf. the “we”-passages in 27:1-28:16) suggests a possible timeperiod when Luke could have written his account of Acts.

Although the text of Acts gives no clear clues as to the place or date ofits writing, some important indicators suggest the time of composition: 1. Acts contains no reference to the fall of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. I findit difficult to imagine that the writer of Acts could have known of thedestruction and not alluded to it very clearly. The strong Jerusalemperspective of the book of Acts, together with Paul’s arrest inJerusalem, could be well served by the mention of the event, yet it isnot even hinted at. 2. There is no mention of James’ martyrdom in 62 C.E. The sameargument as above serves here. 3. While the book describes Paul’s arrival in Rome it contains noinformation regarding Paul’s trial before Caesar or of his death inRome (probably around 64 C.E.). 4. The so-called “primitive” theology of the early communityindicates that the book was written before the development of themajor theological controversies. Jewish believers are still going to theTemple, offering sacrifices, and making nazirite vows, and people likeApollos and the twelve “disciples” in Ephesus do not know about theJesus’ baptism and the Holy Spirit. 5. The writer of Acts considers the Jewish believers’Torah-observance as neither out of place nor unconventional. Such

Introduction xxxi

conduct within the early community – including worship in theTemple – would not have been possible following the Temple’sdestruction in 70 C.E. It is therefore my opinion that the Acts waswritten before 70 C.E., probably before Paul was executed in Rome.

StyleLuke likes to write things in sequence. Right from the beginning, in thepreface to his gospel, he states that he is writing a “narrative (dihvghsi)”and that he is going to tell things “in sequence” or “in order (kaqexh~")”(Lk. 1:1-3). The latter phrase constitutes part of the development of thestory as Luke wishes his readers to hear it (cf. 9:27; 11:4; 15:12-14). Hebuilds his case in meticulous fashion, the order of events and storiesplaying a major role in the structure and style. The same reason also liesbehind Luke’s custom of first introducing his heroes in passing fashion,returning to them later as though they were already a known part of hisstory (cf. Barnabas, Stephen, Paul, Apollos, Agrippa).

Luke also adopts typical Greek rhetoric style in the narration of Paul’sdefense speeches (cf. 22:3-21, 24:10-21, 26:4-23). His use of thesespeeches reflects the purpose of the book, enabling him to present Paul asa loyal Jew who has devoted himself to fulfilling the promises made to thefathers. He likewise represents his writing as “history” according to thebiblical mode. This allows him to substantiate the events which herecords as the fulfillment of Jesus’ directive to his disciples to witness to“the ends of the earth.” In this way he demonstrates how the Gentileshave come to be included in God’s kingdom, in total agreement withIsrael’s ethos, the Torah, and the prophets.

Luke further frequently introduces summaries and brief statementsthrough which the reader can focus on his goal (cf. 2:42-47, 4:32-35,5:12-16, 6:7, 9:31, 42, 11:21, 24, 12:24, 14:1, 16:5, 19:20, 28:31). This givesa feeling of progress and historical momentum unique to Luke-Acts in theNew Testament. The same is true of the reports of “signs and wonders”which follow the Apostles in their evangelistic work.

Luke’s audienceWhile most Western scholars presume that Luke wrote Acts for apredominantly gentile audience – the book being written in Greek andPaul, as Luke’s mentor, being the Apostles to the Gentiles – it seemsmore likely to me that it was written for the Jewish community inJerusalem.

The general structure of the book places the story of the Jerusalemcommunity, and Peter’s annals, at the beginning of the account. The bookopens with Peter’s and the early Jerusalem community’s faithfulness to

xxxii A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Jesus and to the Jewish community, and closes with Paul affirming hisloyalty to the people of Israel and to the traditions of the fathers beforethe Jewish leadership in Rome.1

Paul’s struggles with the Sanhedrin, Agrippa, and Festus over hisfaithfulness to the Law and the Prophets (cf. 22-26, 28) would not serveany understandable function for Gentiles in the diaspora. Since one thirdof the book of Acts is devoted to episodes in Jerusalem and Caesarea itseems likely that Luke was addressing an audience in Jerusalem ratherthan one in Rome.

Paul’s defense speeches are all directed toward the Jewish authoritiesand focus upon proving his faithfulness to the Torah and the Prophets.Luke does not portray Paul in the last section of Acts as an apostle to theGentiles but as a faithful Jew suffering for the resurrection of the dead, a“patriot” seeking to bring both Jews and Gentiles to repentance and goodworks. Paul accepts the community’s directives. The Apostle is willing –like Jesus himself – to celebrate the feast of Shavuot (Pentecost) inJerusalem despite the risk of being arrested and dying for his witness toJesus. He is also concerned to prove his faithfulness, by sponsoring fournazirites, in the face of rumors that he is teaching apostasy (cf. 21:13,23-24). All this indicates that Luke wrote Acts primarily for a believingJewish audience – who may have heard similar rumors about Paul as thecommunity had when Paul arrived for Shavuot.PurposeEach of the Epistles in the New Testament was written to deal with a setof problems facing a specific congregation, or reflects the relationship ofthe Apostle to a particular community. One of the main purposes of thebook of Acts is to explain the relationship between the Jewish and gentilesegments of the early community, and to reconcile Paul’s ministry withPeter’s. Luke opens with the story of the proclamation of the gospel inJerusalem, which spreads to the “ends of the earth” in fulfillment of thewords of the prophets (cf. Isa. 2:3; Acts 1:8). The book of Acts can inmany ways be seen as an apologetic for peace between Jews and Gentilesin the body of the Messiah. Luke is Paul’s disciple and has taken pains toresearch and put in order the written and oral material which he gatheredin Israel and in the diaspora.

He succeeds in reconciling the two great leaders in the church so wellthat the reader has difficulty finding the “seam.” A table demonstratesthis point:

1 Peter serves as the major protagonist in Acts 1-10, even bringing the Gospel tothe first gentile household in Caesarea. In 11-28, Paul takes over the central role,ending with his declaration of faithfulness to his people and the Torah in Rome.

Introduction xxxiii

Apostle to the Jews – Peter Apostle to the Gentiles –PaulFirst healing – a cripple (3:2-8) First healing – a cripple(14:8-12)Healing through a shadow (5:15) Healing through a cloth (19:12)Encounter with witchcraft (8:18) Encounter with witchcraft(13:6)Miraculously released from gaol (12:7) Miraculously released from gaol

(23:26)“And the word of God kept on “So the word of the Lord wasspreading” (6:7) growing mightily and

prevailing” (19:20)

The correspondences between the two figures also indicate acomparison between the ministry to the Jews and to the Gentiles in thebook of Acts. It is important to note that chapter 15 – which deals withthe problems between the Jewish and gentile parts of the body of theMessiah – divides Acts in half. These indications suggest that Acts waswritten in order to accomplish the following goals: 1. To demonstrate the validity and equality of Peter’s and Paul’s

ministries. 2. To place the ministry to the Gentiles in its proper perspective with

respect to the Jerusalem community. 3. To show that the ministry to the Gentiles was a part of God’s

design from the beginning of the apostolic ministry, commandedby Jesus himself.

4. To communicate to the readers that although God has ordainedthe preaching of the gospel to the Gentiles this in no waythreatens the Jewishness of the apostolic mission, norTorah-observance and Jewish tradition. The Acts of the Apostlesbegins in Jerusalem with the vision of the restoration of theKingdom of God to Israel and ends with Paul assuring the Jewishleadership in Rome that “I had done nothing against our people,or the customs of our fathers” (28:17).

GeographyGeography plays an important role in Acts. Jesus’ command to theApostles “You shall be my witnesses both in Jerusalem, and in all Judeaand Samaria, and even to the remotest part of the earth” (1:8) is ageographical directive. Jerusalem is the center from which everythingmoves outwards. The city is the setting of chapters 1-7. In 8-12, the

xxxiv A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

action moves to Judaea, Samaria, and Caesarea, and in 13-28, it extends toAsia Minor, Europe, climaxing in the capital of the Roman empire, Romeitself. While at first sight the message seems to be going outwards fromJerusalem, the reader is brought back to Jerusalem time and again withPaul. From 18:21 to the end of the book Jerusalem is once again the focalpoint. Paul does not going to Rome out of any personal desire – althoughhe does express such a wish in his letter to the Romans – but because hehas appealed to Caesar. The first thing he does when arrives is to contactthe Roman Jewish leadership, claiming to be in total agreement with hispeople and with the traditions of the fathers. Along the way, his itineraryis dominated by biblical texts such as Isaiah 66:18-21, and he chooses tovisit places with Jewish communities with whom he immediatelyestablishes contact in the synagogue.

The Holy Spirit and Prophecy in ActsMany commentators consider the Holy Spirit to be the dominating themeof Acts. The term “Holy Spirit” appears five times in Matthew, four inMark, thirteen in Luke, three in John, forty in Acts, sixteen in Paul’sEpistles, five in Hebrews, two in Peter’s Epistles, and is completely absentfrom John’s Epistles and Revelation. This indicates how important a rolethe Holy Spirit plays for Luke in the life and formation of the gospel. TheHoly Spirit teaches, leads, enlightens, and gives knowledge of the future(cf. Acts 4:8f, 5:9, 8:39, 10:19, 16:6, 19:21, 21:4, 11). Rabbinic literaturereflects a similar usage of the term as that found in the New Testament.While the Rabbis speak of the Holy Spirit uttering warnings andprophecies, the belief in the Second Temple period that prophecy hadceased with the last prophets – Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi – gave rise tothe more widespread concept of the “bat kol” or “daughter of a voice”(cf. Yoma 9b). This expression is more frequent than reference to theHoly Spirit in rabbinic literature, and is also reflected in Acts 10.

The Holy Spirit’s function in Acts is directly connected to prophecyand guidance from God (cf. 8:29, 39, 10:19, 11:15, 13:2, 15:28, 16:6,20:22). Luke includes five accounts of the “outpouring” of the Spirit onJesus’ followers in Acts (cf. 2:1-4, 4:28-31, 8:15-17, 10:44, 19:6). Themajor characters in the book – Peter, John, Philip, Stephen, Barnabas, andPaul – fulfil prophetic functions. They proclaim the gospel (cf. 5:42, 8:4,12, 25, 40, 11:20, 13:32, 14:7, 15:35), witness/testify to the Messiah (cf.2:32, 10:41, and 13:31: 22:20), and perform wonders and miracles amongthe people (cf. 4:30, 6:8, 8:6, 14:3, and 15:12).

Luke’s description of Jesus clearly indicates that he is the “prophet likeMoses” whom the people of Israel are waiting for (cf. 2:22). The termswith which Luke portrays Jesus and his disciples are also reminiscent of

Introduction xxxv

God’s promise to Moses. This is very clear in Stephen’s speech (cf.7:17-44), where Stephen’s depiction of Moses parallels the story of Jesus –a rejected deliverer.

At times, the prophetic cycle is very short and even contained in thestory itself. This can be seen in Agabus’ prediction of sufferings for Paul(cf. 21:10-14) – words which are immediately fulfilled in the same chapter(cf. 21:30-35).

Luke uses prophetic fulfillment as a formula for narrative progress inActs. The general structure of the New Testament exhibits similaritieswith the structure of the Tanakh (Old Testament). The Tanakh starts withthe Torah (Pentateuch), the first five books of Moses, followed by thehistorical books which begin with Joshua and end with 2 Kings.2 After thehistorical books come the prophetic writings. In the New Testament, thefour Gospels parallel the four main books of the Torah.3 They arefollowed by the only historical book in the New Testament – the book ofActs. The natural place to put Acts would be following the Gospel ofLuke, both books being written to Theophilus. The fact that it is insertedbetween the Gospels and the letters demonstrates its structural similaritywith the Tanakh and Luke’s intention of demonstrating its fulfillment ofScripture.

The phrase “fulfilled” in relationship to God’s promises depicts thestages in the early community’s life and development (cf. 1:16, 3:18, 24,12:25, 13:27, 33, 40, 15:15, 28:25-27). The term “must (dei~)” indicateshow the events which occur are “determined” according to God’spurpose. Judas’ apostasy and Matthias’ election (cf. 1:16-22), Paul’ssuffering (cf. 9:16), and that of all Jesus’ followers (cf. 14:22), all representa fulfillment of prophetic words.

Acts opens with a prophetic cycle in Jesus’ own words (cf. 1:8) –instructions which constitute a major plot of the book, the restconstituting a commentary to Jesus’ predictions. Jesus’ command to theApostles to wait in Jerusalem until they receive “power from on high” is afulfillment of both Joel’s prophecy and Jesus’ prophecy, and serves tostructure the whole book. The text suggests that Jesus “began” (1:1) to doand to teach, but that when he was “taken up” (1:2) his work wascontinued through the direction and help of the Holy Spirit, who

2 The order of books in the Hebrew Bible differs from the translations influencedby the Greek. The Tanakh is divided into three main sections: the Torah (law),Prophets, and Writings. The section known as the Prophets includes thehistorical books from Joshua to the end of the minor prophets.3 The five books of Moses are composed of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus,Numbers – plus Deuteronomy, which repeats the material of the first fourbooks.

xxxvi A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

becomes the active influence and guiding master of the continuation ofJesus’ ministry. In a real sense, the book of Acts is a record of how God’spromise to Israel through Joel that everyone will become a prophet andwill prophesy through the power of the Holy Spirit poured out on allflesh is fulfilled.

Replacement Theology and ActsActs has traditionally been used to appealed to as proof that God hasabandoned the Jews and turned to the Gentiles. Paul’s Macedonian call,Peter’s vision on the roof of Simon’s house in Jaffa, and the impressionthat non-Jews joined the community in their myriads, all seemed to givethe impression that God had rejected His people and taken for Himself anew people, a new nation – the “Church.” On a non-theological note, oneneeds to ask: “Which church?” The second-century church riddled withheresy, the third-century church groping in the darkness, thefourth-century church fueled by anti-semitism and political manipulation,or the contemporary church riddled with financial corruption anddominated by show-biz ministry? God has chosen no Christiandenomination to take the place of the Jewish people, who have comefrom Abraham’s seed and carry the name of God’s elect nation until thisday. On theological grounds, it is incumbent upon us to examineScripture and see whether the setting of Acts supports the doctrineknown as supercessionism or “replacement theology.”

Replacement theology teaches points which directly oppose the Wordof God. Note Paul’s rhetorical question and unequivocal answer inRomans 11:1ff: “I say then, God has not rejected His people, has He?May it never be! For I too am an Israelite, a descendant of Abraham, ofthe tribe of Benjamin. God has not rejected His people whom Heforeknew.” To say that God has rejected the Jewish people explicitlycontradicts Paul’s clear statement.

We also know that God has not rejected the nation of Israel becausethe sun is still shining by day and the moon and stars by night. Jeremiahmakes the sun and the moon signs of God’s faithfulness to Israel, anddoes so in the context of proclaiming the New Covenant which Godintends to make with Judah and Israel: “Thus says the LORD, who givesthe sun for light by day, and the fixed order of the moon and the stars forlight by night, who stirs up the sea so that its waves roar; The LORD ofhosts is His name: ‘If this fixed order departs from before Me,’ declaresthe LORD, ‘Then the offspring of Israel also shall cease from being anation before Me forever.’ Thus says the Lord, ‘If the heavens above canbe measured, and the foundations of the earth searched out below, then Iwill also cast off all the offspring of Israel for all that they have done,’

Introduction xxxvii

declares the LORD” (Jer. 31:35-37). The historical churches have hiddenunder such slogans as “spiritual Israel,” “the true Israel,” and havediscredited Israel as the people of God by directly negating the writtentext.

It has been contended that Paul turned to the Gentiles as a result ofthe synagogue’s rejection of his message. The book of Acts does notsupport this view at all. Both Acts and Paul’s epistles indicate that whilePaul’s commission was to the Gentiles he continued to go the synagogueevery shabbat (sabbath). When visiting, he was invited to read from theTorah and to give a commentary on the text, something which wouldhave never happened had the Jewish community suspected him of beingheretical.

One of the texts frequently appealed to “prove” that Paul turned awayfrom the Jews and went to the Gentiles is Acts 13:46-47: “And Paul andBarnabas spoke out boldly and said, ‘It was necessary that the word ofGod should be spoken to you first; since you repudiate it, and judgeyourselves unworthy of eternal life, behold, we are turning to theGentiles. For thus the Lord has commanded us, “I have placed You as alight for the Gentiles, that you should bring salvation to the end of theearth.”’” It should be noted that Paul’s quotation is taken from Isaiah42:6, 49:6. By preaching to the Gentiles, Paul is fulfilling the promisegiven to Israel by the prophets. The statement “we are turning to theGentiles” cannot be understood here as rejection of the Jews becausePaul continues to go to synagogue every sabbath and to preach the gospelto the Jewish people all around Asia Minor and Greece until he reachesRome. In fact, three days after he arrives in Rome, Paul gathers togetherthe leaders of the Jewish community and says to them very clearly:“Brethren, though I had done nothing against our people, or the customsof our fathers, yet I was delivered prisoner from Jerusalem into the handsof the Romans” (28:17). If Paul’s statement to the Jews in Rome is true, itindicates that he remained faithful to the Torah and to Jewish customsand traditions throughout his life. The fact that he continued to frequentthe synagogue proves the falsity of the claims that God has rejected Israeland that Paul rejected his own people.

Inspiration and inerrancyPaul tells Timothy: “All Scripture is inspired by God and profitable forteaching, for reproof, for correction, for training in righteousness; that theman of God may be adequate, equipped for every good work” (2 Tim.3:16-17). Much energy has been spent over the centuries in the attempt toclarify the concept of “inspiration.” The book of Acts raises somechallenges in this regard which must be addressed.

xxxviii A Commentary on the Jewish Roots of Acts

Judaism possesses a deep faith that God gave the Torah on MountSinai verbatim. At the same time it is frequently stated that the “Torahspeaks in human language דיברה תורה בלשון בני אדם” (San. 56a). Thismeans that the Word of God was written with human traits which involveand demand interpretation. Luke clearly states in Acts: “The first accountI composed, Theophilus, about all that Jesus began to do and teach.” Thisreiterates what he says at the beginning of his Gospel: “Inasmuch as manyhave undertaken to compile an account of the things accomplishedamong us, just as those who from the beginning were eyewitnesses andservants of the Word have handed them down to us, it seemed fitting forme as well, having investigated everything carefully from the beginning, towrite it out for you in consecutive order, most excellent Theophilus; sothat you might know the exact truth about the things you have beentaught” (Lk. 1:1-4).

Luke undertook to write his works after collecting material. Hecompiled the accounts of eyewitnesses and put them in consecutive order.He investigated everything carefully from the beginning. Yet the HolySpirit was involved in Luke’s writing at all its stages. The very“undertaking” to write was, in my opinion, inspired, all the subsequentprocesses also being blessed, accepted, and approved by God. Lukereports the deeds which Jesus performed and which the Apostlescontinued through the Holy Spirit. Luke’s record of these events includesthe “mistakes” made by some of the characters in the story. For example,in Stephen’s speech before the Sanhedrin, he says that Abrahampurchased a tomb “from the sons of Hamor in Shechem” (7:15-16). Thebook of Genesis says that the cave which he acquired was in Hebron, notin Shechem (cf. Gen. 23:16, 33:19, 50:13; Josh. 24:32).

Luke’s inspiration does not constitute a mandate to correct or tosmooth over the mistakes of respectable figures such as Stephen – anymore than it was Moses’ privilege to correct the mistakes and sins whichhis brother Aaron or Abraham made. The Bible speaks in humanlanguage, and the writers possess the privilege and obligation ofexpressing their views and building a case to defend their position andmessage. Scriptural inerrancy does not mean that no mistakes are to befound, but that these are the mistakes of the individuals who made them– which are accurately recorded. Although the characters who play outthe dramatic story of the Acts of the Apostles are not inerrant, the recordof the events and words that were spoken is inerrant because it waswritten by an honest reporter inspired by God’s Spirit.

Joseph ShulamJerusalem, 2003