COMM101 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION Instructor s Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurten Kara (Group1) & Assist. Prof. Dr. Melek Atabey (Group2)

COMM101COMM101INTRODUCTION TOINTRODUCTION TOCOMMUNICATIONCOMMUNICATION

InstructorInstructor s sAssist. Prof. Dr. Nurten Kara (Group1)Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurten Kara (Group1)

&&Assist. Prof. Dr. Melek Atabey (Group2)Assist. Prof. Dr. Melek Atabey (Group2)

The Definition of The Definition of CommunicationCommunication

● ““Communication ranges from the Communication ranges from the mass media (i.e. newspapers, mass media (i.e. newspapers, magazines, radio and television) and magazines, radio and television) and popular culture (books, music, films), popular culture (books, music, films), through language to individual and through language to individual and social behaviour.”social behaviour.” (J. Fiske) (J. Fiske)


As John Fiske says, As John Fiske says, it ''is talking to one another, it is it ''is talking to one another, it is

television, it is spreading television, it is spreading information, it is our hair style, (it is information, it is our hair style, (it is the way we dress, it is literary the way we dress, it is literary criticism.'' criticism.''


CommunicationCommunication (n) (n) 1. 1. an act or an instance of an act or an instance of communicating communicating

2.2. a verbal or written message a verbal or written message 3.3. a process by which information a process by which information is exchanged between individuals is exchanged between individuals through a common system of through a common system of symbols, signs or behaviour . symbols, signs or behaviour . (Longman Dictionary)(Longman Dictionary)


Communicate Communicate (vt) (vt)

1.1. to convey knowledge of or to convey knowledge of or information about; make known information about; make known

2.2. to cause to pass from one to cause to pass from one another (vi) another (vi)

3.3. to transmit information thought, to transmit information thought, or feeling so that it is satisfactorily or feeling so that it is satisfactorily received or understood.received or understood.


Communications: Communications: 4. 4. 'a system (e'a system (e..gg.. telephones) telephones)

for for communicatingcommunicating

55.. techniques for the effective techniques for the effective transmission of information, ideas transmission of information, ideas etc.etc.


Communication does not take place Communication does not take place only between human beings because only between human beings because as living organisms animals too as living organisms animals too communicate with each other. And communicate with each other. And this is calledthis is called animal animal communication.communication. Here we will be Here we will be concerned with concerned with human human communication. communication.

Why do we communicate?Why do we communicate?To survive.To survive.To work with others (cooperation).To work with others (cooperation).To satisfy our personal needs.To satisfy our personal needs.To be involved with other people, to form and maintain To be involved with other people, to form and maintain relationships.relationships.To persuade other people to think in the way we do or To persuade other people to think in the way we do or to act in the way we do.to act in the way we do.To gain/exert power or to rebel against power.To gain/exert power or to rebel against power.To give and receive information.To give and receive information.To gain economic benefits.To gain economic benefits.To make sense of the world and our experience of it.To make sense of the world and our experience of it.To decide on what we think and what we do.To decide on what we think and what we do.To express our imagination and ourselves to others.To express our imagination and ourselves to others.

Importance of Importance of communicationcommunication

As a As a socialsocial being one cannot not being one cannot not communicate.communicate.Social = Social = web of relationsweb of relations

communication networkscommunication networks Through communication, and through the Through communication, and through the

relations of communication, we define relations of communication, we define individual and collective individual and collective identitiesidentities we we become who we are in and through become who we are in and through communication.communication.

Why is it difficult to define Why is it difficult to define communication?communication?

As one of the vital features of human beings, As one of the vital features of human beings, communication is experienced from the cradle to communication is experienced from the cradle to the grave and includes all of the intentional and the grave and includes all of the intentional and unintentional dimensions in our relations with unintentional dimensions in our relations with ourselves, with others, and with our environment.ourselves, with others, and with our environment.

Communication is as Communication is as many-sidedmany-sided and and complexcomplex as life itself. as life itself.

Therefore, the Therefore, the complexitycomplexity of of communication defies a communication defies a simplesimple definition. definition.

Why is it difficult to define Why is it difficult to define communication?communication?

In dealing with communication, we are confronted In dealing with communication, we are confronted with a seemingly overwhelming amount of data, with a seemingly overwhelming amount of data, together with a number of together with a number of competing academic competing academic perspectivesperspectives..

Clearly, some Clearly, some choiceschoices have to be made in order to have to be made in order to come up with a definition.come up with a definition.

At the same time, however, the process of selection At the same time, however, the process of selection will always reveal the particular will always reveal the particular standpointstandpoint//viewpointviewpoint of the individual theorist making the definition.of the individual theorist making the definition.

1 Communication1 Communication Simplifying definitions: Models Simplifying definitions: Models A model of a communication process is “a A model of a communication process is “a

consciously simplified description in graphic consciously simplified description in graphic form of a piece of reality.”form of a piece of reality.”

Models are meant to provide “images of Models are meant to provide “images of wholes” which we might otherwise be unable wholes” which we might otherwise be unable to perceive.to perceive.

1 Communication1 Communication Simplifying definitions: Models Simplifying definitions: Models Harold Lasswell’s famous Harold Lasswell’s famous 5W formula5W formula of 1948 of 1948

asks a number of simple questions that may asks a number of simple questions that may be applied to any communication act:be applied to any communication act:

Elements (Factors) of Elements (Factors) of CommunicationCommunication

a a messagemessage an initiator an initiator ((sendersender) ) )source, )source,

transmitter, encoder, addresser, transmitter, encoder, addresser, author)author)

a a mediummedium (or media) (or media) a mode/vehicle a mode/vehicle ((channelchannel)) a recipient a recipient ((receiverreceiver) ) (decoder, (decoder,

decoder, addecoder, adddresresseesee, reader), reader) an an effecteffect

1 Communication1 Communication Simplifying definitions: Models Simplifying definitions: Models Shannon & Weaver offer another model of Shannon & Weaver offer another model of

communication:communication:

1 Communication1 Communication Simplifying definitions: Models Simplifying definitions: Models Shannon & Weaver offer another model of Shannon & Weaver offer another model of

communication:communication:

The concept of “noise” was offered as an explanation The concept of “noise” was offered as an explanation for the for the externalexternal, mechanical interruptions and other , mechanical interruptions and other difficulties communication must face along its linear difficulties communication must face along its linear route of transmission.route of transmission.

1 Communication1 Communication Simplifying definitions: ModelsSimplifying definitions: Models However, communication mishaps are not only However, communication mishaps are not only

caused when caused when clear messagesclear messages are distorted by external are distorted by external interference, as the Shannon & Weaver model interference, as the Shannon & Weaver model suggests.suggests.

The message/signal itself, and the way in which it is The message/signal itself, and the way in which it is expressed, already carries the seeds of expressed, already carries the seeds of misunderstandingmisunderstanding..

The The polysemicpolysemic nature of language, for instance, nature of language, for instance, implies that any and every understanding is at the implies that any and every understanding is at the same time, and necessarily so, a misunderstanding.same time, and necessarily so, a misunderstanding.

1 Communication1 Communication Simplifying definitions: ModelsSimplifying definitions: Models Dennis McQuail offers a more complex Dennis McQuail offers a more complex

“simple” model:“simple” model:

1 Communication1 Communication Simplifying definitions: ModelsSimplifying definitions: Models McQuail later revised his model’s unilinear McQuail later revised his model’s unilinear

flowflow::

1 Communication1 Communication Simplifying definitions: ModelsSimplifying definitions: Models Models are simplified representations of Models are simplified representations of

reality.reality. We will discuss representations in general at a We will discuss representations in general at a

later stage in class.later stage in class. For now, let us reflect on the following For now, let us reflect on the following

question: If what we want to study is a question: If what we want to study is a complex phenomenon, and if we want to complex phenomenon, and if we want to represent it as it is, are we not doing it represent it as it is, are we not doing it injustice by representing it as simple rather injustice by representing it as simple rather than as complex?than as complex?

Process of Process of CommunicationCommunication

Sender decides message Sender encodes message (encoding) Receiver decodes message

(decoding) Receiver returns a signal to let the

sender know whether the message has or has not been understood. (feedback)

Process of Process of CommunicationCommunication

The content of any message depends very much on:

The intention The available language or symbolic

forms The context The communicative possibilities or

discourses

Features of Communication

It is everywhere. It is continuous. It involves the sharing of meaning. It contains predictable elements. It occurs more than one level It occurs amongst both equals and

unequals.

Means of Communication

Forms of communicationForms of communication ( (Visual images, pictures, the spoken word, the written word, body language, gestures are different forms of communication)

Media of communicationMedia of communication ( (telephone, face to face communication, television, radio, magazines, newspapers, books, letters)

J. Fiske’s Categories of J. Fiske’s Categories of MediaMedia

The presentational media (the voice, the face, the body)

The representational media (books, paintings, photographs, writing, architecture, interior designing, gardening etc. )

The mechanical media (telephones, radio, television, telexes)

1 Communication1 Communication Why is it difficult to define Why is it difficult to define

communication? Why are there so many communication? Why are there so many different definitions?different definitions?

Every definition—by definition—necessarily Every definition—by definition—necessarily leaves out and excludes some other aspect of leaves out and excludes some other aspect of our social communication network by drawing our social communication network by drawing the boundary of communication in one way or the boundary of communication in one way or another.another.

Also, new socio-cultural and technological Also, new socio-cultural and technological developments are—necessarily—not included in developments are—necessarily—not included in older definitions.older definitions.

Definitions, necessarily, give a Definitions, necessarily, give a limitedlimited perspective.perspective.

limit = boundarylimit = boundary

1 Communication1 Communication Why is it difficult to define Why is it difficult to define

communication? Why are there so communication? Why are there so many different definitions?many different definitions?

Definitions in social sciences and humanitiesDefinitions in social sciences and humanities—as in all other sciences—reflect particular —as in all other sciences—reflect particular perspectives or points of view.perspectives or points of view.

Concepts in their respective disciplines can Concepts in their respective disciplines can only be defined within the frame of different only be defined within the frame of different and differing approaches.and differing approaches.

And in the field of communication studies And in the field of communication studies there are many approaches drawn from there are many approaches drawn from many disciplines with different definitions of many disciplines with different definitions of communication.communication.

1 Communication1 Communication Some different approaches to Some different approaches to

communicationcommunication Communication as an art.Communication as an art. Communication as a linear process.Communication as a linear process.

(Theories of transmission of (Theories of transmission of meaning/content).meaning/content).

Communication as an exchangeCommunication as an exchange(of meaning/content).(of meaning/content).

Communication as a Communication as a collective/commonwealth generation of collective/commonwealth generation of meaning/content.meaning/content.

Differing definitions of the field of studyDiffering definitions of the field of study

Inter-disciplinaryInter-disciplinary(interaction with outside disciplines; (interaction with outside disciplines; individual disciplines are left intact). individual disciplines are left intact). HoweverHowever, note that the space of “inter” is , note that the space of “inter” is already a different space than the spaces of already a different space than the spaces of the distinct disciplines that are brought the distinct disciplines that are brought together.together.

Multi-disciplinaryMulti-disciplinary(more than one discipline in the field, (more than one discipline in the field, interaction that may or may not bring about interaction that may or may not bring about mutual transformation).mutual transformation).

TransdisciplinaryTransdisciplinaryPorous borders; disciplines are re-shaped Porous borders; disciplines are re-shaped again and again.again and again.

Varied forms and means of communicationVaried forms and means of communication LanguageLanguage DiscursiveDiscursive / / TextualTextual (Speech / (Speech /

Writing)Writing) PrintPrint (Mechanical mass reproduction) (Mechanical mass reproduction)

(“Gutenberg galaxy”)(“Gutenberg galaxy”) DigitalDigital (Irrelevant distinction between copy (Irrelevant distinction between copy

and original)and original)

Again, differing focuses give rise to differing Again, differing focuses give rise to differing definitions.definitions.

Communication Studies as a field of study:Communication Studies as a field of study:What is its aim, its reason for being?What is its aim, its reason for being?

Why do we study in this field?Why do we study in this field?

Teaching/learning the art of communication.Teaching/learning the art of communication.

Teaching/learning the making and Teaching/learning the making and understanding of meaningunderstanding of meaning meaningful & significantmeaningful & significant

Teaching and learning not only the practical Teaching and learning not only the practical skills but the frame of mind, or the skills but the frame of mind, or the intellectual skills, to enable you to put these intellectual skills, to enable you to put these practical skills to good use:practical skills to good use:

Ethical and political responsibilityEthical and political responsibility

1 Communication1 Communication Communication Studies as a field of study:Communication Studies as a field of study:

What is its aim, its reason for being?What is its aim, its reason for being?Why do we study in this field?Why do we study in this field?

Practical/pragmatic reasonsPractical/pragmatic reasons: to become effective : to become effective communicators as social beings, and as prospective communicators as social beings, and as prospective media professionals.media professionals.

Ethical reasonsEthical reasons: to be able to reflect on what we are : to be able to reflect on what we are doing as social communicators and as media doing as social communicators and as media professionals; to be able to evaluate and distinguish professionals; to be able to evaluate and distinguish good from bad.good from bad.

To learn how to be self-reflexive and to consider the To learn how to be self-reflexive and to consider the wider consequences of our actions.wider consequences of our actions.

The addition of “Studies” to “Communication” in the The addition of “Studies” to “Communication” in the Faculty’s name allows us to look back and reflect on Faculty’s name allows us to look back and reflect on what we learn and do as “communication.”what we learn and do as “communication.”

The etymology of the word communication as a The etymology of the word communication as a genealogical tool for understanding its meaninggenealogical tool for understanding its meaning

CommonCommon CommunityCommunity CommunionCommunion CommunalCommunal CommunismCommunism ExcommunicationExcommunication MunicipalityMunicipality ImmunityImmunity

1 Communication1 Communication The etymology of the word The etymology of the word

communication as a genealogical tool communication as a genealogical tool for understanding its meaningfor understanding its meaning

All these words derive from both the Latin All these words derive from both the Latin communicarecommunicare that means to make common, that means to make common, to shareto share

andand from from muntaremuntare or or muniamunia that means that means mutual mutual

helphelp, , exchangeexchange, and , and interactioninteraction among those among those who belong to the same community.who belong to the same community.

1 Communication1 Communication The etymology of the word communication as a The etymology of the word communication as a

genealogical tool for understanding its meaninggenealogical tool for understanding its meaning ““To communicate,” the verbal form of To communicate,” the verbal form of

communication means “to participate in collective communication means “to participate in collective life, to perform service for a common purpose” life, to perform service for a common purpose” from which one can only be exempt under special from which one can only be exempt under special circumstances (circumstances (immunisimmunis, immunity)., immunity).

And if to communicate means to participate in And if to communicate means to participate in collective life, to be purged or excluded/expelled collective life, to be purged or excluded/expelled from the community is described by the verb from the community is described by the verb to be to be excommunicatedexcommunicated..

Hence, Hence, commonalitycommonality has persisted as the semantic has persisted as the semantic core of the concept of communication.core of the concept of communication.

1 Communication1 Communication Informed by these insights, we will look at Informed by these insights, we will look at

communication not simply as the transmission of a communication not simply as the transmission of a message/content by an individual to another message/content by an individual to another individual, but rather, as a individual, but rather, as a commoncommonwealth creation of wealth creation of message/meaning/content.message/meaning/content.

We will also consider misunderstanding and We will also consider misunderstanding and miscommunication as miscommunication as inherentinherent and not external to the and not external to the process of communication.process of communication.

Because of the ultimate undecidability of the truth of Because of the ultimate undecidability of the truth of communication, communication, ethical responsibilityethical responsibility becomes all the becomes all the more important.more important.

Ethical considerationsEthical considerations cannot be eliminated by cannot be eliminated by technical determinationstechnical determinations of clarity or truth by only a of clarity or truth by only a limited party partaking in a commonwealth limited party partaking in a commonwealth determination of what the communication is all about.determination of what the communication is all about.

Fundamental qualities of Fundamental qualities of

communicationcommunication (Mortensen) (Mortensen) dynamic (It is not static. It is a condynamic (It is not static. It is a continuous tinuous

activity or change)activity or change) irreversible (incapable of being reversed) irreversible (incapable of being reversed) proactive (not reactive)proactive (not reactive) interactive (there is an interaction between interactive (there is an interaction between

the sides who join in, there is an the sides who join in, there is an exchange of information)exchange of information)

contextual (It depends on the context in contextual (It depends on the context in which the communication occurs)which the communication occurs)

CommunicationCommunication

the the exchange of meaningexchange of meaning between human agents''. The between human agents''. The exchange of meaning between exchange of meaning between people has to take place within a people has to take place within a shared shared contextcontext. (Price). (Price)

Aspects of CommunicationAspects of Communication

the physical and temporal situation. the physical and temporal situation. the basic faculties all humans have. the basic faculties all humans have. the discursive environment the discursive environment the overall social and structural the overall social and structural

context.context.


an an interactioninteraction which consists of the which consists of the actionaction and and reactionreaction between two or between two or more individuals, or two or more more individuals, or two or more social groups.social groups.

Functions of CommunicationFunctions of Communication instrumental (to achieve or obtain something)instrumental (to achieve or obtain something) control (to get s.one to behave in a particular control (to get s.one to behave in a particular

way)way) information (to find out or expinformation (to find out or expllain s.thing)ain s.thing) expression to express one's feelings)expression to express one's feelings) social contact (participating in company)social contact (participating in company) alleviation of anxiety (to sort out a problem, alleviation of anxiety (to sort out a problem,

ease a worry about s.thing)ease a worry about s.thing) stimulation (response to something of interest)stimulation (response to something of interest) role-related (because the situation requires it)role-related (because the situation requires it)


the elements (factors) the elements (factors) of of communication (its components parts)communication (its components parts)

the process of the process of communication (its communication (its discourse of action, how it operates)discourse of action, how it operates)

the features of the features of communication (its communication (its characteristics)characteristics)

Types (Categories) of Communication

Human communication is divided into two main groups:

verbal communication non-verbal communication

Types (Categories) of Communication

Communication can also be separated into different types or categories:

Intrapersonal Communication Interpersonal Communication Group Communication Extrapersonal Communication Mass Communication

Intrapersonal Communication

It takes place within ourselves. It is our reflections on ourselves, on our relationships with others and with our environment. Our inner monologs, impressions, memories interact with external or internal stimuli.

Interpersonal Communication

This refers to communication between people, which is usually face to face, and usually between two individuals.

It does not simply consist of written and spoken communication, but also of non-verbal interaction.

Group Communication

It refers to communication within clearly identifiable groups, or between different groups of people.

These groups can be formal committees (tribunals, commissions) or informal (peer groups, discussion groups, leisure groups)

Extrapersonal Communication

This type of communication is generally described as that which takes place either without human involvement (communication between machines) or, more loosely, interaction between human beings and machines.

Mass Communication

This category is often used to describe the type of communications initiated by the large institutions of the mass media.

Mass Communication: Mass Communication: imitating the personal modeimitating the personal mode

Mass communicators use models of Mass communicators use models of interpersonal communication to make interpersonal communication to make their message effective their message effective

The mass media are not just one branch of The mass media are not just one branch of human communication; they are built human communication; they are built upon and continue to imitate human upon and continue to imitate human interaction. interaction.

All mass media forms depend on the use All mass media forms depend on the use of symbolic content (language, images, of symbolic content (language, images, gestures, intonation and so on.)gestures, intonation and so on.)

Differences between mass Differences between mass and interpersonal and interpersonal

communicationcommunication Interpersonal Interpersonal

CommunicationCommunication involves one involves one transmitter who transmitter who communicates with communicates with one or a few receiversone or a few receivers

Mass communicationMass communication involves one or more involves one or more transmitters who transmitters who communicate with a communicate with a large number of large number of receivers.receivers.

Mass comm. is Mass comm. is ‘mediated’ through a ‘mediated’ through a specific set of specific set of technologies which technologies which stand between the stand between the senders and receivers.senders and receivers.

The implications of these The implications of these differencesdifferences

There may be greater questions of There may be greater questions of influence and power when the scale influence and power when the scale of communication increases.of communication increases.

When this wider mode of When this wider mode of communication gives rise to communication gives rise to technologies, the real immediacy of technologies, the real immediacy of interaction is lost.interaction is lost.

Characteristics of Mass Communication

They are complex formal organizations. They are directed towards large

audiences They are public (content is open to all) Their audiences are heterogeneous

Characteristics of Mass Communication

They can establish simultaneous contact with very large numbers of people

The relationship between communicators and audience is addressed by communicators.

The audience is collectively unique to modern society.

Mass Media

'' the methods and organizations used by specialist social groups to convey messages to large, socially mixed and widely dispersed audiences''. (Paul Trowler, Investigating Mass Media, p. 1)

Dealing with Messages as a Receiver

To understand how we deal with many different types of messages it is important to look at the psychological process known as perception.

Perception

Perception may be defined as the process by which the brain actively selects, organises, and interprets stimuli in order to produce an individual experience of the world.

The physical and psychological factors can affect our perception of the world.

Psychological Factors

Expectation Motivation Occupation and special interests Values and attitudes

Filtering, Distorting and Blocking Messages

Stereotyping Prejudice Projection Poor listening skills

Communication Style

The kind of personality we are, and the profile of our various needs and motivations may result in our having a particular communication style.

Communication as a Skilled Performance

Flexibility Self-knowledge Empathy with an audience Strategy Sensitivity to feedback

Flexibility

a willingness to admit personal weaknesses and communication difficulties.

a recognition of the importance of open, effective communication

Self-knowledge

an awareness of any personal prejudices, stereotypes, a tendency to project etc.;

an awareness of our characteristic style of communicating, e.g. do we have tendency to manipulate, to dominate, to talk too much, too little, etc. ?

Empathy with an audience

an ability to appreciate that our audience may have different values, needs and levels of background knowledge to ourselves;

a willingness when communicating to adjust our behaviour to suit the needs of our audience rather than simply satisfying our own egos.

Strategy

a willingness to accept that the conscious and deliberate adjusting of our performance to suit both audience and situation is neither artificial nor selfish.

an ability and willingness to experiment and to try alternative ways and styles of communicating, e.g. listening more instead of patiently trying to built in.

Sensitivity to feedback

an ability to recognise the language of feedback, facial expressions, gestures, position of body etc.;

a willingness and an ability to respond appropriately to feedback.

STUDENT ACTIVITYSTUDENT ACTIVITY

Here are some possible stereotypes. Do stereotypes exist for each of these, if so can you agree on what the appropriate qualities for each are?

A librarian A 'heavy metal'

fan A male model A second-hand

car dealer A school teacher A lorry driver

Language, Communication Language, Communication and the Mediaand the Media

Non-Non-VVerbal Communicationerbal Communication

Non-verbal CommunicationNon-verbal Communication

Edward T. Hall, an anthropologist, Edward T. Hall, an anthropologist, claims that 60 percent of all claims that 60 percent of all communication is non-verbal.communication is non-verbal.

We can use non-verbal We can use non-verbal communication (N.V.C) instead of the communication (N.V.C) instead of the spoken word or we can use it at the spoken word or we can use it at the same time as we are speaking to same time as we are speaking to reinforce our message.reinforce our message.


N.V.C. is the communication N.V.C. is the communication which passes between which passes between individuals to replace or individuals to replace or reinforce the use of words. reinforce the use of words.


ThiThis definition s definition would include the following:would include the following: The use of visual forms of The use of visual forms of

communication like drawing, painting, communication like drawing, painting, architecture, sculpture, decorative art. architecture, sculpture, decorative art.

Movement and dance. Ballet and mime Movement and dance. Ballet and mime are forms of non-verbal communication, are forms of non-verbal communication, and so is instrumental music.and so is instrumental music.

The use of time. The ways in which The use of time. The ways in which people or organizations use time may people or organizations use time may give clues about them.give clues about them.

Body languageBody language

BodBodily contactily contact Physical proximityPhysical proximity OrientationOrientation PosturePosture GestureGesture Facial expressionsFacial expressions Eye contactEye contact

BodBodily contactily contact

Physical contact between people is one of thePhysical contact between people is one of the

most basic kinds of social act available to us. most basic kinds of social act available to us. WhoWho

we touch, and when, and in what way iswe touch, and when, and in what way is

determined by: determined by: AgeAge SexSex Relationships Relationships CultureCulture

BodBodily contactily contact

Touch is an especially important factor in the following Touch is an especially important factor in the following situations:situations: Care of children, old people or invalids. Touch can be used Care of children, old people or invalids. Touch can be used

to bring comfort to someone we care for.to bring comfort to someone we care for. Helping to establish friendly relationships.Helping to establish friendly relationships. Aggression. Touch used to show aggression is frequently Aggression. Touch used to show aggression is frequently

strong and much more powerful, possibly involving strong and much more powerful, possibly involving grasping, hitting or kicking.grasping, hitting or kicking.

We frequently make use of touch and the power of touch in We frequently make use of touch and the power of touch in social situations, such as:social situations, such as: Greetings and farewells. Greetings and farewells. Congratulations.Congratulations. Gaining attention.Gaining attention. Ceremonies and so on.Ceremonies and so on.

Physical proximityPhysical proximity

TThe distance we feel necessary to he distance we feel necessary to keep betweenkeep between ourselves and others. ourselves and others. How much space we expect to have How much space we expect to have around us can be determined by:around us can be determined by:

The occasionThe occasion The status/relationshipThe status/relationship CultureCulture PersonalityPersonality

OrientationOrientation

We need to be aware of where We need to be aware of where people place themselves in relation people place themselves in relation to each other. We call thisto each other. We call this orientation.orientation.

PosturePosture

The way in which an individual use The way in which an individual use and move the whole body is called and move the whole body is called postureposture. The following three . The following three factors may influence a person’s factors may influence a person’s posture:posture:

Cultural conventionCultural convention Attitude to others presentAttitude to others present Emotional stateEmotional state

GestureGesture

Posture describes the way in which Posture describes the way in which we use and move our whole body, we use and move our whole body, gesturegesture refers to the use of part of refers to the use of part of body to communicate with others. body to communicate with others. Like posture gesture may be Like posture gesture may be conscious or unconscious.conscious or unconscious.

Facial expressionsFacial expressions

Few other parts of the body can Few other parts of the body can begin to compete with the face begin to compete with the face when it comes to non-verbal when it comes to non-verbal communication. communication.

We send non-verbal signals using a We send non-verbal signals using a wide range of combinations: wide range of combinations: forehead, eyebrows, eyelids, eye, forehead, eyebrows, eyelids, eye, nose, cheeks, lips, tongue, chin.nose, cheeks, lips, tongue, chin.

Eye contactEye contact

Most facial expressions are Most facial expressions are dominated by what the eyes are dominated by what the eyes are doing. doing.

It is said that the eyes are the It is said that the eyes are the mirror of the soul, so we can tell a mirror of the soul, so we can tell a great deal about a person just by great deal about a person just by looking into their eyes.looking into their eyes.


Other ways in which non-verbalOther ways in which non-verbal communication takes placecommunication takes place::

Physical appearancePhysical appearance Use of objectsUse of objects

Physical appearancePhysical appearance

Non-verbal communication is Non-verbal communication is perhaps at its most obvious when we perhaps at its most obvious when we smile at a friend or wave someone smile at a friend or wave someone goodbye; body movement used for goodbye; body movement used for the purpose of N.V.C. is referred to the purpose of N.V.C. is referred to as as kinesickinesic behaviour. behaviour.

Physical appearancePhysical appearance

WWe can communicate a good deal about e can communicate a good deal about ourselves without ever moving any body parts ourselves without ever moving any body parts at all:at all:

Our clothesOur clothes Our use of cosmetics on faceOur use of cosmetics on face Our hairOur hair Even our physiqueEven our physique Social norms in the form of fashionSocial norms in the form of fashion Group membershipGroup membership Social statusSocial status The desire to be sexually attractiveThe desire to be sexually attractive

Use of objectsUse of objects

The possession or use of an object or The possession or use of an object or objects by an individual may also objects by an individual may also communicate a message to those communicate a message to those nearby by non-verbal means. For nearby by non-verbal means. For some people a car is more than a some people a car is more than a vehicle for moving around it, but has vehicle for moving around it, but has a symbolic meaning. A car may be a a symbolic meaning. A car may be a symbol of power or status.symbol of power or status.

Use of objectsUse of objects

OBJECT USE OF OBJECT AS AN AGENCY OF N.V.C.

Cigarette holder

May be used by men or women as a symbol of elegance or social status.

Porsche sports car

May be used by men or women as a symbol of wealth and social status.

Signs of Non-verbal Signs of Non-verbal CommunicationCommunication

TThere are a number of parallels we can draw here are a number of parallels we can draw between non-verbal communication and verbal between non-verbal communication and verbal language. They are both what communication language. They are both what communication scholars would refer to as scholars would refer to as codescodes. In particular, . In particular, so far it looks as if we might hypothesize that, so far it looks as if we might hypothesize that, similarly to language: similarly to language:

there are a number of discrete units of there are a number of discrete units of meaning, which we can refer to as signs meaning, which we can refer to as signs

no sign's meaning is complete without no sign's meaning is complete without knowledge of the context in which it is used knowledge of the context in which it is used

the signs' usage is culturally conditioned the signs' usage is culturally conditioned signs are arbitrary signs are arbitrary


According to one of the foremost researchers According to one of the foremost researchers into NVC, Birdwhistell, the average person into NVC, Birdwhistell, the average person speaks for only about ten or eleven minutes speaks for only about ten or eleven minutes per day. He estimates that around two thirds per day. He estimates that around two thirds of the of the socialsocial meaning of an interaction is meaning of an interaction is carried in the non-verbal channel. If he's carried in the non-verbal channel. If he's right, then we would do well to pay more right, then we would do well to pay more attention to NVC than we do to linguistic attention to NVC than we do to linguistic exchanges, which receive most of the exchanges, which receive most of the attention in communication studies. attention in communication studies.


Cultural change and cultural Cultural change and cultural differences differences

Nowadays we may think of the single-Nowadays we may think of the single-fingered gesture at the top of the page as fingered gesture at the top of the page as virtually universal. It may be, I don't know, virtually universal. It may be, I don't know, but it has certainly in recent years overtaken but it has certainly in recent years overtaken the British two-fingered gesture. Just as the British two-fingered gesture. Just as verbal codes evolve, so, it seems, do non-verbal codes evolve, so, it seems, do non-verbal codes and just as verbal codes are verbal codes and just as verbal codes are tied to the cultural contexts in which they are tied to the cultural contexts in which they are used and evolve, so, it seems, are non-verbal used and evolve, so, it seems, are non-verbal codes.codes.

Universal Non-verbal signs Universal Non-verbal signs

Are no non-verbal Are no non-verbal signs universal then? signs universal then? In fact, it seems that In fact, it seems that some are. It's pretty some are. It's pretty obvious all over the obvious all over the world that the face world that the face on the on the toptop signifies signifies happiness and that happiness and that the one on the the one on the bottombottom signifies signifies sadnesssadness..

Universal Non-verbal signs Universal Non-verbal signs

I guess we all I guess we all have a pretty have a pretty good idea of good idea of what his guy's what his guy's feelingfeeling..

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo The Mass MediaThe Mass Mediao Although very recent in human history, they have Although very recent in human history, they have

become a very influential force of our socialization.become a very influential force of our socialization.

o Newspapers, periodicals, and journals in the West Newspapers, periodicals, and journals in the West from the early from the early 1800s1800s, but they were confined to a , but they were confined to a fairly small readership.fairly small readership.

o Became part of the daily experience of millions of Became part of the daily experience of millions of people, influencing their attitudes and opinions, people, influencing their attitudes and opinions, a a century latercentury later..

o American children spend the American children spend the equivalent of almost a equivalent of almost a hundred schooldayshundred schooldays per year watching television. per year watching television.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo There are few societies in current times, even among There are few societies in current times, even among

the more traditional cultures, that remain completely the more traditional cultures, that remain completely untouched by the media.untouched by the media.

o Electronic communication is accessible even to those Electronic communication is accessible even to those who are unable to read and write, and even in the most who are unable to read and write, and even in the most impoverished parts of the world it is common to find impoverished parts of the world it is common to find people owning radios and television sets.people owning radios and television sets.

o With the development of so-called “With the development of so-called “mass societymass society” of ” of uprooted individuals as a result of rapid urbanization, uprooted individuals as a result of rapid urbanization, mass media are able to mass media are able to influence people on a mass-influence people on a mass-scalescale..

o Is this a good thing or a bad thing? What is the nature Is this a good thing or a bad thing? What is the nature of this influence—potential and actual?of this influence—potential and actual?

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo A few examples to illustrate these potential and A few examples to illustrate these potential and

actual uses of the mass media:actual uses of the mass media:

o Nelson Mandela notes that upon his arrival in Nelson Mandela notes that upon his arrival in Canada he was greeted by many Inuits who Canada he was greeted by many Inuits who celebrated his arrival. They had witnessed his celebrated his arrival. They had witnessed his release from prison in South Africa on television. His release from prison in South Africa on television. His freedom struggle connected with their own struggles freedom struggle connected with their own struggles for land and political rights in Canada, but it was for land and political rights in Canada, but it was television that had made possible the connection television that had made possible the connection between these different and geographically very between these different and geographically very distant peoples. distant peoples. As Mandela said, “Television had shrunk the world As Mandela said, “Television had shrunk the world and had, in the process, become a great weapon for and had, in the process, become a great weapon for eradicating ignorance and promoting democracy.”eradicating ignorance and promoting democracy.”

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo On the other hand, the media can be seen as part of a On the other hand, the media can be seen as part of a

purely self-serving and profit-motivated consumerist purely self-serving and profit-motivated consumerist culture.culture.

o Eg., recently the Eg., recently the Star WarsStar Wars trilogy was heavily promoted trilogy was heavily promoted and packaged for re-release to a generation that had not and packaged for re-release to a generation that had not seen the film on cinema screens. Huge amounts of money seen the film on cinema screens. Huge amounts of money were spent advertising and promoting it around the world. were spent advertising and promoting it around the world. This, combined with the system of film distribution and This, combined with the system of film distribution and release, made the re-release commercially successful. release, made the re-release commercially successful. Advertising, distribution, release strategies, and other Advertising, distribution, release strategies, and other marketing tools combined to make this re-release a marketing tools combined to make this re-release a veritable money-making machine. veritable money-making machine.

o The original release of the first The original release of the first Star WarsStar Wars movie also movie also demonstrates the money-making capacity of Hollywood demonstrates the money-making capacity of Hollywood films. In the original release, the profits made from selling films. In the original release, the profits made from selling Star WarsStar Wars merchandise—toys, models, sweets, and so on— merchandise—toys, models, sweets, and so on—exceeded the profits from the box office.exceeded the profits from the box office.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo The original The original Star WarsStar Wars film can thus be seen as a film can thus be seen as a

long advertisement for other goods. It was thus a long advertisement for other goods. It was thus a form of economic exploitation that preyed on form of economic exploitation that preyed on children, who are a very susceptible media audience.children, who are a very susceptible media audience.

o Even worse, we have also witnessed how the Fascist Even worse, we have also witnessed how the Fascist and Nazi (Nationalist-Socialist) regimes have used and Nazi (Nationalist-Socialist) regimes have used the press, the radio, and film as their propaganda the press, the radio, and film as their propaganda tools to manipulate the masses for the purposes of tools to manipulate the masses for the purposes of the fascist regime, committing atrocious crimes the fascist regime, committing atrocious crimes against humanity.against humanity.

o Indeed, it was these fears of the use of mass-media Indeed, it was these fears of the use of mass-media as propaganda tools that led to the academic study as propaganda tools that led to the academic study of mass media.of mass media.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo The origins of the media studies can be traced back The origins of the media studies can be traced back

to the 1930s USA to two developments.to the 1930s USA to two developments.

o In both cases, we see research conducted on the In both cases, we see research conducted on the assumption that the “assumption that the “massesmasses”—”—uprooteduprooted from their from their families and close-knit village communities in the families and close-knit village communities in the process of rapid urbanization—were process of rapid urbanization—were vulnerable to vulnerable to manipulation by mass communicationmanipulation by mass communication. The case of . The case of Nazi Germany, where popular support for the Third Nazi Germany, where popular support for the Third Reich was won through the use of press, radio, and Reich was won through the use of press, radio, and film, strengthened this belief.film, strengthened this belief.

o OneOne line of research peaked in the 1940s when the line of research peaked in the 1940s when the Bureau of Applied Social Research (BASR) was Bureau of Applied Social Research (BASR) was established at Columbia University. established at Columbia University.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo Adopting a functionalist approach, Paul Lazarsfeld, Adopting a functionalist approach, Paul Lazarsfeld,

one of the founders of BASR, argued that one of the founders of BASR, argued that media have media have administrative functionsadministrative functions and enforces existing social and enforces existing social formsforms..

o Accordingly, the functions of the media were:Accordingly, the functions of the media were:

1.1. To confer status to the chosen few by choosing for To confer status to the chosen few by choosing for discussion and highlighting. Eg., selecting one or two discussion and highlighting. Eg., selecting one or two representatives of the various lobby groups for media representatives of the various lobby groups for media participation.participation.

2.2. Exposing deviants and their activities to enforce what Exposing deviants and their activities to enforce what they consider normal. This provides a conception of they consider normal. This provides a conception of the Other against which the self of society can be the Other against which the self of society can be maintained.maintained.

3.3. Reduce active public action. People are too busy Reduce active public action. People are too busy consuming.consuming.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo This is very ironic if we consider that the press (the This is very ironic if we consider that the press (the

principal medium of the time) was originally principal medium of the time) was originally conceived as the political watchdog or overseer of conceived as the political watchdog or overseer of the political regime and was referred to as the the political regime and was referred to as the Fourth EstateFourth Estate at the time of the French Revolution at the time of the French Revolution (1789). (1789). The judiciary, the parliament, and the The judiciary, the parliament, and the church were referred to as the first, second, and church were referred to as the first, second, and third estates respectivelythird estates respectively. .

o The media, as the fourth estate, were conceived as The media, as the fourth estate, were conceived as a body who can comment on, criticize, and a body who can comment on, criticize, and investigate, investigate, through free speechthrough free speech, what these other , what these other institutions do. institutions do. This is why “freedom of the press,” This is why “freedom of the press,” and freedom of speech in generaland freedom of speech in general—free from —free from government and owner interference—government and owner interference— is such an is such an important principleimportant principle..

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo The paradox conveyed by this irony begins to make The paradox conveyed by this irony begins to make

sense in those instances, and to the extent, where the sense in those instances, and to the extent, where the freedom of speech (and other human rights) for all, freedom of speech (and other human rights) for all, that is the practice of democracy and human rights, is that is the practice of democracy and human rights, is limited and effaced through ownership and/or control limited and effaced through ownership and/or control of the mass media by a few to serve of the mass media by a few to serve theirtheir particular particular political, ideological, and cultural interests.political, ideological, and cultural interests.

o Hence the characterization for our times: “The freedom Hence the characterization for our times: “The freedom of the press belongs to those who own one.”of the press belongs to those who own one.”

o For this very reason, “desktop publishing” was hailed For this very reason, “desktop publishing” was hailed as a new development with the potential for breaking as a new development with the potential for breaking the power of the giant publishing oligopolies.the power of the giant publishing oligopolies.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo While the totalitarian fascist, and communist, states of While the totalitarian fascist, and communist, states of

the 1930s inspired the fears of those who took to the 1930s inspired the fears of those who took to studying mass media at this time, studying mass media at this time, politically and politically and ideologically interested uses of the media also occur in ideologically interested uses of the media also occur in nominally democratic societies, where advertising can nominally democratic societies, where advertising can be seen as a form of propaganda and brainwashing be seen as a form of propaganda and brainwashing that supports capitalist consumerismthat supports capitalist consumerism. .

o Films and television shows are increasingly Films and television shows are increasingly transformed into program length advertisements for transformed into program length advertisements for goods as the goods as the Stars WarsStars Wars example mentioned earlier example mentioned earlier illustrates. Much of children’s programming are illustrates. Much of children’s programming are already nothing but program-length commercials. And already nothing but program-length commercials. And these are shown in between times allotted for other, these are shown in between times allotted for other, “proper” commercials. Thus children, in effect, watch “proper” commercials. Thus children, in effect, watch nothing but commercials when they watch “children’s nothing but commercials when they watch “children’s TV.”TV.”

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo It is often argued that controls should be placed over It is often argued that controls should be placed over

the media so that they are not misused. Fear that the the media so that they are not misused. Fear that the media may be used for political and ideological media may be used for political and ideological interests of a few, to the detriment of the many, is interests of a few, to the detriment of the many, is one reason why many countries insist that the one reason why many countries insist that the government should not own and/or control the media.government should not own and/or control the media.

o Hence the break-up of government monopolies in Hence the break-up of government monopolies in media ownership, and their privatization are offered media ownership, and their privatization are offered as a remedy. What we are beginning to see, however, as a remedy. What we are beginning to see, however, is that the resulting ownership structure consequent is that the resulting ownership structure consequent to such privatization has been leading into even to such privatization has been leading into even further concentration of ownership such that, at the further concentration of ownership such that, at the present time, only a few transnational corporations present time, only a few transnational corporations own and control much of our global mass own and control much of our global mass communication media.communication media.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo As a result, these global media owners are able As a result, these global media owners are able

to control to control whowho and and whatwhat gets represented, and gets represented, and howhow they are represented in the media even they are represented in the media even more powerfully than the isolated governments more powerfully than the isolated governments could. could.

o Eg., Australian media’s coverage of women in Eg., Australian media’s coverage of women in sports:sports:o In the period from 1980 to 1988, Australian In the period from 1980 to 1988, Australian

newspaper coverage of women’s sport rose from newspaper coverage of women’s sport rose from only 2% of total sports reporting space to only 2.5%, only 2% of total sports reporting space to only 2.5%, while in space devoted to sports results women’s while in space devoted to sports results women’s sport actually fell from 12% to 8% of all sports sport actually fell from 12% to 8% of all sports results, and there continued to be 12 times as many results, and there continued to be 12 times as many photographs of men’s sports than of women’s sports.photographs of men’s sports than of women’s sports.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo Eg., American media coverage of East Timor Eg., American media coverage of East Timor

(Chomsky):(Chomsky):o During the 1970s the Indonesian government carried out During the 1970s the Indonesian government carried out

atrocities on the East Timorese that were equivalent to atrocities on the East Timorese that were equivalent to those perpetrated by Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge forces in those perpetrated by Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge forces in Cambodia, but the American media did not report this Cambodia, but the American media did not report this equally. There were, for instance, 70 column inches of Index equally. There were, for instance, 70 column inches of Index listings in the listings in the New York TimesNew York Times Index referring to East Timor Index referring to East Timor stories, compared to 1175 inches of Index listings for stories stories, compared to 1175 inches of Index listings for stories on Cambodia.on Cambodia.

o This disparity in coverage can be explained by the fact that This disparity in coverage can be explained by the fact that the USA was involved with the Indonesian government and the USA was involved with the Indonesian government and was implicated in arms sale to Indonesia.was implicated in arms sale to Indonesia.

o The church and other sources estimated about two hundred The church and other sources estimated about two hundred thousand people killed in the conflict over East Timor. The thousand people killed in the conflict over East Timor. The US backed it all the way. The US provided 90% of the arms US backed it all the way. The US provided 90% of the arms

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo for the conflict. Right after Indonesia’s invasion of East for the conflict. Right after Indonesia’s invasion of East

Timor arms shipments were stepped up. There is no Timor arms shipments were stepped up. There is no Western concern for issues of aggression, atrocities, Western concern for issues of aggression, atrocities, human rights, abuses, and so on if there’s profit to be human rights, abuses, and so on if there’s profit to be made from them. As the atrocities reached their made from them. As the atrocities reached their maximum peak in 1978 when it really was becoming maximum peak in 1978 when it really was becoming genocidal, media coverage dropped to zero in the genocidal, media coverage dropped to zero in the United States and Canada.United States and Canada.

o When the media you rely on for information about the When the media you rely on for information about the world around you are owned by male corporation CEOs world around you are owned by male corporation CEOs who also happen to be a major armaments contractors, it who also happen to be a major armaments contractors, it becomes easier to understand the reasons behind such becomes easier to understand the reasons behind such biased representations. biased representations.

o Unfortunately, without democratic safeguards, Unfortunately, without democratic safeguards, privatization of the media has not served the privatization of the media has not served the actualization of the democratic potential of mass actualization of the democratic potential of mass communication.communication.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo It has often led to further transformation of the It has often led to further transformation of the

mass media into instruments for furthering the mass media into instruments for furthering the political and ideological interests of a few—political and ideological interests of a few—without even the claim for serving the public without even the claim for serving the public interest anymore, as the government media had interest anymore, as the government media had to claim for to claim for theirtheir legitimacy. legitimacy.

o The seemingly well-founded fear about the The seemingly well-founded fear about the political and ideological use of the media lies political and ideological use of the media lies behind many of the debates about who has the behind many of the debates about who has the right to media ownership; about the public right to media ownership; about the public ownership of radio waves; about whether the ownership of radio waves; about whether the decentralized, communal fabric of the Internet decentralized, communal fabric of the Internet needs the catch-all remedy of privatization or needs the catch-all remedy of privatization or not.not.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo The The secondsecond line of media research in the US in the line of media research in the US in the

1930s and 1940s is represented by the work of the 1930s and 1940s is represented by the work of the Frankfurt School of Critical SociologyFrankfurt School of Critical Sociology, sometimes , sometimes referred to simply as “referred to simply as “Critical TheoryCritical Theory.” They were .” They were critical Marxists based in Frankfurt, Germany, who critical Marxists based in Frankfurt, Germany, who analyzed the role of the media in Europe and Germany analyzed the role of the media in Europe and Germany in the 1930s but had to flee from Hitler’s regime and in the 1930s but had to flee from Hitler’s regime and sought refuge in the US. They continued their work by sought refuge in the US. They continued their work by analyzing American media in the 1940s and 1950s analyzing American media in the 1940s and 1950s and returned to Germany after Hitler’s downfall.and returned to Germany after Hitler’s downfall.

o The two principal theorists of the school, Max The two principal theorists of the school, Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno, saw the media as a Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno, saw the media as a culture industry that maintained power relations and culture industry that maintained power relations and served to lessen the resistance standards of cultural served to lessen the resistance standards of cultural aesthetics by theaesthetics by the

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo popularization and standardization of certain types popularization and standardization of certain types

of culture. The values perpetuated by the media of culture. The values perpetuated by the media were contradictory to the values of the radical were contradictory to the values of the radical Enlightenment tradition.Enlightenment tradition.

o They believed that the masses are “dumbed” by the They believed that the masses are “dumbed” by the banality of the media. Their ability to function as banality of the media. Their ability to function as citizens in a democratic state is replaced by their citizens in a democratic state is replaced by their ceaseless consumption of culture or products, or ceaseless consumption of culture or products, or both.both.

o And they suggested that capitalist control of the And they suggested that capitalist control of the mass media was one of the reasons why capitalism mass media was one of the reasons why capitalism survived in the post-war period (via indoctrination survived in the post-war period (via indoctrination and manipulation of the masses and promotion of and manipulation of the masses and promotion of false consciousness).false consciousness).

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo In the US most other media research was conducted In the US most other media research was conducted

by sociologists and psychologists who were interested by sociologists and psychologists who were interested in trying to measure in trying to measure media effectsmedia effects. These studies . These studies reflected concern over, for example, the effect of reflected concern over, for example, the effect of screen violence and crime on children. screen violence and crime on children.

o Effects researchEffects research is an industry onto itself that feeds is an industry onto itself that feeds from and feeds the fear of media effects. And yet it from and feeds the fear of media effects. And yet it has proven most difficult to measure the effects of the has proven most difficult to measure the effects of the media because it is impossible to control intervening media because it is impossible to control intervening variables and establish a causal relationship between variables and establish a causal relationship between the variables one is interested in outside laboratory the variables one is interested in outside laboratory conditions—the only context where one is able to conditions—the only context where one is able to control intervening variables and claim a causal control intervening variables and claim a causal relationship. (Note also, however, that laboratory relationship. (Note also, however, that laboratory conditions have been faulted for lacking ecological conditions have been faulted for lacking ecological validity—that “real life” conditions are different.)validity—that “real life” conditions are different.)

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo From the 1960s onwards, the media began to be From the 1960s onwards, the media began to be

examined in terms of ideology. This was largely a result examined in terms of ideology. This was largely a result of the social upheaval of the times. The anti-Vietnam of the social upheaval of the times. The anti-Vietnam war movement and the strikes of workers and students war movement and the strikes of workers and students led to a more critical analysis. Effects studies were led to a more critical analysis. Effects studies were criticized for asking the wrong questions. More criticized for asking the wrong questions. More specifically, it was argued that the “effects model”specifically, it was argued that the “effects model”

Tackled social problems backwards (it should start with Tackled social problems backwards (it should start with perpetrators of violence, not with mass media);perpetrators of violence, not with mass media);

Was ignorant of the social reasons of the violence/crime;Was ignorant of the social reasons of the violence/crime; Was based on faulty methodology (for example, it saw Was based on faulty methodology (for example, it saw

correlation as causality);correlation as causality); Was based on conservative assumptions such as Was based on conservative assumptions such as

attributing to the media the function of the preservation attributing to the media the function of the preservation of the status quo;of the status quo;

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communication Was selective in its criticisms of media depictions Was selective in its criticisms of media depictions

of violence;of violence; Ignored the signification or meaning-making Ignored the signification or meaning-making

process of the media;process of the media; Saw children as inadequate non-adults;Saw children as inadequate non-adults; Saw the masses as infantile and inferior;Saw the masses as infantile and inferior; Was not grounded in theory.Was not grounded in theory.

o One line of research that developed from this era One line of research that developed from this era has been the has been the Political EconomyPolitical Economy approach which approach which basically argues that the media will serve the basically argues that the media will serve the interests of whoever owns and controls them–interests of whoever owns and controls them–whether this be private individuals interested in whether this be private individuals interested in profit or governments interested in political control.profit or governments interested in political control.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo The political economy approach involves conducting research The political economy approach involves conducting research

into who owns and controls the media and what government into who owns and controls the media and what government legislation is in place relating to the media, in order to legislation is in place relating to the media, in order to determine what effects this has on media output.determine what effects this has on media output.

o Eg., George Gerbner: “It’s a paradoxical fact that while Eg., George Gerbner: “It’s a paradoxical fact that while channels proliferate, we have many more channels than channels proliferate, we have many more channels than ever before…at the same time ownership shrinks; so what ever before…at the same time ownership shrinks; so what happens is fewer owners own more channels and happens is fewer owners own more channels and therefore can program the same materials across many therefore can program the same materials across many channels; therefore instead of more channels creating channels; therefore instead of more channels creating greater diversity they seem to be creating greater greater diversity they seem to be creating greater homogeneity, greater uniformity, greater standardization homogeneity, greater uniformity, greater standardization and greater globalization…they can say to overseas and greater globalization…they can say to overseas channels we can sell you an hour’s worth of programming channels we can sell you an hour’s worth of programming for less money than it would cost you to produce on your for less money than it would cost you to produce on your own…this proposition is economically so attractive…it’s a own…this proposition is economically so attractive…it’s a standardized, marketing formula.standardized, marketing formula.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo The exclusive focus on the media output in much of The exclusive focus on the media output in much of

this research has been criticized for assuming that this research has been criticized for assuming that the audience are passive receivers. It is argued the audience are passive receivers. It is argued that audiences make choices of their own, and that that audiences make choices of their own, and that by their decision to consume certain products and by their decision to consume certain products and not others they get to have a big say in what gets not others they get to have a big say in what gets produced and what doesn’t. produced and what doesn’t.

o Additionally, audiences make their own meaning of Additionally, audiences make their own meaning of texts. They will not necessarily be brainwashed by texts. They will not necessarily be brainwashed by what they consume. This has given rise to a new what they consume. This has given rise to a new line of research that focuses on what the audiences line of research that focuses on what the audiences do with the media products that are offered them, do with the media products that are offered them, a line of research that is called, appropriately a line of research that is called, appropriately enough, enough, audience researchaudience research..

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo There is one other aspect of the debate around There is one other aspect of the debate around

media power however: the idea that the way media media power however: the idea that the way media products are structurally organized affects the way products are structurally organized affects the way they present information. Two of the key terms used they present information. Two of the key terms used in this context are “agenda setting,” and “gate in this context are “agenda setting,” and “gate keepers,” terms most often used in relation to the keepers,” terms most often used in relation to the spread of news and current affairs.spread of news and current affairs.

o The media are often drawn to give more weight to The media are often drawn to give more weight to the viewpoints of official institutions than to the viewpoints of official institutions than to “alternative” viewpoints. They allow or privilege “alternative” viewpoints. They allow or privilege certain voices, certain voices, the agenda settersthe agenda setters, to come through , to come through the media broadcasting gateway.the media broadcasting gateway.

o This is not necessarily a deliberate conspiracy;This is not necessarily a deliberate conspiracy;

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo There are various “practical” reasons for it: the fact There are various “practical” reasons for it: the fact

that “news” is deemed to happen in parliament or the that “news” is deemed to happen in parliament or the law courts; the reliance on official spokespeople and law courts; the reliance on official spokespeople and experts to comment on events; and the use of experts to comment on events; and the use of journalists themselves (who select and present the journalists themselves (who select and present the news). Furthermore, many broadcasters rely on news-news). Furthermore, many broadcasters rely on news-gathering organizations to supply their stories for them gathering organizations to supply their stories for them in the interests of cheaper journalism. All these are in the interests of cheaper journalism. All these are part of the gate-keeping process. The net result is that part of the gate-keeping process. The net result is that “alternative” and often “relevant” voices are selected “alternative” and often “relevant” voices are selected out and can’t make it through the gateways of the out and can’t make it through the gateways of the media.media.

o The way news is organized on a daily basis, with The way news is organized on a daily basis, with limited time and a need to maintain popular ratings, limited time and a need to maintain popular ratings, leads to simplification and sensationalization of events.leads to simplification and sensationalization of events.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo Consequently, audiences rarely receive a complex Consequently, audiences rarely receive a complex

understanding of events with explanations that cover long-understanding of events with explanations that cover long-term causes; the focus is on what happened “today” and how term causes; the focus is on what happened “today” and how the situation changes hour by hour so that each new bulletin the situation changes hour by hour so that each new bulletin will have something more immediate. In this “sound bite” era will have something more immediate. In this “sound bite” era the use of striking headlines and good pictures predominates. the use of striking headlines and good pictures predominates. There is a stress on individuals to personalize stories, which There is a stress on individuals to personalize stories, which tends to simplify them.tends to simplify them.

o See Tom Tomorrow cartoon on p. 14.See Tom Tomorrow cartoon on p. 14.o TVTV: Coming up next on the news: terrifying inexplicable : Coming up next on the news: terrifying inexplicable

events occurring in far-away places, presented without events occurring in far-away places, presented without historical or sociological context.historical or sociological context.

o ManMan: Geez. Looks pretty bad out there!: Geez. Looks pretty bad out there!o WomanWoman: I’m certainly glad we’re safe here at home.: I’m certainly glad we’re safe here at home.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo We started by highlighting the fear of political and We started by highlighting the fear of political and

ideological manipulation of the masses through the ideological manipulation of the masses through the media and discussed how this fear led to Media media and discussed how this fear led to Media Studies.Studies.

o There have been other fears that compelled some of There have been other fears that compelled some of the people to study the media as well. These people the people to study the media as well. These people feared that the media would devalue a society’s feared that the media would devalue a society’s culture because what they produce is so worthless. culture because what they produce is so worthless. This is best illustrated in the debates around the This is best illustrated in the debates around the relative importance of so-called “high” and “low” relative importance of so-called “high” and “low” culture. culture. High cultureHigh culture is supposedly the “great art” is supposedly the “great art” produced by a society—art that is morally uplifting, produced by a society—art that is morally uplifting, complex, and serious. It is said to be found in such complex, and serious. It is said to be found in such cultural products as opera, painting, and “great” cultural products as opera, painting, and “great” literature. It is elitist because only the privileged, literature. It is elitist because only the privileged, educated, and rich have full and easy access to it.educated, and rich have full and easy access to it.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo Low or “popular” culture, on the other hand, is what Low or “popular” culture, on the other hand, is what

the “masses” consume; it is found in magazines, the “masses” consume; it is found in magazines, mass-market paperbacks, popular cinema, and mass-market paperbacks, popular cinema, and television. Critics of low culture deride it as morally television. Critics of low culture deride it as morally degrading and simple.degrading and simple.

o Traditionally, low culture has been denigrated as Traditionally, low culture has been denigrated as inferior and potentially damaging, and the fact that it inferior and potentially damaging, and the fact that it was a product of mass media was used to disparage it.was a product of mass media was used to disparage it.

o Such oppositions are partly the product of class-Such oppositions are partly the product of class-divided societies—high culture is the province of the divided societies—high culture is the province of the ruling and middle class, the bourgeoisie; low culture is ruling and middle class, the bourgeoisie; low culture is the province of the working classes. But it is the province of the working classes. But it is interesting to note politically that both right-wing interesting to note politically that both right-wing conservatives and left-wing radicals have disapproved conservatives and left-wing radicals have disapproved of low culture and the popular mass media;of low culture and the popular mass media;

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo the right wing seeing the media as offering a diet the right wing seeing the media as offering a diet

of cheap, tawdry, corrupt entertainments, the left-of cheap, tawdry, corrupt entertainments, the left-wing seeing it as a political sweetener acting to wing seeing it as a political sweetener acting to distract the workers from their political grievances.distract the workers from their political grievances.

o Since the 1970s, with the advent of the “new left,” Since the 1970s, with the advent of the “new left,” there has been much study of popular culture in there has been much study of popular culture in media studies. This is partly because of its huge media studies. This is partly because of its huge audiences—if so many people are consuming it, it audiences—if so many people are consuming it, it is important to understand it—but also in an is important to understand it—but also in an attempt to validate it, to avoid seeing it as inferior attempt to validate it, to avoid seeing it as inferior to high culture.to high culture.

o ““Cultural Studies” studies all forms of culture, not Cultural Studies” studies all forms of culture, not only “high culture.”only “high culture.”

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated CommunicationCultural Studies: Content Analysis vs Textual AnalysisCultural Studies: Content Analysis vs Textual Analysiso Content analysisContent analysis goes after the goes after the

content/message/meaning of communication by asking content/message/meaning of communication by asking the question “what?” (Eg., “What is communicated?”) the question “what?” (Eg., “What is communicated?”) They count, for instance, the number of times a word They count, for instance, the number of times a word like “rose” occurs in the media text, assuming that like “rose” occurs in the media text, assuming that every time we come across the word “rose” it means every time we come across the word “rose” it means the same thing/identity/meaning/reality.the same thing/identity/meaning/reality.

o Textual analysisTextual analysis conducted in the field of cultural conducted in the field of cultural studies is informed by poststructural linguistics, studies is informed by poststructural linguistics, psychoanalysis, and deconstruction, and points out that psychoanalysis, and deconstruction, and points out that depending on the particular textual weaving of the depending on the particular textual weaving of the word into the textual fabric, its word into the textual fabric, its meaning/identity/reality/truth may change. They, meaning/identity/reality/truth may change. They, therefore, look at how the word is used, how it is woven therefore, look at how the word is used, how it is woven into the textual fabric. They ask the question “how?”into the textual fabric. They ask the question “how?”

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo Content analysis originally developed in America Content analysis originally developed in America

alongside effects studies by researchers who were alongside effects studies by researchers who were mainly sociologists and psychologists.mainly sociologists and psychologists.

o Cultural Studies originally developed in Europe. The Cultural Studies originally developed in Europe. The Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) at Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) at Birmingham University was particularly influential Birmingham University was particularly influential among English speaking researchers. CCCS brought among English speaking researchers. CCCS brought together literary and historical approaches alongside together literary and historical approaches alongside Marxist, feminist, and (post-)structuralist linguistic Marxist, feminist, and (post-)structuralist linguistic theories, combining a body of critical theory with theories, combining a body of critical theory with political concerns.political concerns.

o Like the political economy approach, it is interested Like the political economy approach, it is interested in questions of political power and the social role of in questions of political power and the social role of the media.the media.

7 Mass Mediated Communication7 Mass Mediated Communicationo A significant area of its work has been in A significant area of its work has been in

understanding popular culture and issues of understanding popular culture and issues of representation, alongside examination of the role representation, alongside examination of the role and position of the audience, and wider contextual and position of the audience, and wider contextual studies.studies.

o Since the mid 1960s, media study has grown in Since the mid 1960s, media study has grown in Australia, Europe, and America, in schools, colleges, Australia, Europe, and America, in schools, colleges, and universities, so that it now stands as an and universities, so that it now stands as an important and popular academic area in its own important and popular academic area in its own right. It is possible to find a variety of media right. It is possible to find a variety of media courses: mass communications, media studies, courses: mass communications, media studies, cultural studies, film and screen studies, journalism, cultural studies, film and screen studies, journalism, and so on. These are built, to different degrees, on and so on. These are built, to different degrees, on an interdisciplinary method, and present a mixture an interdisciplinary method, and present a mixture of critical, practical, and vocational approaches.of critical, practical, and vocational approaches.

The Media: Pro and ConThe Media: Pro and Con The media’s huge The media’s huge

range of cultural range of cultural information and information and entertainment entertainment contributes to the contributes to the development of development of popular knowledge. popular knowledge. People are more People are more aware and better aware and better educated through the educated through the media than ever media than ever beforebefore

The media offer The media offer people a repetitive people a repetitive diet of worthless diet of worthless trivia. Like bread trivia. Like bread and circuses, they and circuses, they cater to the lowest cater to the lowest intellectual abilities intellectual abilities and keep people and keep people moronicallymoronically content. content.

The Media: Pro and ConThe Media: Pro and Con

The media can The media can inspire and inspire and develop us, develop us, actively actively encouraging us to encouraging us to do new things in do new things in our lives.our lives.

The media make The media make us passive us passive observers— observers— “couch “couch potatoes”—and we potatoes”—and we thereby lose the thereby lose the ability to think or ability to think or act for ourselves.act for ourselves.

The Media: Pro and ConThe Media: Pro and Con The media are The media are

truthful and truthful and informative, and informative, and they make a major they make a major contribution to contribution to democracy and democracy and social social accountability, accountability, offering us a window offering us a window on the world.on the world.

The media are a The media are a series of false series of false constructions constructions serving minority serving minority political interests.political interests.


The media are The media are democratic, democratic, allowing all allowing all people a voice in people a voice in the world.the world.

The media serve The media serve commercial commercial interests and are interests and are totally controlled totally controlled by multinational by multinational corporations and corporations and advertisers.advertisers.


The media enable The media enable free thought and free thought and speech to be speech to be disseminated.disseminated.

The media are in The media are in the business of the business of controlling our controlling our consciousness, consciousness, thereby controlling thereby controlling who we are and who we are and how we think. how we think. Access to the Access to the media is limited.media is limited.


The media are The media are shrinking the shrinking the globe, uniting us globe, uniting us and bringing us and bringing us closer together, closer together, creating a “global creating a “global village.”village.”

The media are The media are making us all the making us all the same and same and destroying destroying minority cultures.minority cultures.


The media give The media give space to the space to the voices of different voices of different social groups and social groups and cultures.cultures.

The media are a The media are a form of cultural form of cultural imperialism, imperialism, whereby dominant whereby dominant cultures impose cultures impose their values on their values on less powerful less powerful cultures.cultures.


The media are an The media are an agent for social agent for social change.change.

The media The media maintain the maintain the status quo.status quo.

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Documents

COMM101 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION Instructor s Assist. Prof. Dr. Nurten Kara (Group1) & Assist. Prof. Dr. Melek Atabey (Group2)