COMM 250 Agenda - Week 8

Housekeeping

• RP1 Due Today – Put in Folders• C2: Outline a Paper - Due 10/29

(ask your teammates for help!)

Lecture

• Finish - Ethics in Research (SR4)

• Reliability & Validity (FBK 5)

• Textual Analysis (FBK 9)

• ITE 8

Ethics in Research

Ethics• From the Greek Ethos (“Character”)

• Moral Principles, Recognized Rules of Conduct

• Every Field Has Specific Ethical Codes

Research Ethics• Abuses Led to a Code for Human Subjects

• The Belmont Report

• Every Univ has an Institutional Review Board

Ethics in Research

Basic Ethical Principles• Respect for Persons

• Beneficence

• Justice

The Application of These Principles• Informed Consent

• Information

• Comprehension

• Voluntary Participation

The Structure of the University

The Duties of a Professor• Teaching, Research, Service

• Emphasis: Research vs. Teaching

Promotion and Tenure• The Purpose of Tenure

• Criteria for P&T

• 2, 4, and 6 Year Reviews

Professional Ethics• Teaching, Research, Service

ValidityValidity = AccuracyInternal Validity = Accuracy of Conclusions (was the study

designed & executed so it yields accurate conclusions?)

External Validity = Generalizability of Findings (can conclusions be generalized to other groups/things/times?)

• Internal validity must exist before there can be external validity• Validity is a ‘conceptual’ issue – there is no number computed

Types of Internal Validity• Content Validity (does the instrument measure the concept

intended?)

• Criterion-related Validity (an instrument is related to an established scale or instrument)

• Construct Validity (scores on an instrument are related logically to other established measures)

Reliability

Reliability = Repeatability

The likelihood that a measurement/instrument will yield the same value/description if repeated

Types of Reliability• Test-Retest (using the same procedure at 2 different times)

• Alternate Forms (using 2 equivalent procedures)

• Split-Half (splitting an instrument and comparing scores in both halves)

• Intercoder reliability (having multiple coders evaluate materials)

Threats to Validity

Threats Due to How the Research is Conducted• History (Longitudinal Studies affected by change over time)

• Sleeper Effect (Not apparent at the time)

• Sensitization (Practice or familiarity can affect performance)

Threats Due to Research Participants• Hawthorne Effect (Special treatment changes scores)

• Selection Bias (Self selection rather than random sampling)

• Ceiling/Floor Effects, and Regression Toward the Mean

Threats Due to the Researchers• Personal Attribute Effect (Ambiguous task, or hypothesis about R.)

• Unintentional Expectancy Effect (Unconscious different treatment)

• Observational Bias (Observer bias, halo effect)

In-Class Team Exercise # 8 - Part I:

A researcher surveyed 200 sophomores at GMU and gave them Dr. Finn’s IM survey (the one used in RP1). She found that 53% of the respondents objected to the use of cell phones in restaurants.

She published the results, and (among other things) concluded that “approximately 53% of all 18-22 year old Americans object to the use of cell phones in restaurants.”

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Based on the above information ONLY:

How much can you say about the Internal Validity of the Study?

How much can you say about the External Validity of the Study?

List all the limitations that might bear on the above conclusion.

Textual Analysis(Our Second Research Method)

Purpose: To Describe / Interpret a “Text”• Can Literally be a Written “Text”

• Can Also be an Image, Recorded Message, etc.

Four Major Approaches• Rhetorical Criticism

• Performance Studies

• Interaction Analysis

• Content Analysis

Review: The Research Process

Conceptualization• Start with / Develop a Theory and Hypotheses

Planning & Designing Research• Selecting Variables of Interest (IV, DV, Control vars)• Operationalize all Variables (i.e., How to measure the vars?)• Design a Study to Test Hypotheses

Methods for Conducting Research• Plan the Study and Collect the Data

Analyzing & Interpreting Data• Run Statistics and Interpret Results

Re-Conceptualization• Back to the Drawing Board

Three (3) Units of Analysis

Individuals• Likely Voters, College Students, Taxpayers,

Catholics, Children under 18, Lawyers

Artifacts• Magazine Ads, Newspaper Editorials, TV

Shows, Inaugural Addresses, Trees

Groups• Political Parties, Universities, States, Counties,

Churches, 100-Level Classes, Forests

Rhetorical Criticism

“A systematic method for describing, analyzing, interpreting, & evaluating the persuasive force of messages embedded within texts”

Uses / Purposes• Explain the purpose of a message

• Understand historical, social, & cultural contexts

• Used as social criticism

• Aid theory building

• To teach persuasion

Rhetorical Criticism

Types• Classical Rhetoric (public speaking – Aristotle)• Contemporary Rhetoric (many types)• Eg.: President Bush’s Rhetoric Pre- and Post- Sept. 11

The Process• Choose a text• Choose a specific type of rhetorical criticism• E.g., Historical, Biographical, Genre, etc.

• Analyze the text based on the method• Write the critical essay

Interaction AnalysisUsed to describe and analyze human interactions

Types• Examine interaction styles

• Examine types of statements

The Process• Choose a sample (of interactions to analyze)

• Choose a method or set of categories (e.g., Bales)

• Unitize (define a “speech utterance”)

• Analyze the Data

• Write it up

Interaction Analysis – Example

Bales’ “Interaction Process Analysis” Categories:

1. Shows Solidarity

2. Shows Tension Release

3. Agrees

4. Gives Suggestion

5. Gives Opinion

6. Gives Orientation

7. Asks for Orientation

8. Asks for Opinion

9. Asks for Suggestions

10. Disagrees

11. Shows Tension

12. Shows Antagonism

Content AnalysisTo identify, enumerate, & analyze occurrences of specific

message characteristics in texts

Types• Qualitative CA (Meaning is key, not # of times)• Quantitative CA (to answer specific questions)

The Process• Selecting the Texts• Determining an “Observation”• Developing Content Categories• Training Coders• Analyzing the Data (including intercoder reliability)• Describing the Results

Content Analysis - Example

Magazine Alcohol Ads• Size of Ad

• Brand Advertised

• The Presence or Absence (1 vs. 0) of:• the Product (or the number of times product is

represented, or its size in the ad)• # of Human Models (Age, Gender, Race)• Activity (Activity, is Drinking Portrayed?)• Setting (Indoor, Outdoor, None)• A Range of Specific Themes & Appeals

In-Class Team Exercise # 8 - Part II:

Produce a Team Version (only):

Suppose your team is very interested in the content of technology ads (in general interest magazines)

Create:

• A set of categories detailing the “objective” components of any technology-related ad• E.g., ad size, brand/company, use of human models,

setting/pictures, etc.

• Create the exact items/questions a coder would be asked to use (complete with “bubbles” for coding)

• but do NOT tackle “themes and appeals” – yet----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Deliverable: a written version

In-Class Team Exercise # 8 - Part III:Produce a Team Version (only):

Suppose your team is very interested in the content of technology ads (in general interest magazines)

Create:• A set of categories detailing the “Objective”

components of any ad (including ad size, use of human models, setting/pictures)

• A set of general “themes and appeals” that are, or might be, used in technology ads in magazines• Think of them as “Appeals to ________”• Come up with at least 10 themes

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Deliverable: a written version