COMM 100:Semester Overview

John A. Cagle, Ph.D.Communication

California State University, Fresno

COMM 100

Theories of Human Communication is a course designed to introduce upper division students to communication theory from a scientific perspective.

THEORY

A theory is a scientific account of phenomena.

At a minimum it is a strategy for handling observations in research, providing a conceptual system for describing and explaining.

Darnell's definition of theory

"A theory is a set of statements, including some lawlike generalizations, systematically and logically related such that the set implies something about reality.

It is an argument that purports to provide a necessary and sufficient explanation for a range of phenomena.

It must be capable of corrigibility--that is, it must be possible to disconfirm or jeopardize it by making observations.

A theory is valuable to the extent that it reduces the uncertainty about the outcome of a specific set of conditions."

an identification of the components or conceptual categories by which we classify the elements of a system;

a specification of the characteristics of these components; and

a specification of a set of laws in conformity with which states of the system precede or succeed each other.

A theory includes

Law: As centrality increases, rank increases.

Antecedent conditions:

C1

C2

C3 …

Cn

___________Consequent conditions

E

Theory of Small Group Influence

Centrality

Observability

Conformity

Influence Rank

Source: T.K. Hopkins, The Exercise of Influence in Small Groups

Think of True Love – what factors produce true love, maintain it, or destroy it?

Take out a piece of paper & write down four of these main factors

Theory of True Love

TRUST+ ATTITUDE+ RECIPROCITY+ COMMITMENT+_< add your own >_

= True Love

Cagle’s Dirty Joke Theory:Some Independent Variables

SOURCE: attraction, age, sex, status, attitude, credibility, skill. . .

MESSAGE: clarity, language, timing, delivery, organization, content. . .

RECEIVER: attitude, age, sex, status, attitude, perception of source. . .

CHANNEL: live, VHS, print, book, email. . .

Cagle’s Dirty Joke Theory:Some Dependent Variables

LAUGHTER

DISGUST

CONFUSION

PHYSICAL

LEAVING

COMPREHENSION

ATTITUDE CHANGE

Etc.

Cagle’s Dirty Joke Theory:Variables

JOKE + SOURCE + MESSAGE + RECEIVER + CHANNEL= LAUGHTER + SHOCK + CONFUSION

MIXED SEX + DIRTY JOKE = SHOCK

SAME SEX + DIRTY JOKE = HILARITY

COMMUNICATION

Communication is a complex, pervasive phenomena.

Virtually every human endeavor involves communication in some way.

Consequently, there are a great many communication theories--each, in its own way, appropriate to those aspects of the phenomena germane to its purpose.

Communication Mosaic: A Metaphor

First, the metaphor of a mosaic offers a theoretical orientation to illumine the inter-connectedness among all communication theories.

Second, it provides an overview of some of the more interesting, provocative, and heuristic theories within the major types of communication theories.

Meaning is created from bits and pieces which our mind puts together into a gestalt.

I cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty uesdnatnrd waht I was rdgnieg

The phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer inwaht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe. Amzanig huh? yaeh and I awlyas thought slpeling was ipmorantt!

Meaning Is Created

Becker’s Mosaic Model of Message

The main dimensions of the mosaic model:

Context Function Intention Variable Level of analysis Analytic and synthetic properties Audience

SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

Two Imperatives of Science• Verifiability

• Corrigibility

Philosophical Approaches• Rules

• Systems

• Laws

Ideal Process in Science

Verifiability & Corrigibility

Kaplan links

Kaplan’s “styles of thinking” from The Conduct of Inquiry

Hugh Duncan and Kenneth Burke

Theories Reflect Kaplan's Levels of Thinking

Literary Academic Eristic Symbolic Postulational Formal

Analytic is the logical character of scientific statements

Synthetic is the empirical character of scientific statements

Incr

easi

ng A

naly

tic

Rig

or

Increasing Synthetic Rigor

Literary theories

Academic theories

Eristic theories

PostulationalEmpirical loadings

Formal Math—No empirical loadings

Kaplan’s Styles of Thinking

NOIR: Kinds of Observation

Nominal: something is observed and given a name (e.g., hostile, leader, task)

Ordinal: things in the nominal category are given a relationship to one another (e.g., tall-short, better-worse, etc.)

Interval: numbers to label things with a relationship have precise distance between them (e.g., 8 is twice as much as 4)

Ratio: there is a zero point in observation (e.g., speech preparation, number of words)

Investigation

Select a phenomenon and list all its characteristics.

Measure all of these characteristics in a variety of situations.

Analyze the observations to determine if there are any patterns worthy of further attention.

If patterns have been found in the observations, state these patterns as theoretical statements.

Investigational Paradigm

Experimental Paradigm

Confirming Research

Develop a theory. Select a statement generated by the theory

(hypothesis) for comparison with observation (empirical research).

Design a research project to “test” the chosen statement’s by observation.

If the statement derived from the theory does not correspond with observational results, make appropriate changes in the theory or in the research design and continue with the research.

If the statement from the theory corresponds with the results of the research, select additional statements for testing and/or apply theory in world with some confidence.

Criteria to Evaluate Theories

Theoretical scope Appropriateness Heuristic value Validity Parsimony Openness [a new one]

What parts of the mosaic comprise the theory? What parts are left out?

  Scientific Humanistic

Epistemology Discover the truth Create meaning

Human Nature Determinism Free will

Value Priority Objectivity Emancipation

Purpose of Theory Give universal laws Give rules for interpretation

Research Methods Experiment and Survey Textual analysis and ethnography

Standards for Evaluation

Explanation of dataPrediction of futureRelative simplicityTestable hypothesesPractical utility

Understanding of peopleClarification of valuesAesthetic appealCommunity of agreementReform society

Ron Wright, University of Arizona

CRITERIANecessary Desirable

Logically consistent Consistent with

accepted facts Testable

Simple Parsimonious Consistent with

related theories Interpretable: explain

and predict Useful Pleasing to the mind

Functions: Theories help us to…

Organize and summarize knowledge Focus our attention on important variables &

relationships Clarify our interpretation of observations Know what and how to observe the event Explain and predict the event

Functions: Theories help us to…

Think of new directions and questions to research (heuristic function)

Frame our communication with others about the phenomena

Control the phenomena through judging effectiveness against a norm

THEORY, RESEARCH, AND TECHNOLOGY: Dynamic Isomorphism

There exists a dynamic isomorphism among reality, phenomena, theory, research design, instrumentation, statistical analysis, and computer technology.

More elements are involved, but these illumine the character of science as we move into the 21st Century.

Isomophism is the identity in form and substance between all of these “constructions of reality.”

Isomophism is the identity in form and substance between all of these “constructions of reality.”

There's a face... and the word liar

What do

What do you see?

Diversity in Theory: Making sense of it all

Traditions & Approaches to Communication

Communication Contexts Application, Function, and Purpose

TRADITIONS [Littlejohn & Foss]

The Semiotic Tradition: study of how signs come to represent objects, ideas, states, situations, feelings, and conditions outside of themselves.

The Phenomenological Tradition: study of how people actively interpret their experience and come to understand the world by personal experiences with it.

The Cybernetic Tradition: study of complex systems in which many interacting elements influence one another.

TRADITIONS

The Sociopsychological Tradition: study of the individual as a social being—behavior and the personal traits and cognitive processes that produce behavior.

The Sociocultural Tradition: study of the ways our understandings, meanings, roles, norms, and rules are worked out interactively in communication.

The Critical Tradition: study of questions of privilege and power—how race, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, income level, etc. identity and social differences.

The Rhetorical Tradition: study of ways humans use symbols to affect those around them and construct the worlds in which they live.

ILLUSTRATIVE APPROACHES

Public Speaking Approaches: the Rhetorical Tradition

Trait Approaches Persuasion Approaches Verbal Behavior Approaches Nonverbal Behavior Approaches

The Rhetorical Tradition

Plato & Aristotle: Rhetoric as tool to discover and use truth in governing society

Cicero & Quintilian: Public speaking and leadership as essential skills for citizenship

Capella: Rhetoric as a foundation of all learning (the Liberal Arts)

St. Augustine: Something to do until you get into heaven

Bacon: Rhetoric needed for advancement of science

Adam Smith: Rhetoric and the belles lettres

Cagle: Why don’t my students take notes?

In all centuries, rhetoric

. . . responds to what’s going on in the world, but enables and effects the world of which it is a part

• War gives rise to political exigencies

• Depressions give rise to problem solving

• Prosperity gives rise to self-actualization

In the 20th Century. . . .

Rhetorical theory extended to all forms of communication, including writing &literature and small groups & problem solving

Rhetorical principles were applied to new media such as radio, television, newspapers, computers, etc.

Trait Approaches

Traits are consistent communication behaviors across contexts

Personality traits: persuasibility, self-esteem, dogmatism, introversion

Communication apprehension and willingness to communicate

Social style and self-disclosure Aggression and assertiveness traits

Persuasion Approaches

Variable analytic: • message structure,

• message appeals, and

• language variables

Source credibility Cognitive dynamics theories (attitudes)

Verbal Behavior Approaches

Metaphor and stylistic devices Language intensity Lexical diversity Evidence Fear appeals Supportive and defensive messages

Nonverbal Behavior Approaches

Affective-cognitive dimensions Functions and relationships Nonverbal codes:

• kinesics,

• vocalics,

• proximics, etc.

COMMUNICATION CONTEXTS

Interpersonal Contexts Small Group and Organizational

Contexts Mass Media Contexts Intercultural Contexts

Interpersonal Contexts

Social exchange Stages in relationship development and

decline: strangers to intimacy Interpersonal circumplex Self-concept and interpersonal attraction

Small Group and Organizational Contexts

Encounter groups and growth groups Problem solving and decision making Conflict management and resolution Networks and organizations Leadership and management

Mass Media Contexts

Two-step flow Diffusion of innovations Uses and gratifications Social role of media: stereotypes Advertising and propaganda

Intercultural Contexts

Cultures are big damn groups Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Rules and roles High and low context Standpoint theory International communication

APPLICATIONS

Political communication and power Agitation and control: social change Religious communication Psychology and Counseling Business: sales, management,

marketing

Government: management Health communication Education Entertainment Legal communication: civil and criminal

Let’s go back to the beginning and get

started. . . .