Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e1 Chapter 3 Models of Abnormality Slides & Handouts by Karen Clay Rhines, Ph.D. Seton Hall University

Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e 1

Chapter 3

Models of Abnormality

Slides & Handouts by Karen Clay Slides & Handouts by Karen Clay Rhines, Ph.D.Rhines, Ph.D.

Seton Hall UniversitySeton Hall University


Models of Abnormality

• Paradigms: the perspectives used to explain phenomena (abnormal behavior for this class)– Biological model– Psychodynamic model– Behavioral model– Cognitive model– Humanistic-Existential model– Sociocultural model


The Biological Model

• Takes a medical perspective

• Main focus is that psychological abnormality is an illness brought about by malfunctioning parts of the organism– Typically focused on the brain

4


How Do Biological Theorists Explain Abnormal Behavior?

• Brain chemistry– Researchers have identified dozens of NTs

• Examples: serotonin, dopamine, and GABA

– Studies indicate that abnormal activity in certain NTs can lead to specific mental disorders

• Examples: depression (serotonin and norepinephrine) and anxiety (GABA)



• Brain chemistry– Additionally, researchers have learned that mental

disorders are sometimes related to abnormal chemical activity in the endocrine system

– Hormone release, triggered by a variety of factors, propels body organs into action. Abnormal secretions have been linked to psychological disorders

• Example: cortisol release is related to anxiety and mood disorders



• Sources of biological abnormalities – Genetics – Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, each with

numerous genes that control the characteristics and traits a person inherits

– Studies suggest that inheritance plays a part in mood disorders, schizophrenia, mental retardation, Alzheimer’s disease, and other mental disorders

• Aren’t able (yet) to identify specific genes• Don’t know the extent to which genetic factors contribute to

disorders– Seems no SINGLE gene is responsible for a particular

behavior or disorder




• Sources of biological abnormalities – Viral infections – Infection provides another possible source of

abnormal brain structure or biochemical dysfunction

• Example: schizophrenia and prenatal viral exposure

– Interest in viral explanations of psychological disorders has been growing in the past decade

• Example: anxiety and mood disorders


Biological Treatments

• Biological practitioners attempt to pinpoint the physical source of dysfunction to determine the course of treatment

• Three types of biological treatment:– Drug therapy– Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)– Psychosurgery



• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT):– Currently experiencing a revival– Used for depression when drugs and other

therapies have failed• In 60% of cases, ECT can lift symptoms within a

few weeks



• Psychosurgery (or neurosurgery):– Historical roots in trephination– 1930s = first lobotomy– Much more precise than in the past– Considered experimental and used only in

extreme cases


Assessing the Biological Model

• Weaknesses:– Can limit rather than

enhance our understanding

• Too simplistic– Evidence is

incomplete or inconclusive

– Treatments produce significant undesirable (negative) effects

• Strengths:– Enjoys considerable

respect in the field– Fruitful

• Creates new therapies• Suggests new avenues

of research


Sometimes a cigar is just a cigar!

http://skepdic.com/graphics/freud.jpg


The Psychodynamic Model

• Oldest and most famous psychological model• Based on belief that a person’s behavior

(whether normal or abnormal) is determined largely by underlying dynamic psychological forces of which she or he is not aware– Abnormal symptoms are the result of conflict among

these forces• Father of psychodynamic theory and

psychoanalytic therapy: – Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939)


How Did Freud Explain Normal and Abnormal Functioning?• Freud says abnormal behavior is caused

by three UNCONSCIOUS forces:1. Id – guided by the Pleasure Principle

• Instinctual needs, drives, & impulses• Sexual; fueled by libido (sexual energy)

2. Ego – guided by the Reality Principle• Seeks gratification but guides us to know when

we can & can’t express our wishes• Ego defense mechanisms protect us from

anxiety


How Did Freud Explain Normal and Abnormal Functioning?• Caused by three UNCONSCIOUS forces:

3. Superego – guided by the Morality Principle• Conscience; unconsciously adopted from our parents

• These three parts of the personality are often in conflict– A healthy personality is one in which compromise

exists among the three forces– If the id, ego, and superego are in excessive conflict,

the person’s behavior may show signs of dysfunction


How Did Freud Explain Normal and Abnormal Functioning?• Developmental stages

– Freud proposed that at each stage of development, new events and pressures require adjustment in the id, ego, and superego

• If successful → personal growth• If unsuccessful → fixation at an early

developmental stage, leading to psychological abnormality

– Because parents are the key figures in early life, they are often seen as the cause of improper development


How Did Freud Explain Normal and Abnormal Functioning?• Developmental stages

– Oral (0 to 18 months of age)– Anal (18 months to 3 years of age)– Phallic (3 to 5 years of age)– Latency (5 to 12 years of age)– Genital (12 years of age to adulthood)


How Do Other Psychodynamic Explanations Differ from Freud’s?

• Although current models deviate from Freud’s in important ways, each retains the belief that human functioning is shaped by dynamic (interacting) forces:– Ego theorists

• Emphasize the role of the ego; consider it independent

– Self theorists• Emphasize the unified personality over any one component

– Object-relations theorists• Emphasize the human need for interpersonal relationships


Psychodynamic Therapies

• Range from Freudian psychoanalysis to more modern therapies

• All seek to uncover past trauma and inner conflicts– Understanding early life experience critically

important

• Therapist acts as “subtle guide”


Psychodynamic Therapies

• Utilize various techniques:– Free association– Therapist interpretation

• Resistance• Transference• Dream interpretation

– Catharsis– Working through


Assessing the Psychodynamic Model

• Strengths:– First to recognize

importance of psychological theories & treatment

– Saw internal conflict as important source of psychological health and abnormality

– First to apply theory and techniques systematically to treatment – monumental impact on the field

• Weaknesses:– Unsupported ideas;

difficult to research• Non-observable• Inaccessible to human

subject (unconscious)


The Behavioral Model

• Like the psychodynamic perspective, behaviorism is deterministic, and is based on the idea that our actions are determined largely by our life experiences

• Emphasizes observable behavior and environmental factors

• Focuses on how behavior is acquired (learned) and maintained over time


The Behavioral Model

• Historical beginnings in laboratories where conditioning studies were conducted– Three forms of conditioning (learning):

• Operant conditioning • Modeling• Classical conditioning

– May produce normal or abnormal behavior


How Do Behaviorists Explain Abnormal Functioning? • Operant conditioning

– Organism “operates” on environment and produces an effect

– Humans and animals learn to behave in certain ways as a result of receiving rewards whenever they do so


How Do Behaviorists Explain Abnormal Functioning? • Modeling

– Individuals learn behavioral responses by observing and repeating behavior

• No direct reinforcement


How Do Behaviorists Explain Abnormal Functioning?

• Classical conditioning – Learning by temporal association

• When two events repeatedly occur close together in time, they become fused in a person’s mind; before long, the person responds in the same way to both events

– Father of classical conditioning: Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936)

• Classic study using dogs & meat powder


Classical Conditioning

UR

Salivate

UR

Salivate

US

Meat

Tone

CS

Tone

CR

Salivate

US

Meat+


How Do Behaviorists Explain Abnormal Functioning?

• Classical conditioning – If, after conditioning, the CS is repeatedly

presented alone, it will eventually stop eliciting the CR

• This process is called extinction

– Explains many familiar behaviors (both normal and abnormal)


Behavioral Therapies

• Aim is to identify the behaviors that are causing problems and replace them with more appropriate ones – May use classical conditioning, operant

conditioning, or modeling

• Therapist is “teacher” rather than healer– Early life experiences important only in

providing clues to current learning


Behavioral Therapies

• Classical conditioning treatments may be used to change abnormal reactions to particular stimuli– Example: systematic desensitization for

phobia• Step-by-step procedure

– Learn relaxation skills– Develop a fear hierarchy– Confront feared situations (covertly or in vivo)


Assessing the Behavioral Model

• Strengths:– Powerful force in the

field– Rooted in empiricism

• Phenomena can be observed and measured

– Significant research support for behavioral therapies

• Weaknesses:– Too simplistic– Unrealistic– Downplays role of

cognition • New focus on self-

efficacy, social cognition, and cognitive-behavioral theories


The Cognitive Model

• Seeks to account for behavior by studying the ways in which the person attends to, interprets, and uses available information

• Argues that clinicians must ask questions about assumptions, attitudes, and thoughts of a client– Concerned with internal processes– Present-focused


How Do Cognitive Theorists Explain Abnormal Functioning?

• Maladaptive thinking is the cause of maladaptive behavior– Several kinds of faulty thinking:

• Faulty assumptions and attitudes• Illogical thinking processes

– Example: overgeneralization


Cognitive Therapies

• People must be taught a new way of thinking to prevent maladaptive behavior

• Main model: Beck’s Cognitive Therapy• The goal of therapy is to help clients recognize and

restructure their thinking– Therapists guide clients to challenge dysfunctional

thoughts, try out new interpretations, and apply new ways of thinking in their daily lives

• Widely used in treating depression


Assessing the Cognitive Model

• Strengths:– Very broad appeal– Clinically useful & effective– Focuses on a uniquely

human process– Correlation between

symptoms and maladaptive cognition

– Therapies effective in treating several disorders

• Adapt well to technology

– Research-based

• Weaknesses:– Singular, narrow focus– Overemphasis on the

present– Limited effectiveness– Verification of

cognition is difficult• Precise role is hard to

determine


The Humanistic-Existential Model

• Combination model– The humanist view

• Emphasis on people as friendly, cooperative, and constructive; focus on drive to self-actualization

– The existentialist view• Emphasis on self-determination, choice, and

individual responsibility; focus on authenticity


Rogers’ Humanistic Theory and Therapy

• Basic human need for unconditional positive regard– If received, leads to unconditional self-regard– If not, leads to “conditions of worth”

• Incapable of self-actualization because of distortion – don’t know what they really need, etc.

• Rogers’ “client-centered” therapy– Therapist provides unconditional positive regard

• Both accurate & genuine in reflection (reflective listening)• Focus on the “experiencing person”• Little research support


Existential Theories and Therapy

• Psychological dysfunction is caused by self-deception: people hide from life’s responsibilities and fail to recognize that it is up to them to give meaning to their lives

• Therapy is focused on patient acceptance of personal responsibility and recognition of freedom of action– Goals more important than technique– Great emphasis placed on client-therapist

relationship


Assessing the Humanistic-Existential Model

• Strengths:– Emphasizes the

individual– Taps into domains

missing from other theories

• Non-deterministic

– Optimistic– Emphasizes health

• Weaknesses:– Focuses on abstract

issues• Difficult to research

– Not much influence– Weakened by

disapproval of scientific approach

• Changing somewhat


The Sociocultural Model

• Argues that abnormal behavior is best understood in light of the social and cultural forces that influence an individual– Addresses norms and roles in society

• Influenced by sociology and anthropology• Argues that we must examine a person’s

social surroundings to understand their (abnormal) behavior


How Do Sociocultural Theorists Explain Abnormal Functioning?

• Focus on:– Societal labels & roles

• Diagnostic labels (example: Rosenhan study)• Sick role

– Social networks and support



• Focus on:– Family structure and communication

• Family systems theory = abnormal functioning within family leads to abnormal behavior (insane behavior becomes sane in an insane environment)

– Examples: enmeshed, disengaged structures



• Focus on:– Culture

• Set of values, attitudes, beliefs, history, and behaviors shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to the next

• “Multicultural” psychology is a growing field of study



• Focus on:– Religion and spirituality

• For most of the twentieth century, clinical scientists viewed religion as a negative factor in mental health but this alienation now seems to be ending:

– Researchers have begun to systematically study the influence of religion and spirituality on mental health

– Many therapists now address spiritual issues when treating religious clients


Sociocultural Treatments

• May include traditional individual therapy• Broadened therapy to include:

– Culturally sensitive therapy– Group therapy– Family therapy– Couple therapy– Community treatment

• Includes prevention work


Assessing the Sociocultural Model

• Strengths:– Added greatly to the

clinical understanding of abnormality

• Increased awareness of labeling

– Clinically successful when other treatments have failed

• Weaknesses:– Research is difficult to

interpret• Correlation causation

– Model unable to predict abnormality in specific individuals


Integration of the Models

• Each perspective is valuable to understanding abnormal behavior

• Different perspectives are more appropriate under differing conditions

• An integrative approach provides a general framework for thinking about abnormal behavior, and also allows for specification of the factors that are especially pertinent to particular disorders



• Many theorists, clinicians, and practitioners adhere to a biopsychosocial model– Abnormality results from the interaction of

genetic, biological, developmental, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social, and societal influences

• Also popular:– Diathesis-stress approach

• Diathesis = predisposition (bio, psycho, or social)

– Reciprocal effects explanation



• Integrative therapists are often called “eclectic” – taking the strengths from each model and using them in combination

Documents

Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 6e1 Chapter 3 Models of Abnormality Slides & Handouts by Karen Clay Rhines, Ph.D. Seton Hall University