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CHARLES E. BAUKAL, JR.

BAUKAL

2 DESIGN AND OPERATIONS Vol. 2

The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook, Second Edition: Volume 2 Design and Operations Edited by Charles E. Baukal, Jr.,

John Zink Company LLC, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA

2nd Edition

Editor

THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY COMBUSTION HANDBOOK

www.crcpress.com

K11815ISBN: 978-1-4398-3964-5

9 781439 839645

9 0 0 0 0

Combustion

Despite the length of time it has been around, its importance, and vast amounts of research,

combustion is still far from being completely understood. Issues regarding the environment, cost,

and fuel consumption add further complexity, particularly in the process and power generation

industries. Dedicated to advancing the art and science of industrial combustion, The John Zink

Hamworthy Combustion Handbook, Second Edition: Volume 2 Design and Operations serves

as a field manual for operators, engineers, and managers working in design and operations.

Under the leadership of Charles E. Baukal, Jr., top engineers and technologists from John Zink

Hamworthy Combustion examine equipment design and operations in the context of the process

and power generation industries. Coverage includes testing, installation, maintenance, and

troubleshooting. This second volume features color illustrations and photographs throughout,

and extensive appendices contain property data relevant to industrial combustion equipment and

processes.

Whats New in This Edition

Expanded to three volumes, with Volume 2 focusing on equipment design and operations

Extensive updates and revisions throughout, reflecting new standards, energy sources,

processes, and conservation concerns

New material on combustion diagnostics and testing

Updated material on safety and combustion controls

New material on metallurgy, refractories, and blowers

Expanded coverage of burners, flares, and thermal oxidizers, including testing, operations, and

troubleshooting

More property data useful for the design and operation of combustion equipment

The second of three volumes in the new, expanded edition of the bestselling handbook, this

volume helps you broaden your understanding of industrial combustion design and operations to

better meet the challenges of this field.

K11815_COVER_final.indd 1 1/23/13 3:31 PM

THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY

COMBUSTIONHANDBOOKSECOND EDITION

Volume 2DESIGN AND OPERATIONS

IndustrIal combustIon serIesSeries Editors:

Charles E. Baukal, Jr.

The Coen & Hamworthy Combustion Handbook: Fundamentals for Power, Marine & Industrial Applications

Stephen Londerville and Charles E. Baukal, Jr.

The John Zink Hamworthy Combustion Handbook, Second Edition Volume 1 Fundamentals

Volume II Design and Operations Volume II1 Applications

Charles E. Baukal, Jr.

Industrial Burners HandbookCharles E. Baukal, Jr.

The John Zink Combustion HandbookCharles E. Baukal, Jr.

Computational Fluid Dynamics in Industrial CombustionCharles E. Baukal, Jr., Vladimir Gershtein, and Xianming Jimmy Li

Heat Transfer in Industrial CombustionCharles E. Baukal, Jr.

Oxygen-Enhanced CombustionCharles E. Baukal, Jr.

THE JOHN ZINK HAMWORTHY

COMBUSTIONHANDBOOKSECOND EDITION

Edited by

Charles E. Baukal, Jr.

Volume 2DESIGN AND OPERATIONS

CRC PressTaylor & Francis Group6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLCCRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government worksVersion Date: 20130111

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-3965-2 (eBook - PDF)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

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v 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents

List of Figures .......................................................................................................................................................................... viiList of Tables ...........................................................................................................................................................................xxvForeword to the First Edition ............................................................................................................................................ xxviiPreface to the First Edition ...................................................................................................................................................xxixPreface to the Second Edition ..............................................................................................................................................xxxiAcknowledgments ............................................................................................................................................................. xxxiiiEditor..................................................................................................................................................................................... xxxvContributors ....................................................................................................................................................................... xxxviiPrologue to the First Edition ..................................................................................................................................................xli

1. Safety.................................................................................................................................................................................... 1Charles E. Baukal, Jr.

2. Combustion Controls ...................................................................................................................................................... 45Rodney Crockett and Jim Heinlein

3. Blowers for Combustion Systems ................................................................................................................................ 73John Bellovich and Jim Warren

4. Metallurgy ........................................................................................................................................................................ 95Wes Bussman, Garry Mayfield, Jason D. McAdams, Mike Pappe, and Jon Hembree

5. Refractory for Combustion Systems .......................................................................................................................... 133Jim Warren

6. Burner Design ................................................................................................................................................................ 151Richard T. Waibel, Michael G. Claxton, and Bernd Reese

7. Combustion Diagnostics .............................................................................................................................................. 173Wes Bussman, I.-Ping Chung, and Jaime A. Erazo, Jr.

8. Burner Testing ................................................................................................................................................................ 191Jaime A. Erazo, Jr. and Thomas M. Korb

9. Flare Testing ................................................................................................................................................................... 203Charles E. Baukal, Jr. and Roger Poe

10. Thermal Oxidizer Testing ........................................................................................................................................... 227Bruce C. Johnson and Nathan S. Petersen

11. Burner Installation and Maintenance ....................................................................................................................... 245William Johnson, Mike Pappe, Erwin Platvoet, and Michael G. Claxton

12. Burner/Heater Operations ........................................................................................................................................... 299William Johnson, Erwin Platvoet, Mike Pappe, Michael G. Claxton, Richard T. Waibel, andJasonD. McAdams

13. Burner Troubleshooting ............................................................................................................................................... 331William Johnson, Erwin Platvoet, Mike Pappe, Michael G. Claxton, and Richard T. Waibel

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2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

14. Flare Operations, Maintenance, and Troubleshooting .......................................................................................... 377Robert E. Schwartz and Zachary L. Kodesh

15. Thermal Oxidizer Installation and Maintenance ................................................................................................... 395Dale Campbell

16. Thermal Oxidizer Operations and Troubleshooting ............................................................................................. 415Dale Campbell

Appendix A: Units and Conversions ................................................................................................................................ 437

Appendix B: Physical Properties of Materials ................................................................................................................ 447

Appendix C: Properties of Gases and Liquids ............................................................................................................... 463

Appendix D: Properties of Solids ..................................................................................................................................... 507

vii 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Test heater that has been overpressured ........................................................................................................ 2

Figure 1.2 Fire tetrahedron ................................................................................................................................................. 5

Figure 1.3 Metal mesh shielding personnel from hot exhaust stack ............................................................................ 8

Figure 1.4 Insulated temporary ductwork ........................................................................................................................ 8

Figure 1.5 Radiation from a viewport ............................................................................................................................... 9

Figure 1.6 Stainless steel fence shielding flow control equipment from thermal radiation during flare testing .................................................................................................................................................................. 9

Figure 1.7 Radiometer for measuring thermal radiation .............................................................................................. 10

Figure 1.8 Viewport with shutter ..................................................................................................................................... 10

Figure 1.9 Heat resistant suit ............................................................................................................................................ 10

Figure 1.10 Quarter wave tube on a propylene vaporizer .............................................................................................. 11

Figure 1.11 Silencers ............................................................................................................................................................. 12

Figure 1.12 Natural draft burner with no air inlet muffler ............................................................................................ 12

Figure 1.13 Natural draft burner with an air inlet damper ........................................................................................... 12

Figure 1.14 Typical muffler for a radiant wall-fired natural draft burner ................................................................... 12

Figure 1.15 Large mufflers on two natural draft burners............................................................................................... 13

Figure 1.16 Large mufflers on two radiant wall burners ................................................................................................ 13

Figure 1.17 Two enclosed flares .......................................................................................................................................... 14

Figure 1.18 Typical muffler used on a natural draft burner........................................................................................... 14

Figure 1.19 Sound pressure versus frequency with and without a muffler ................................................................ 15

Figure 1.20 Cylindrical muffler on a suction pyrometer ................................................................................................ 15

Figure 1.21 Typical ear plugs .............................................................................................................................................. 15

Figure 1.22 Typical ear muffs ............................................................................................................................................. 15

Figure 1.23 Ear muffs designed to be used with hard hats............................................................................................ 16

Figure 1.24 Pressurized gas cylinders located outside a building where gases are used in a lab inside the building ............................................................................................................................................................. 17

Figure 1.25 Tube rupture in a fired heater ........................................................................................................................ 17

Figure 1.26 Trapped steam in a dead-end that can freeze and cause pipe failure...................................................... 17

Figure 1.27 CO detector. ...................................................................................................................................................... 20

Figure 1.28 Flare stack explosion due to improper purging .......................................................................................... 21

Figure 1.29 Burner damaged from a flashback ................................................................................................................ 23

Figure 1.30 Premix burner lifting off ................................................................................................................................ 23

Figure 1.31 Coen iScan flame detector ............................................................................................................................ 24

Figure 1.32 Typical continuous emission measurement system ................................................................................... 25

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Figure 1.33 Typical in situ analyzer ................................................................................................................................... 25

Figure 1.34 Rubber mat over tripping hazard .................................................................................................................. 28

Figure 1.35 Safety tape around test apparatus ................................................................................................................. 29

Figure 1.36 Furnace camera ................................................................................................................................................ 29

Figure 1.37 Emergency stop pushbuttons in a control room ......................................................................................... 29

Figure 1.38 Emergency stop pushbutton next to a sight port on a test furnace .......................................................... 30

Figure 1.39 Liquid fuel containment for diesel storage tanks ....................................................................................... 30

Figure 1.40 Example of a cabinet used to store flammables........................................................................................... 30

Figure 1.41 NO, CO, O2, and combustible analyzers in a combustion laboratory ...................................................... 31

Figure 1.42 Example of a containment system designed to keep potentially hazardous fluids from leaking onto the ground. ............................................................................................................................................... 31

Figure 1.43 Example of safety signs on the outside of a building ................................................................................. 31

Figure 1.44 Fire alarm system in a combustion test facility ........................................................................................... 32

Figure 1.45 Large portable fire extinguisher .................................................................................................................... 32

Figure 1.46 Emergency pull ring to shut down the entire facility ................................................................................ 33

Figure 1.47 Examples of safety and medical kits ............................................................................................................. 33

Figure 1.48 Emergency shower ........................................................................................................................................... 33

Figure 1.49 Wind sock.......................................................................................................................................................... 34

Figure 1.50 Vapor pressures for light hydrocarbons ....................................................................................................... 36

Figure 1.51 Ethylene oxide plant explosion caused by autoignition ............................................................................. 38

Figure 1.52 Photo of a flame arrestor. ................................................................................................................................ 38

Figure 1.53 Safety documentation feedback flowchart ................................................................................................... 39

Figure 1.54 Aerial photos of Phillips 66 Incident in Pasadena, TX, on October 23, 1989 ........................................... 40

Figure 2.1 Programmable logic controller. ...................................................................................................................... 47

Figure 2.2 Touchscreen ...................................................................................................................................................... 48

Figure 2.3 Simplified flow diagram of a standard burner light-off sequence ........................................................... 49

Figure 2.4 Simple analog loop .......................................................................................................................................... 50

Figure 2.5 Feedforward loop............................................................................................................................................. 50

Figure 2.6 Double-block-and-bleed system. ................................................................................................................... 51

Figure 2.7 Fail-safe input to PLC ...................................................................................................................................... 51

Figure 2.8 Shutdown string. .............................................................................................................................................. 52

Figure 2.9 Master fuel trip circuit .................................................................................................................................... 53

Figure 2.10 Typical pipe rack .............................................................................................................................................. 54

Figure 2.11 (a) Large control panel. (b) Small control panel ........................................................................................... 55

Figure 2.12 Inside the large control panel. ........................................................................................................................ 55

Figure 2.13 Two different types of pressure switches. .................................................................................................... 56

Figure 2.14 Pneumatic control valve. ................................................................................................................................. 58

ixList of Figures

2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 2.15 Control valve characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 58

Figure 2.16 Thermocouple ................................................................................................................................................... 59

Figure 2.17 Thermowell and thermocouple. ..................................................................................................................... 59

Figure 2.18 Velocity thermocouple. .................................................................................................................................... 60

Figure 2.19 Pressure transmitter (left) and pressure gage (right). ................................................................................. 60

Figure 2.20 Mechanically linked parallel positioning. ................................................................................................... 62

Figure 2.21 Electronically linked parallel positioning. ................................................................................................... 63

Figure 2.22 A variation of parallel positioning ................................................................................................................ 64

Figure 2.23 Fuel flow rate versus control signal .............................................................................................................. 64

Figure 2.24 Typical butterfly-type valve calculation ....................................................................................................... 65

Figure 2.25 The required shape of the air valve characterizer ...................................................................................... 65

Figure 2.26 Fully metered control scheme ........................................................................................................................ 66

Figure 2.27 Fully metered control scheme with cross limiting ..................................................................................... 66

Figure 2.28 O2 trim of airflow rate ..................................................................................................................................... 67

Figure 2.29 O2 trim of air SP ............................................................................................................................................. 68

Figure 2.30 Multiple fuels and O2 sources ........................................................................................................................ 68

Figure 2.31 Controller .......................................................................................................................................................... 69

Figure 2.32 Analog controller with manual reset. ........................................................................................................... 69

Figure 2.33 Analog controller with automatic reset. ....................................................................................................... 70

Figure 3.1 A centrifugal fan .............................................................................................................................................. 74

Figure 3.2 Fan wheel designs. ........................................................................................................................................... 74

Figure 3.3 A vane axial fan ............................................................................................................................................... 75

Figure 3.4 A purge air blower on the side of a combustion chamber ......................................................................... 75

Figure 3.5 A multistage high-speed centrifugal blower for a landfill application.................................................... 75

Figure 3.6 Fan drive arrangements for centrifugal fans AMCA standard 99-2404-03. ............................................ 76

Figure 3.7 An arrangement 4 fan...................................................................................................................................... 77

Figure 3.8 Basic centrifugal fan curve ............................................................................................................................. 79

Figure 3.9 Basic vane axial fan curve. .............................................................................................................................. 79

Figure 3.10 Basic centrifugal fan curve with HP. ............................................................................................................. 79

Figure 3.11 Forward-tip blade operating curve for 1780 RPM, 70F, and 0.075 lb/ft3 density ................................... 80

Figure 3.12 Backward-curved blade operating curve for 1780 RPM 70F and 0.075 lb/ft3 density. ......................... 80

Figure 3.13 One primary and one backup fan in the field with ducting. ..................................................................... 81

Figure 3.14 Six-blade vane axial fan in the field. .............................................................................................................. 81

Figure 3.15 Outlet damper effects on fan performance .................................................................................................. 83

Figure 3.16 Inlet damper effects on fan performance ..................................................................................................... 83

Figure 3.17 Centrifugal fan with inlet and outlet dampers............................................................................................ 83

Figure 3.18 Speed change effects on fan performance. ................................................................................................... 84

x List of Figures

2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Figure 3.19 Variable and controlled pitch change effects on fan performance ........................................................... 84

Figure 3.20 Close-up of variable pitch blades on a vane axial fan ................................................................................ 84

Figure 3.21 Close-up of a flexible coupling. ...................................................................................................................... 85

Figure 3.22 A belt-driven centrifugal blower ................................................................................................................... 86

Figure 3.23 Oil-lubricated bearing with reservoir ........................................................................................................... 86

Figure 3.24 Maintenance of arrangement 8 bearings. ..................................................................................................... 87

Figure 3.25 Fan foundation ................................................................................................................................................. 87

Figure 3.26 Inlet and outlet expansion joints for vibration isolation of ducting ......................................................... 88

Figure 3.27 Outlet damper fan curve with HP ................................................................................................................ 90

Figure 3.28 Inlet damper fan curve with HP. ................................................................................................................... 91

Figure 3.29 Speed control fan curve with HP. .................................................................................................................. 91

Figure 4.1 Electron microscope image of corroded carbon steel. ................................................................................ 97

Figure 4.2 Electron microscope image of chromium oxide layer on SS surface ....................................................... 98

Figure 4.3 Magnified view of SS showing grain boundary where the steel is rich in chromium content. .......... 99

Figure 4.4 Magnified view showing intergranular corrosion. ..................................................................................... 99

Figure 4.5 Magnified view showing crack propagating across the grain boundary due to stress corrosion cracking ........................................................................................................................................................... 100

Figure 4.6 Magnified view showing removal of the oxide scale from an alloy surface due to thermal cycling .......100

Figure 4.7 Magnified view showing the cross section of an alloy suffering from sulfidation attack. ................. 101

Figure 4.8 Corrosion of carbon steel process equipment located along the Texas coastline. ................................ 102

Figure 4.9 Metal dusting on an inlet tube of a heat exchanger unit ......................................................................... 103

Figure 4.10 Charpy impact test apparatus. ..................................................................................................................... 104

Figure 4.11 Charpy impact test specimens of carbon steel at 50F (10C) ............................................................. 104

Figure 4.12 Results of Charpy impact tests for high-carbon steel, low-carbon steel, and austenitic SS. ............... 104

Figure 4.13 Normalizing of a forged carbon steel specimen. (a) Magnified view of grain structure before normalizing and (b) after normalizing. The normalizing process involved heating the specimen to 1600F and then allowing it to cool in still air. .................................................................... 104

Figure 4.14 Process burner schematic. ............................................................................................................................. 105

Figure 4.15 Oxide scale formed on the outer surface of process tubes....................................................................... 109

Figure 4.16 Heater process tubes coated with ceramic ..................................................................................................110

Figure 4.17 Rupture process tube after long-term overheating. ...................................................................................111

Figure 4.18 Ruptured process heater tube. ......................................................................................................................111

Figure 4.19 (a) Process tubes lying on top of a burner. (b) Tubes pulled from the radiant section oftheheater ......111

Figure 4.20 (a) Failure of a process heater tube. (b) Close-up view of ruptured tube .............................................. 112

Figure 4.21 Large crack in a process tube used in a SMR. ........................................................................................... 112

Figure 4.22 External corrosion of a heater process tube ............................................................................................... 112

Figure 4.23 Various two-phase flow regimes that can occur in process heater tubes ..............................................113

Figure 4.24 A vacuum heater tube showing signs of oxidation due to stratified two-phase flow ..........................113

xiList of Figures

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Figure 4.25 Sagging process tube due to high-temperature creep. ..............................................................................113

Figure 4.26 Rupture strength of low-carbon steel and 300-series SS at various temperatures ...............................114

Figure 4.27 Damage to a burner caused by a failure of a support system upstream in the coker reactor .............114

Figure 4.28 Damage to a control valve due to sulfidation corrosion ...........................................................................114

Figure 4.29 Damaged oil burner fuel nozzle. ..................................................................................................................114

Figure 4.30 Orifice spud in service for 10 years. .............................................................................................................115

Figure 4.31 Center fuel gas burner tip showing signs of corrosion damage due to high-temperature oxidation. .... 115

Figure 4.32 (a) Corroded burner tip and (b) new burner tip. ........................................................................................116

Figure 4.33 Photographs of erosioncorrosion damage of a tip from a PSA burner gas ..........................................116

Figure 4.34 Flame retention segments located around the inside perimeter of the flare tip ...................................117

Figure 4.35 Scale and loss of a pilot tip due to sulfidation attack ................................................................................118

Figure 4.36 (a) External burning on flare tip and (b) pilot that was positioned on the downwind side of the flare tip suffered extreme corrosion damage to the windshield. ............................................................119

Figure 4.37 Pilot that was positioned on the downwind side of the flare tip suffered extreme corrosion damage to the windshield. ............................................................................................................................119

Figure 4.38 (a) Internal burning on an air-assisted flare and (b) failure of an air-assisted flare due to stress corrosion cracking ......................................................................................................................................... 120

Figure 4.39 (a) Inspection by helicopter of steam leaking from underneath a steam-assisted flare tip and (b)close-up view showing a ruptured lower steamring. ........................................................................ 121

Figure 4.40 Deterioration to the inlet of the lower steam educator tube due to flame impingement for an extended period of time. ............................................................................................................................... 121

Figure 4.41 Deterioration of a steam spider due to flame impingement for an extended period of time ............. 122

Figure 4.42 Binary ironcarbon phase diagram. ........................................................................................................... 122

Figure 4.43 Typical TTT diagram for medium-carbon steel. ....................................................................................... 123

Figure 4.44 Typical TTT diagram for medium-carbon alloy steel AISI 4340. ............................................................ 123

Figure 4.45 Maximum hardness versus % carbon by weight. ..................................................................................... 124

Figure 4.46 Tensile and bend specimens ........................................................................................................................ 124

Figure 4.47 Solidification cracking susceptibility .......................................................................................................... 125

Figure 4.48 Penetrant testing the connection welds of a flare ..................................................................................... 126

Figure 4.49 Dye penetrant indication example. ............................................................................................................. 126

Figure 4.50 Magnetic particle testing of gas piping using the AC yoke dry method .............................................. 127

Figure 4.51 (a) Radiographic testing of flare component welds using an iridium 192 radioactive source in a containment vaultand (b) radiographic film image of a weld as viewed in a prescribed darkened room .... 128

Figure 4.52 An ultrasonic, angle-beam apparatus (foreground) with the resulting signal..................................... 129

Figure 4.53 Positive material identification using a handheld analyzer on a process burner riser pipe to confirm the material type ............................................................................................................................. 130

Figure 4.54 Metallographic replicas taken from a flare tip during fabrication. ........................................................ 131

Figure 5.1 Example of everyday refractory. .................................................................................................................. 134

Figure 5.2 Several raw materials used in making refractory. .................................................................................... 135

Figure 5.3 Drawing representing glue phase. .............................................................................................................. 135

xii List of Figures

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Figure 5.4 Photograph demonstrating glue phase. ...................................................................................................... 135

Figure 5.5 Chemically bonded plastic pieces ............................................................................................................... 136

Figure 5.6 Installation of plastic ..................................................................................................................................... 136

Figure 5.7 Plastic refractory anchoring system. ........................................................................................................... 136

Figure 5.8 Common firebricks ........................................................................................................................................ 137

Figure 5.9 Shapes and sizes of standard bricks. ........................................................................................................... 138

Figure 5.10 Example of labor-intensive brick installation. ........................................................................................... 139

Figure 5.11 Firebricks cut and installed in a circular pattern. ..................................................................................... 139

Figure 5.12 Use of pogo sticks to ensure brick is properly seated. .............................................................................. 139

Figure 5.13 Example of many different types of ceramic refractory. .......................................................................... 139

Figure 5.14 Refractory blanket. ......................................................................................................................................... 139

Figure 5.15 Ceramic refractory anchoring components ............................................................................................... 140

Figure 5.16 Illustration of anchors penetrating through refractory ............................................................................ 140

Figure 5.17 Photograph of installed ceramic refractory. ............................................................................................... 140

Figure 5.18 Relationship of different refractory physical properties ...........................................................................141

Figure 5.19 Difference between single- and multiple-component lining....................................................................141

Figure 5.20 Several different wire anchors and components. ..................................................................................... 142

Figure 5.21 Examples of different anchoring ................................................................................................................. 143

Figure 5.22 Typical anchor spacing ................................................................................................................................. 143

Figure 5.23 Several different vee-type anchors.............................................................................................................. 144

Figure 5.24 Example of footed wavy V-anchor installation. ........................................................................................ 144

Figure 5.25 Anchor welding.............................................................................................................................................. 144

Figure 5.26 Extensive use of wavy anchors .................................................................................................................... 144

Figure 5.27 Anchor distance below refractory surface ................................................................................................. 145

Figure 5.28 Example of steel fibers. .................................................................................................................................. 146

Figure 5.29 Example of cold drawn fibers. ..................................................................................................................... 146

Figure 5.30 Example of chopped fibers ........................................................................................................................... 146

Figure 5.31 Example of curl anchors. ............................................................................................................................... 147

Figure 5.32 Example of K-bar anchors. ............................................................................................................................ 147

Figure 5.33 Example of S-bar anchors. ............................................................................................................................ 147

Figure 5.34 Example of refractory failure ....................................................................................................................... 148

Figure 5.35 Prequalifying work. ....................................................................................................................................... 148

Figure 5.36 Example of vessel having refractory spray installed. ............................................................................... 148

Figure 5.37 Example of adequate personnel and equipment. ...................................................................................... 149

Figure 5.38 Example of poured refractory in a mold .................................................................................................... 149

Figure 5.39 Cracked refractory ......................................................................................................................................... 150

Figure 6.1 Graph of sustainable combustion for methane. ......................................................................................... 153

Figure 6.2 Typical raw gas burner tips .......................................................................................................................... 154

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Figure 6.3 Typical premix metering orifice spud and air mixer assembly............................................................... 154

Figure 6.4 Typical gas fuel capacity curve. ................................................................................................................... 155

Figure 6.5 Internal mix twin fluid atomizer (EA style). .............................................................................................. 155

Figure 6.6 Internal mix twin fluid atomizer (MEA style). .......................................................................................... 155

Figure 6.7 Port mix twin fluid atomizer (PM style). .................................................................................................... 156

Figure 6.8 Typical liquid fuel capacity curve ............................................................................................................... 156

Figure 6.9 Typical throat of a raw gas burner. .............................................................................................................. 157

Figure 6.10 Ledge in the burner tile. ................................................................................................................................ 160

Figure 6.11 Flame stabilizer or flame holder .................................................................................................................. 160

Figure 6.12 Swirler. ..............................................................................................................................................................161

Figure 6.13 Round-shaped flame.......................................................................................................................................161

Figure 6.14 Flat-shaped flame. ...........................................................................................................................................162

Figure 6.15 (a) Regen tile and (b) swirler. ........................................................................................................................ 165

Figure 6.16 Combustor schematic. ................................................................................................................................... 165

Figure 6.17 View combustor with organ set ................................................................................................................... 166

Figure 6.18 Front view to the organ set of a combustor ................................................................................................ 166

Figure 6.19 Axial velocity within combustion chamber (cold air flow model) ..........................................................167

Figure 6.20 Combustor flame. ............................................................................................................................................167

Figure 6.21 Standard combustor normalFD combustor short ..................................................................................167

Figure 6.22 Typical conventional raw gas burner. ......................................................................................................... 168

Figure 6.23 Typical premix gas burner. ........................................................................................................................... 168

Figure 6.24 Typical round flame combination burner. ................................................................................................. 169

Figure 6.25 Typical round flame, high-intensity combination burner........................................................................ 169

Figure 6.26 Typical staged-fuel flat flame burner .......................................................................................................... 169

Figure 6.27 Typical radiant wall burner. ......................................................................................................................... 170

Figure 6.28 Downfired burners in a hydrogen reformer furnace ............................................................................... 170

Figure 7.1 U-tube manometer ..........................................................................................................................................174

Figure 7.2 The Bourdon pressure gauge. ........................................................................................................................174

Figure 7.3 Internal view of the Bourdon pressure gauge ........................................................................................... 175

Figure 7.4 Basic components of a Bourdon pressure gauge ....................................................................................... 175

Figure 7.5 Pressure snubber .............................................................................................................................................176

Figure 7.6 An oil-type deadweight tester. ......................................................................................................................176

Figure 7.7 Basic components of a deadweight tester ....................................................................................................176

Figure 7.8 Orifice plate ..................................................................................................................................................... 177

Figure 7.9 Illustration showing static pressure drop through an orifice metering run ......................................... 177

Figure 7.10 Common pressure-tap arrangements for orifice metering runs ............................................................. 178

Figure 7.11 Cutaway view of a venturi meter ................................................................................................................. 180

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Figure 7.12 Schematic of a venturi meter ........................................................................................................................ 180

Figure 7.13 Turbine meter .................................................................................................................................................. 180

Figure 7.14 NASA satellite image of clouds off the Chilean coast near the Juan Fernandez Islands showing von Karman vortex streets and figure drawn for greater clarity ............................................................ 180

Figure 7.15 Vortex meter .................................................................................................................................................... 181

Figure 7.16 Principles of magnetic induction ................................................................................................................. 181

Figure 7.17 Time-of-flight ultrasonic flow meter: single-path type. ............................................................................ 182

Figure 7.18 Time-of-flight ultrasonic flow meter: multipath type ............................................................................... 182

Figure 7.19 Thermal mass meter. ...................................................................................................................................... 183

Figure 7.20 Energy balance type thermal mass meter .................................................................................................. 183

Figure 7.21 Positive displacement meter ......................................................................................................................... 183

Figure 7.22 Types of positive displacement meters ....................................................................................................... 183

Figure 7.23 Locations for a Pitot tube traverse in a round or rectangular duct, based on centroids of equal area ...........................................................................................................................................................................184

Figure 7.24 Averaging Pitot tube ...................................................................................................................................... 185

Figure 7.25 Photograph of an averaging Pitot tube located inside a large duct ........................................................ 185

Figure 7.26 A simple FTIR spectrometer layout. ............................................................................................................ 186

Figure 7.27 Photograph of an FTIR system. .................................................................................................................... 186

Figure 7.28 Schematic of phase Doppler particle anemometer (PDPA). ..................................................................... 187

Figure 7.29 Schematic of oil gun and spray chamber by using PDPA for droplet size measurements. ................ 188

Figure 7.30 Typical PDPA droplet size measurements.. ................................................................................................ 188

Figure 7.31 PDPA mass accumulation measurements at different mass ratios. ........................................................ 188

Figure 7.32 Spray images for liquid planar laser-induced fluorescence (LPLIF) (left) and scattered light (right) .........189

Figure 8.1 Aerial view of an industrial combustion testing facility. ......................................................................... 194

Figure 8.2 Test furnace used primarily for ethylene applications. ............................................................................ 195

Figure 8.3 Test furnace capable of simulating terrace wall-fired heaters. ................................................................ 195

Figure 8.4 Vertical cylindrical furnace for freestanding, upfired burner tests ....................................................... 196

Figure 8.5 Self-contained, portable combustion air heater and blower used for testing forced draft, preheated air burner designs ....................................................................................................................... 196

Figure 8.6 Schematic of heat flux probe ........................................................................................................................ 197

Figure 8.7 Schematic of heat flux probe mounted in a test furnace. ......................................................................... 198

Figure 8.8 Schematic of a CO probe mounted in a test furnace ................................................................................ 198

Figure 8.9 Test fuel selection process flow diagram. ................................................................................................... 200

Figure 9.1 World-class flare test facility at John Zink Company, LLC, in Tulsa, OK .............................................. 206

Figure 9.2 An air-assisted flare undergoing testing .................................................................................................... 206

Figure 9.3 Pressure-assisted flare utilizing the Coanda principle ............................................................................ 207

Figure 9.4 Block diagram of flare test facility ............................................................................................................... 208

Figure 9.5 Fuel processing system ................................................................................................................................. 208

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Figure 9.6 A test in progress as viewed from the control room .............................................................................. 209

Figure 9.7 Typical flare test control screen .................................................................................................................. 210

Figure 9.8 Graph of a typical flow control history for manual and automatic operation .....................................211

Figure 9.9 Flare test control center ................................................................................................................................211

Figure 9.10 (a) Upwind and (b) crosswind views of a flame during a flare test...................................................... 212

Figure 9.11 Thermogram of a flare flame ...................................................................................................................... 212

Figure 9.12 Radiation measurement system (foreground) in use during a flare test ............................................. 213

Figure 9.13 Isoflux profiles for typical radiation measurement ..................................................................................214

Figure 9.14 Sound measurement system in use during a flare test ............................................................................214

Figure 9.15 Typical overall sound level as a function of time .................................................................................... 215

Figure 9.16 Average sound profile for a given time window ..................................................................................... 215

Figure 9.17 Flare pilot test stand .....................................................................................................................................216

Figure 9.18 Hydrostatic flare tip test ...............................................................................................................................216

Figure 9.19 Typical ground flare array .......................................................................................................................... 217

Figure 9.20 Photo of a row of ground flares, with flame heights compared to those previously measured for single and dual burner tests ................................................................................................................. 218

Figure 9.21 Multiple ground flare burners being tested to determine flame heights and cross lighting distances ........................................................................................................................................................ 218

Figure 9.22 Multiple Indair flare test to determine minimum operating pressure range and tip spacing for cross lighting .......................................................................................................................................... 219

Figure 9.23 Air-assisted flare test ................................................................................................................................... 220

Figure 9.24 Air flare blower failure test ........................................................................................................................ 221

Figure 9.25 Effectiveness of steam in smoke suppression .......................................................................................... 222

Figure 9.26 Steam-assisted flare test experiencing over-steaming conditions. ....................................................... 222

Figure 9.27 Radiation from an offshore flare ................................................................................................................ 223

Figure 9.28 Testing a water-assisted flare ..................................................................................................................... 223

Figure 9.29 Radiation reduction by water injection .................................................................................................... 224

Figure 9.30 Noise reduction by water injection ........................................................................................................... 224

Figure 10.1 Thermal oxidizer test facility ..................................................................................................................... 228

Figure 10.2 Schematic of a common configuration of a horizontal thermal oxidizer. ........................................... 229

Figure 10.3 Thermal oxidizer test facility control room. ............................................................................................ 229

Figure 10.4 Cutaway view of a thermal oxidizer test burner capable of both fuel and air staging. .................... 231

Figure 10.5 Test facility metering skid........................................................................................................................... 235

Figure 10.6 Commercial test rack with the following components from top to bottom: CO meter, oxygen meter, NOx meter, total hydrocarbons (THC) meter, and gas conditioning system. ........................ 239

Figure 10.7 Portable combustion gas analyzer. ............................................................................................................ 239

Figure 10.8 FTIR gas analyzer. ........................................................................................................................................ 239

Figure 10.9 In situ oxygen analyzer. .............................................................................................................................. 240

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Figure 10.10 Extractive sample probe. ............................................................................................................................. 240

Figure 10.11 Orifice plate meter. ....................................................................................................................................... 241

Figure 10.12 Thermal mass flowmeter ............................................................................................................................ 241

Figure 10.13 Ceramic-sheathed thermocouple. .............................................................................................................. 242

Figure 10.14 Handheld radiometer. ................................................................................................................................. 242

Figure 10.15 U-tube manometer. ...................................................................................................................................... 243

Figure 10.16 Inclined manometer. .................................................................................................................................... 243

Figure 10.17 Bourdon tube pressure gauge. ................................................................................................................... 243

Figure 11.1 Burner tiles: (a) flat shaped and (b) round shaped .................................................................................. 246

Figure 11.2 Burner tile with intricate design features................................................................................................. 246

Figure 11.3 Gas tips with different drill patterns ........................................................................................................ 247

Figure 11.4 Burner mounting sleeve. ............................................................................................................................. 248

Figure 11.5 Round burner tile ......................................................................................................................................... 249

Figure 11.6 Rectangular or flat flame burner tile. ........................................................................................................ 249

Figure 11.7 Burner tile sections ...................................................................................................................................... 249

Figure 11.8 Dry fit to check dimensions. ................................................................................................................... 249

Figure 11.9 Burner tiles with mortared joints .............................................................................................................. 250

Figure 11.10 Applying mortar to burner tile .................................................................................................................. 250

Figure 11.11 Gas tips protected with masking tape during installation .................................................................... 250

Figure 11.12 Tile with groove-clearing bolt heads......................................................................................................... 251

Figure 11.13 Handle burner tile with caution. ............................................................................................................... 251

Figure 11.14 Crane-lifting burner. .................................................................................................................................... 252

Figure 11.15 Burner stand and forklift ............................................................................................................................ 252

Figure 11.16 Lifting device for burner installation. ....................................................................................................... 253

Figure 11.17 Various lifting techniques. .......................................................................................................................... 254

Figure 11.18 Cables and hoist used to mount burners. ................................................................................................. 255

Figure 11.19 Burner mounted to heater floor. ................................................................................................................. 255

Figure 11.20 Burner designed to be mounted in a common plenum ......................................................................... 256

Figure 11.21 P-box-type burner with an integral plenum ............................................................................................ 256

Figure 11.22 Expansion joint between tile and floor ..................................................................................................... 257

Figure 11.23 Open area around tip for future removal ................................................................................................ 257

Figure 11.24 Floor is (incorrectly) higher than gas tips ................................................................................................ 257

Figure 11.25 Gas tips above floor as designed ............................................................................................................... 257

Figure 11.26 Horizontally mounted burner. ................................................................................................................... 257

Figure 11.27 Horizontal burners in service .................................................................................................................... 258

Figure 11.28 Down-fired burners located on top of the heater. ................................................................................... 258

Figure 11.29 Down-fired burners in operation .............................................................................................................. 259

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Figure 11.30 Horizontally mounted burner. ................................................................................................................... 259

Figure 11.31 Ultralow-NOx radiant wall burners.......................................................................................................... 260

Figure 11.32 Gas tip/diffuser cone position ................................................................................................................... 260

Figure 11.33 Radiant wall tip location. ............................................................................................................................ 261

Figure 11.34 Gas tip location (before mounting in a heater) ........................................................................................ 261

Figure 11.35 Final burner inspection. .............................................................................................................................. 262

Figure 11.36 Dual-blade air dampers. ............................................................................................................................. 262

Figure 11.37 Rotary-type air register. .............................................................................................................................. 263

Figure 11.38 Jackshaft system to control the combustion air. ...................................................................................... 263

Figure 11.39 Fuel piping insulated and steam traced ................................................................................................... 264

Figure 11.40 Burner fuel lines taken from the top of the header to reduce gas tip fouling .................................... 264

Figure 11.41 Example pilot conduit boxes. ...................................................................................................................... 265

Figure 11.42 Burners with flame scanners. ..................................................................................................................... 265

Figure 11.43 Visual inspection of the burner ................................................................................................................. 265

Figure 11.44 Recording operating information. ............................................................................................................. 266

Figure 11.45 Premix and raw gas tips ............................................................................................................................. 266

Figure 11.46 Raw gas burner tips. .................................................................................................................................... 266

Figure 11.47 Gas tips may look similar, but they are not the same. ............................................................................ 267

Figure 11.48 Burner drawings will show number of gas tips and proper orientation............................................. 267

Figure 11.49 Example of gas tip drilling information on burner documentation. ................................................... 268

Figure 11.50 Overheated gas tip ....................................................................................................................................... 268

Figure 11.51 Plugged gas tip ............................................................................................................................................. 268

Figure 11.52 Coke buildup in tip ...................................................................................................................................... 268

Figure 11.53 Pipe vise for gas tip maintenance. ............................................................................................................. 269

Figure 11.54 Floor-mounted burners in a vertical cylindrical furnace ...................................................................... 269

Figure 11.55 Gas riser mounting flange. ......................................................................................................................... 270

Figure 11.56 Using steam to blow out the gas riser/tip assembly. .............................................................................. 270

Figure 11.57 Thread lubricant. .......................................................................................................................................... 270

Figure 11.58 Checking ports with correct sized drill bit. ............................................................................................. 270

Figure 11.59 Using a drill bit to clean a gas port. .......................................................................................................... 271

Figure 11.60 T-handle used to manually clean gas tips. ............................................................................................... 271

Figure 11.61 Diagram of a HEVD premix burner. ......................................................................................................... 271

Figure 11.62 View of primary air door assembly including fuel orifice .................................................................... 271

Figure 11.63 Single-port orifice spud. .............................................................................................................................. 272

Figure 11.64 QD orifice spud ............................................................................................................................................ 272

Figure 11.65 Plugged QD orifice spud ............................................................................................................................. 272

Figure 11.66 JZV premix gas tip ....................................................................................................................................... 272

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Figure 11.67 LPM radiant wall gas tip. .......................................................................................................................... 272

Figure 11.68 Burner damaged from flashback. ............................................................................................................. 273

Figure 11.69 Dirty mixer/primary air door .................................................................................................................. 273

Figure 11.70 Spider with severe oxidation from overheating. .................................................................................... 273

Figure 11.71 HEVD spider with internal fouling. .........................................................................................................274

Figure 11.72 HEVD burner without a primary muffler. ..............................................................................................274

Figure 11.73 HEVD burner with muffler installed. ......................................................................................................274

Figure 11.74 Primary air muffler removed for inspection. ..........................................................................................274

Figure 11.75 Worn gasket and dirty insulation. .......................................................................................................... 275

Figure 11.76 Burner tile in good condition ................................................................................................................... 275

Figure 11.77 Burner tile with large broken pieces. ...................................................................................................... 275

Figure 11.78 Tile with large crack .................................................................................................................................. 276

Figure 11.79 Tile crumbling and coming apart. ........................................................................................................... 276

Figure 11.80 Radiant wall burner tile that should be replaced ................................................................................. 276

Figure 11.81 Vanadium attack on burner tile. .............................................................................................................. 276

Figure 11.82 Catalyst buildup on regen oil tile. ........................................................................................................... 277

Figure 11.83 Inspection of burner tiles inside a furnace. ........................................................................................... 277

Figure 11.84 Small cracks can be repaired. ................................................................................................................... 277

Figure 11.85 Tile with large cracks should be replaced. ............................................................................................. 277

Figure 11.86 Applying a thin layer of mortar. .............................................................................................................. 277

Figure 11.87 Checking gas tip orientation .................................................................................................................... 278

Figure 11.88 Final tile installation. ................................................................................................................................. 278

Figure 11.89 Multiple section burner tile ...................................................................................................................... 278

Figure 11.90 Diffuser cone used for stabilizing the flame. ......................................................................................... 278

Figure 11.91 Burner tile ledge used to stabilize the flame. ......................................................................................... 278

Figure 11.92 Diffuser cones used for flame stability. .................................................................................................. 279

Figure 11.93 Swirler used to stabilize oil flames. ......................................................................................................... 279

Figure 11.94 Flame deflector ring with stabilizing tabs. ............................................................................................. 279

Figure 11.95 Diffuser cone in good condition. ............................................................................................................. 279

Figure 11.96 Damaged diffuser cone. ............................................................................................................................ 279

Figure 11.97 Diffuser cone location too low. ................................................................................................................. 280

Figure 11.98 Rotating-type air registers ........................................................................................................................ 280

Figure 11.99 Rotary air register with E-Z Roll bearings ............................................................................................. 280

Figure 11.100 Burner damper shown in closed and open position ............................................................................ 281

Figure 11.101 Locking air control handle with 18 positions ........................................................................................ 281

Figure 11.102 Burners with air handles all set at the same position. .......................................................................... 281

Figure 11.103 Damper linkage for dual-bladed opposed motion design. .................................................................. 281

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Figure 11.104 Bearings for smooth damper operation. ................................................................................................. 282

Figure 11.105 Combination oil and gas LoNOx burner. ............................................................................................... 282

Figure 11.106 Secondary and primary (regen) tiles. ...................................................................................................... 282

Figure 11.107 Regen tile and one section of secondary tile. ......................................................................................... 283

Figure 11.108 Regen tile used to stabilize the oil flame. ............................................................................................... 283

Figure 11.109 Oil and steam spray at the oil tip. ............................................................................................................ 283

Figure 11.110 Regen oil tile with an oil gun in the center ............................................................................................ 284

Figure 11.111 Typical rotary-type air registers .............................................................................................................. 284

Figure 11.112 Vane-type air register ................................................................................................................................ 285

Figure 11.113 Integral plenum box with inlet air damper and muffler. ..................................................................... 285

Figure 11.114 Oil gun insert and oil body receiver (with red caps) ............................................................................ 286

Figure 11.115 Oil body receiver with copper gaskets for sealing ................................................................................ 286

Figure 11.116 Oil gun bodies ............................................................................................................................................ 286

Figure 11.117 Oil gun parts. .............................................................................................................................................. 286

Figure 11.118 EA-/SA-type oil tip..................................................................................................................................... 286

Figure 11.119 Oil tip stamped with 864. ...................................................................................................................... 287

Figure 11.120 MEA oil gun parts ..................................................................................................................................... 287

Figure 11.121 MEA-type oil tip. ........................................................................................................................................ 287

Figure 11.122 MEA oil gun parts ..................................................................................................................................... 287

Figure 11.123 HERO oil tip with dual atomizing design ............................................................................................. 287

Figure 11.124 HERO oil tip, sleeve, and collar. ............................................................................................................... 288

Figure 11.125 HERO oil tips and atomizers. ................................................................................................................... 288

Figure 11.126 HERO oil gun inserts ................................................................................................................................ 288

Figure 11.127 Applying high-temperature anti-seize to oil gun threads. .................................................................. 289

Figure 11.128 Atomizer with labyrinth seals and steam ports. ................................................................................... 290

Figure 11.129 Checking atomizer location in sleeve ..................................................................................................... 290

Figure 11.130 ST-1S high-stability burner pilot .............................................................................................................. 291

Figure 11.131 Pilot shield glowing in normal operation............................................................................................... 291

Figure 11.132 Pilot parts ........................................................................................