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COMBINING SEISMIC AND GEOTECHNICAL METHODS TO IMPROVE THE
PREDICTION OF PHYSICAL SOIL PROPERTIES
BADEE ALSHAMERI
A thesis submitted in
fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the
Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
JUNE 2017
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For my beloved wife Nawal, my sons Elyas and Muhammad, my mother and father,
my sisters and brother, and my sister in law
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my supervisor, Professor Emeritus
Dato’ Dr. Ismail Bakar, co-supervisor Associate Professor Dr. Aziman Madun,
Ministry of High Education Yemen, and Ministry of Higher Education of Malaysia for
the support that given throughout the duration of my Ph.D. study
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ABSTRACT
Seismic investigation offers subsurface information in a cost and time effective way
compared with the geotechnical methods. The seismic data (i.e. bender element data)
needs to be correlated with geotechnical data allowing it to be adopted in engineering
designs. However, the procedures and analysis of bender element (BE) data can be
subjected to crucial errors due to several limitations in the BE tools such as the
magnitude of seismic source and frequency range. In addition, little attention had been
paid to adopt field BE despite the other field seismic methods having low resolution
when assessing the properties of the thin targeting layers of soil as pavement layers.
Therefore, this research aim was to evaluate the limitations and reliability of BE
procedure in the laboratory and the field. The research had two main stages; laboratory
and model stages. In the laboratory stage, the BE limitations were assessed using
homogeneous and unchanged properties of polystyrene sample instead of soil. In
addition, various mixtures of sand-kaolin were investigated using the shear box,
compaction and BE to obtain its empirical correlation as well as the obtained result
was used to construct the soil model. In the model stage, the multi-thin layers model
consisting of sand-kaolin mixtures was constructed for the purpose of suggesting the
field BE procedure. The laboratory BE results recommended that the two sensors
relative rotation shall be less than 50o, the position of two sensors alignment ratio
between the horizontal and vertical distance shall be less than 0.5, and the effect of
sample boundary occured when the ratio between the distance to sample boundary and
the sample thickness less than 0.38. In model stage; the recommended procedure to be
adopted in the field was via placing the BE sensors spacing less than 1 m and the BE
crosshole method via placing the sensors at both side of the targeted layer was the best
option. However, this method required some of the testing preparation. In conclusion,
the BE limitations and procedures in the laboratory and field had been evaluated and
investigated then recommended the procedures to improve the reliability of the BE
results.
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ABSTRAK
Penyiasatan seismik dapat memberikan maklumat subpermukaan dengan kos dan
masa yang efektif berbanding menggunakan kaedah geoteknikal yang konvensional.
Data seismik diperolehi dengan kaedah unsur bender perlu dikaitkan dengan data
geoteknik bagi membolehkan data ini diguna pakai dalam reka bentuk kejuruteraan.
Walaubagaimanapun, prosedur dan analisa data unsur bender (BE) terdedah kepada
kesalahan disebabkan oleh beberapa limitasi peralatan BE seperti magnitud sumber
seismik dan julat frequensi. Tambahan pula hanya sedikit sahaja perhatian yang
diberikan berkaitan denganpenggunaan BE di lapangan walaupun telah diketahui
bahawa kaedah seismik konvensional menghadapi masalah resolusi yang rendah bagi
menilai lapisan tanah yang nipis seperti lapisan turapan. Oleh yang demikian,
matlamat kajian ini adalah untuk menilai limitasi dan kebolehpercayaan kaedah BE di
makmal dan di lapangan. Kajian dibahagi kepada dua peringkat utama iaitu di makmal
dan model. Di peringkat makmal, limitasi BE dinilai dengan menggunakan
polystyrene yang homogen dan tidak berubah sifat berbanding dengan menggunakan
tanah. Di samping itu, pelbagai campuran antara pasir dan kaolin dikaji menggunakan
ujian ricih, pemadatan dan BE bagi mendapatkan korelasi empirikal dan menggunakan
keputusan tersebut bagi membina model untuk kajian seterusnya. Di peingkat model,
pelbagai lapisan tanah nipis yang terdiri dari campuran pasir dan kaolin dibina bagi
tujuan mendapatkan prosedur BE di lapangan. Di makmal, keputusan BE
mencadangkan kedudukan putaran relatif dua sensor mestilah kurang 50°, dan
kedudukan nisbah jajaran dua sensor antara jarak mendatar dan menegak mestilah
kurang 0.5, dan kesan sempadan sampel terjadi apabila nisbah jarak antara sempadan
sampel dan ketebalan sampel kurang dari 0.38. Pada peringkat model,
mencadangankan prosedur di lapangan adalah dengan meletakkan jarak sensor BE
kurang dari 1 m dan menggunakan kaedah lubang silang BE dengan meletakkan sensor
di kedua hujung lapisan yang dikaji. Walaubagaimanapun kaedah ini memerlukan
persiapan lapangan yang lebih. Kesimpulannya, limitasi dan kaedah BE di makmal
dan lapangan telah berjaya dinilai, dikaji dan prosedur untuk membaiki
kebolehpercayaan keputusan BE telah dicadangkan.
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CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xviii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Aim and Objectives 4
1.4 Originality of the Outcomes 4
1.5 Research Scope and Limitations 5
1.6 Outline of Thesis 6
CHAPTER 2 SEISMIC AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION 7
2.1 Seismic Exploration 7
2.2 Seismic Methods 20
2.3 Bender Element 27
2.4 Importance of the Correlation between the Seismic and
Geotechnical Data
48
2.5 Brief Comparison between Bender Element and Other
Methods
50
2.6 Bender Element Applications 51
2.7 Field Bender Element 57
2.8 Geotechnical Methods 57
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2.9 Seismic and Geotechnical Tests Correlations 64
2.10 Summary 74
CHAPTER 3 EQUIPMENT SETUP AND PROCEDURES 77
3.1 Introduction 77
3.2 Laboratory Stages 79
3.3 Physical Model (Simulated Field) Stages 104
CHAPTER 4 BENDER ELEMENT ASSESSMENTS 119
4.1 Effect of Sensor Rotation 120
4.2 Effect of Sensor Alignment 126
4.3 Effect of Boundary Condition and Near-Field Effect 132
CHAPTER 5 GEOTECHNICAL LABORATORY RESULTS 149
5.1 Effect of Fine Content and Density towards the Shear
Strength Parameters
150
5.2 Effect of Fine Content and Moisture Content towards the
Shear Strength Parameters
160
CHAPTER 6 BENDER ELEMENT APPLICATIONS 174
6.1 Correlations of the Seismic and Geotechnical Data in the
Laboratory
174
6.2 Simulated Field Testing of the Bender Element 196
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 207
7.1 Introduction 207
7.2 Outcomes of Objectives 208
7.3 Recommendations for Improving the Bender Element
Efficiency
212
7.4 Future Work 213
REFERENCES 214
APPENDICES 242
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LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Typical shear wave velocity for some common materials 16
2.2 Brief comparison between analysis methods for seismic signals 34
2.3 The recommended Ltt/λ from previous researchers 37
2.4 Seismic wave velocity and maximum modulus versus some
geotechnical properties
49
2.5 Comparative analyses of shear wave methods 66
2.6 Empirical correlation between seismic data from different
methods and geotechnical parameters from previous researchers
74
3.1 Dimension, densities, and unit weight of polystyrene samples 81
3.2 Correlative points and their corresponding frequency range 84
3.3 Number of samples used for each test 94
3.4 Sand-kaolin mixtures 94
3.5 Thickness of the soil mixtures samples 103
3.6 Acquisition setup 116
4.1 Results of wave velocities range of the five methods 128
5.1 Results of soil mixtures compaction 151
5.2 Results of direct shear test for different soil mixtures at MDD 152
5.3 Comparison of the location of highest and lowest values of shear
strength parameters
158
5.4 Specific gravity for sand-kaolin mixtures 161
5.5 Results of direct shear test for different soil mixtures 162
6.1 Properties of the soil mixtures 176
6.2 Soil strength parameters for the four mixtures 176
6.3 Empirical correlation equations between FC and SC toward the
seismic data
178
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6.4 Empirical correlation equations between void ratio and the
seismic data
180
6.5 Empirical correlation equations between intergranular void ratio
and the seismic data
181
6.6 Empirical correlation equations between optimum moisture
content and the seismic data
184
6.7 Empirical correlation equations between densities and the
seismic data
187
6.8 Empirical correlation equations between Gs and the seismic data 189
6.9 Empirical correlation equations between friction angle and
cohesion toward the seismic data
191
6.10 Empirical correlation equations between shear strength and the
seismic data
194
6.11 The specification of layers inside the tank 197
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LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 Seismic exploration sequence 8
2.2 Strain (∆h/h) is proportional to stress (F/A) (Lowrie, 2007) 8
2.3 Shear modulus (Lillie, 1999) 9
2.4 Young’s modulus (Lillie, 1999) 10
2.5 Propagation of seismic wave (Lowrie, 2007) 11
2.6 P-wave propagation method (Lillie, 1999) 12
2.7 Elastic deformations and ground particle motions associated
with the passage of primary wave P-wave (Kearey et al., 2002)
12
2.8 S-wave propagation method (Lillie, 1999) 13
2.9 Elastic deformations and ground particle motions associated
with the passage of shear wave S-wave (Kearey et al., 2002)
13
2.10 Particle motions due to different types of seismic waves (Lillie,
1999)
14
2.11 Body and surface seismic waves movement and velocities
(Milsom & Eriksen, 2011)
15
2.12 Primary wave velocity versus ripabilities in common rocks
(Milsom & Eriksen, 2011)
16
2.13 Wavefront and ray path (Reynolds, 2011; Kearey et al., 2002) 19
2.14 Seismic methods 21
2.15 Reflected and refracted wave in Snell’s law 22
2.16 Spectral analysis of surface waves method (SASW) 24
2.17 Continuous surface waves seismic method (CSW) 24
2.18 Refraction Microtremor Method (ReMi) 24
2.19 Multi-channel analysis of surface waves (MASW) 25
2.20 Seismic borehole methods 25
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2.21 Flowchart of bender element issues 27
2.22 Bender element polarisation and configurations types 29
2.23 Flagging movement in the y-poled polarisation bender element 30
2.24 The punching movement in x-poled polarisation at bender
element
30
2.25 Different positions to calculate the arrival time 33
2.26 Precautions during implementation of bender element test 35
2.27 Illustration of SH and SV propagation 36
2.28 Boundary conditions issue in the bender element 39
2.29 Overshooting obscured the correct arrival time at line A-A
(Jovicic et al., 1996)
41
2.30 Crosstalk effect (Lee & Santamarina, 2005) 43
2.31 Effect of moisture content on VS (Indraratna et al., 2012) 46
2.32 Effect of FC on arrival time of VS (Yang & Liu, 2016) 46
2.33 Modulus from seismic and geotechnical tests 51
2.34 Integrate BE with Oedometer (Zeng & Ni, 1999) 52
2.35 Integrate BE with triaxial (Pennington et al., 1997) 52
2.36 Bender bimorph install at triaxial chamber (De Alba et al., 1984) 53
2.37 Comparison of VS with void ratio (De Alba et al., 1984) 53
2.38 Tomographic hardware–transducer installation within readily
replaceable anchors, and supporting frame (Lee et al., 2005)
54
2.39 The bender element attached to unconfined axial compression
test device (Lee et al., 2014)
55
2.40 E and fc versus VP (Lee et al., 2014) 56
2.41 Understanding the components of the empirical correlation
equations
58
2.42 VS profiles from MASW and CHS (Lopes et al., 2014) 66
2.43 N value versus VS from SPT and MASW (Lopes et al., 2014) 70
2.44 Variation of VS and SPT-N with depth (Maheswari et al., 2010) 71
2.45 Void ratio from VP and VS versus laboratory e (Jamiolkowski,
2012)
72
2.46 Void ratio from VP and VS versus laboratory e (Jamiolkowski,
2012)
73
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3.1 Research experiments layout 78
3.2 Laboratory stages 79
3.3 Bender element limitations and procedures assessments 79
3.4 Example for polystyrene sample 81
3.5 The soil sample was damaged during the reshaping process 81
3.6 Picking arrival time from GDS software 82
3.7 Comparison between the pick methods and data type 83
3.8 Screen captured for CCexcel method’s configurations 85
3.9 Bender element analysis tools (BEAT) 87
3.10 Position sketch of transmitter and receiver in polystyrene
sample
89
3.11 The position of BE sensors (not true scale) 90
3.12 Sketch for the sample dimension using fixed wave path and
different Dr/Ltt
91
3.13 Implementation of the laboratory geotechnical tests 93
3.14 Preparing the soil mixtures 94
3.15 Conducting the standard compaction test 99
3.16 Determination of MDD and OMC (using FC = 70%) 99
3.17 Shearing the sand-kaolin sample inside the direct shear box 101
3.18 Flow chart of laboratory bender element test 102
3.19 Soil sample mixture which was subjected to laboratory bender
element test
103
3.20 Flow chart showing the field stage 104
3.21 Hidden and blind layers (Kearey et al., 2002) 105
3.22 Flow chart of designing the physical model 105
3.23 Triangle sketch as a function of wave path 106
3.24 Simulation of the seismic wave path 107
3.25 Simulation results 108
3.26 Preparing the physical model 109
3.27 Model Layout 109
3.28 Outside model trail test 110
3.29 Parallel arrangement for bender element sensors at the top of the
layer
110
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3.30 Support the tank 111
3.31 Setup the framework with side support inside the tank 111
3.32 Setup the jumper rammer inside the framework and performed
the compaction
112
3.33 SUBARU compactor rammer model 4.0 Robin EH12 112
3.34 Field seismic test 113
3.35 Layout and seismic wave path in for the SR and MASW survey 114
3.36 Offset arrangements 115
3.37 Bender element test in different sensors arrangements 116
3.38 Bender element tests; (a) fixed side spacing for all layers, (b)
increment spacing of the top layer, (c) individual spacing of the
top layer, and (d) CH and CHm
117
3.39 Bender element test; (a) SS, (b) DH, and (c) CH at different
spacing
117
4.1 Graphical concept of bender element limitations investigation 119
4.2 Wave velocity versus sensor rotation 121
4.3 ACR versus sensor rotation 122
4.4 Graphical summary of the sensor rotation results 123
4.5 ACR of P-wave at different sample thicknesses 124
4.6 ACR of S-wave at different sample thicknesses 125
4.7 VP versus Dh 127
4.8 VS versus Dh 127
4.9 VP versus Dh/D 127
4.10 VS versus Dh/D 128
4.11 ACR versus Dh 129
4.12 ACR versus Dh/D 129
4.13 Graphical summary of sensor alignment results 130
4.14 ACR trend-line versus Dh/D 131
4.15 Wave velocity versus Dr/Ltt 133
4.16 Wave velocity at free and rigid boundary 134
4.17 Comparison of the shear wave signal records at different Dr/Ltt 136
4.18 Comparison of the compression wave signal records at different
Dr/Ltt
137
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4.19 VS at free and rigid boundary 137
4.20 Wave velocities at different frequencies for sample 8.71 mm 140
4.21 Wave velocities at different Ltt/λ for sample 8.71 mm 140
4.22 Wave velocities at different frequencies for sample 14.51 mm 140
4.23 Wave velocities at different Ltt/λ for sample 14.51 mm 141
4.24 Wave velocities at different frequencies for sample 29.75 mm 141
4.25 Wave velocities at different Ltt/λ for sample 29.75 mm 141
4.26 Wave velocities at different frequencies for sample 62.9 mm 142
4.27 Wave velocities at different Ltt/λ for sample 62.9 mm 142
4.28 Wave velocities at different frequencies for sample 87.71 mm 142
4.29 Wave velocities at different Ltt/λ for sample 87.71 mm 143
4.30 Wave velocities at different frequencies for sample 200.48 mm 143
4.31 Wave velocities at different Ltt/λ for sample 200.48 mm 143
4.32 Wave velocities at different samples thicknesses and methods 144
4.33 Graphical conclusion of boundary and near-field effect results 147
5.1 Graphical conclusion of geotechnical tests results 149
5.2 The particle size distribution of sand at the different FC 150
5.3 Compaction curves 151
5.4 Cohesion versus density 153
5.5 Friction angle versus density 153
5.6 Shear strength versus wet density 154
5.7 Shear strength versus maximum dry density 154
5.8 Shear modulus versus wet density 154
5.9 Shear modulus versus maximum dry density 155
5.10 Cohesion versus fine content 156
5.11 Friction angle versus fine content 156
5.12 Shear strength versus fine content 156
5.13 Shear modulus versus fine content 157
5.14 Cohesion versus moisture content at different fine content (FC) 163
5.15 Friction angle versus moisture content at different fine content
(FC)
164
5.16 Shear modulus versus moisture content at different fine content
(FC)
166
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5.17 Shear strength versus moisture content at different fine content
(FC)
167
5.18 Cohesion versus fine content at different moisture content (w) 169
5.19 Friction angle versus fine content at different moisture content
(w)
170
5.20 Shear strength versus fine content at different moisture content
(w)
172
6.1 Graphical illustration of correlating the seismic and
geotechnical data
175
6.2 Wave velocity versus fine and sand content 177
6.3 Gmax and Emax versus fine and sand content 177
6.4 Comparison of the effect of FC on wave velocity with previous
works
178
6.5 Comparison of the effect of FC on Gmax with previous works 178
6.6 Seismic data versus void ratio 179
6.7 Comparison of the effect of e on VS with previous works 180
6.8 Comparison of the effect of e on Gmax and Emax with previous
works
181
6.9 Seismic data versus intergranular void ratio 182
6.10 Comparison of the effect of es on VS with previous works 183
6.11 Seismic data versus OMC % 184
6.12 Comparison of the effect of w% on wave velocities with
previous works
185
6.13 Comparison of the effect of w% on Gmax with previous works 185
6.14 Seismic data versus ρwet and MDD 186
6.15 Comparison of the effect of density on wave velocity with
previous works
188
6.16 Seismic data versus specific gravity 189
6.17 Comparison of the effect of Gs on VS with previous works 189
6.18 Wave velocity versus cohesion and friction angle 191
6.19 Maximum modulus versus cohesion and friction angle 191
6.20 Comparison of the effect of friction angle on the wave velocity
with previous works
193
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6.21 Comparison of the effect of cohesion on the wave velocity and
Emax with previous works
193
6.22 Wave velocity and maximum modulus versus shear strength τ 194
6.23 Comparison of the effect of soil strength on VS with previous
works
195
6.24 Verification and assessment of the bender element in the field 196
6.25 Seismic wave velocities from different methods 199
6.26 Seismic wave velocities after delay the test’s procedure 199
6.27 Seismic wave velocities at different sensors arrangements 201
6.28 Effect of the sensors arrangement on outputs seismic wave types 201
6.29 Seismic wave velocity at different Ltt 202
6.30 Crosshole (CH), and multi-layer crosshole measurement (CHm) 204
6.31 Crosshole (CH), suspension (SS), and downhole measurement
(DH)
204
6.32 Direct and refracted seismic wave velocity at middle and base
layers
205
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LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
∆F - Applying shear force (i.e. tangential force)
∆h - Changing in rod high (i.e. length)
∆l - Displacement
∆Lr - Changing in the rod length
∆W - Amount of decrease the width
A - Cross sectional area
a - Soil constant
ACR - Amplitude comparison ratio
Ar - Amplitude of receiver in millivolt
As - Amplitude of transmitter in volte
BE - Bender element
BEAT - Bender element analysis tools
BHS - Seismic borehole
c - Cohesion
CCexcel - Cross-correlation using excel
CCGDS - Cross-correlation methods using beat
CC-normexcel - Normalized correlation coefficient
CCxy (ts) - Time for maximum value of cross-correlation
CH - Crosshole method
CHm - Multi-layer crosshole
CHS - Seismic crosshole method
CL - Clay content
CPT - Cone penetration test
CPTu - Piezocone penetration tests
CSW - Continuous surface wave
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D - Sample thickness
d1 - Distance between R1 and R2
d2 - Distance between S and R
d50 - Mean particle size at 50% of percent finer
DC - Dynamic compaction
Dh - Horizontal distance to centre axis of the sample
DH - Downhole method
DHS - Seismic downhole method
di - Shear box diameter
dmax - Maximum particle size
Dr - Distance to the boundary
E - Young’s modulus
e - Void ratio
e0 - In-situ void ratio
E0 - Initial Young’s modulus
egk - Gravel skeleton void ratio
Emax - Maximum Young’s modulus
es - Intergranular void ratio
esk - Sand skeleton void ratio
f - Frequency f
F - Applied force F
fc - Compressive strength
FC - Fine content FC
G - Shear modulus (i.e. modulus of the shear rigidity)
G0 - Initial shear modulus
GC - Gravel content
GDS - Global digital systems
Gmax - Maximum shear modulus
Gs - Specific gravity
Gsf - Specific gravity for fine material
h - Height (i.e. Length) of the rod
Hs - Sample high in direct shear test
l - Length of cube of material
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L - Wave path length
lb - Intruded length of the sensor
Lr - Original length of rod
Ltt - Wave path length from tip of transmitter to tip of receiver
M1 - Mass of moist container
M2 - Mass of dry container and soil
MASW - Multi-channel analyses of surface waves
MDD - Maximum dry density
Mequal - Mass of equal water
Mmd - Mass of dry compaction mould
Mp1 - Mass of dry pycnometer
Mp2 - Mass of dry pycnometer and mixture
Mp3 - Mass of saturated pycnometer and mixture
Mp4 - Mass of pycnometer and water
Ms - Mass of the solid
MSW - Municipal solid waste
Mt - Mass of moist soil in mould
Mt - Mass of compacted sample and mould
Mw - Mass of water
Mw - Mass of solid material
N - Uncorrected blow account for SPT
n - Elastic constant
OMC - Optimum moisture content
P - Original confining pressure
Pa - Atmospheric pressure
P-wave - Primary (compression) wave
qa - Allowable bearing capacity
qc - Cone tip resistance
qf - Ultimate bearing capacity
qt - Corrected cone tip resistance
R1, R2 - Sensor number 1 and sensor number 2
RC - Resonant column
ReMi - Refraction microtremor
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RS - Receiver signal
SASW - Spectral analysis of surface waves
SC - Sand content
SCPT - Seismic cone penetrometer test
SPT - Standard penetration test
SR - Seismic refraction
SS - Seismic suspension
S-wave - Secondary (shear) wave
t - Travel time
T - Corresponding to the signal time record
t100 - Time at the peak shear stress
t50 - Time at 50 % of the peak shear stress
ts - Time shift for transmitter signal
V1 - Velocity at first layer
V2 - Velocity at second layer
Vc - Volume of coarse content
VE - Extensional wave velocity in narrow bar (equal to Vp)
Vf - Volume of fine content
Vm - Volume of the mould
VP - Compression wave velocity
VP, C-C - Compression wave from first-deflection methods (C-C)
VP, D-D - Compression wave from first-peak methods (D-D)
VP, F-F - Compression wave from first-trough methods (F-F)
VP2 - Compression wave velocity from the second wave cycle
VP2, C-C* - Compression wave from second deflection methods (C-C*)
VP2, D-D* - Compression wave from second pick methods (D-D*)
VP2, F-F* - Compression wave from second trough methods (F-F*)
VPR - Reflected P-wave
VR - Rayleigh wave velocity
VS - Shear wave velocity
VS, C-A, near-field - Shear wave from first-deflection methods inside the near-field
zone (C-C)
VS, C-C - Shear wave from first-deflection methods (C-C)
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VS, D-D - Shear wave from first-peak methods (D-D)
VS, F-F - Shear wave from first-trough methods (F-F)
VS2 - Shear wave velocity from the second wave cycle
VS2, C-C* - Shear wave from second deflection methods (C-C*)
VS2, D-D* - Shear wave from second pick methods (D-D*)
VS2, F-F* - Shear wave from second trough methods (F-F*)
Vv - Volume of voids
W - Original width of rod
w - Moisture content
wsat - Saturation point
X(T) - Corresponds to receiver signal
Xc - Critical distance
Xcr - Crossover distance
Y(T) - Corresponding to transmitter signal
z - Depth
γ - Unit weight
γd - Dry unit weight
γMDD - Unit weight of maximum dry density
γt - Total unit weight
γw - Unit weight of water
ε - Strain
ε100 - Shear strain at the peak shear stress
ε50 - Shear strain at 50 % of the peak shear stress
θc - Critical angle
θi - Incidence angle
θr - Refracted angle
λ - Wavelength
μ - Shear modulus (same as G)
ν - Poisson’s ratio
ρ - Bulk density
ρd - Dry density
ρm - Moist density
ρwet - Wet density
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σ - Applied normal stress (i.e. confining stress)
σv - Overburden pressure
σ'v - Effective vertical stress
τ - Shear strength
ϕ - Friction angle
ϕ’ - Effective friction angle
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Both geotechnics and seismic methods have numerous approaches to measure soil
properties. These methods are classified as field or laboratory tests (Das & Sobhan,
2014; Reynolds, 2011). Geotechnical testing (e.g. shear box, triaxial test, and
unconfined compression test) provides strength parameters which is used directly in
the engineering design. While seismic methods assess geomaterial characterisations
(e.g. seismic wave velocity) which is used to predict the design’s parameters (e.g.
strength parameters) using empirical correlation equations (Milsom & Eriksen, 2011;
Mayne et al., 2002).
The seismic methods need to be improved to overcome difficulties related to
the data quality. The seismic data is less effective in engineering design compared with
geotechnical data (i.e. direct data) where the design parameters are predicted rather
than measured directly (Martínez et al., 2015; Foti et al., 2014). Seismic data can be
improved by combining the different seismic methods to avoid the weakness of
predicted data and correlating the seismic data to the geotechnical data. The
advantages of seismic investigation compared with the geotechnical methods include;
(a) cost and time efficiency, (b) being a non-destructive test and non-invasive method,
and (c) suitable for investigating areas where it is difficult to use the direct methods
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due to high cost or contamination, etc. (Shokri et al., 2016; Martinho & Dionísio,
2014).
Seismic methods had seen rapid development in recent decades, and the range
of their usage has broadened. For example, seismic reflection and refraction methods
are being used in deep exploration while the surface wave methods are used in the
shallow investigation. Both seismic reflection and refraction depend on analysing the
body waves while the surface wave methods depend on analysis the surface waves.
The seismic refraction, reflection and surface wave analysis methods are classified as
field methods. While the bender element (BE) and the ultrasonic methods are used in
the laboratory to measure the body seismic wave velocities VP and VS (i.e. primary
and shear seismic wave velocities respectively).
The bender element BE has been commonly used in the laboratory due to its
simplicity, versatility, relative small sensors, the flexibility of using sensors in a
different direction, fast, inexpensive, and non-destructive method (Valle-Molina &
Stokoe, 2012). Despite its many advantages, several factors can nevertheless affect the
BE data leading to pseudo results. These factors include; (a) length of sensors, (b)
sensor alignment, (c) sensor rotation, (d) boundary condition, (e) near-field effect, (f)
signal noise, and (g) signal damping (Moldovan et al., 2016; Karray et al., 2015).
Although some of these parameters had been studied by previous researchers, their
direct application had not been examined. For example, Zeng et al. (2007), Lee &
Santamarina (2005), and Clayton et al. (2004) mentioned the effect of the sensor
alignments and sensor rotation, but they did not provide a clear definition of the
effective zones of these parameters. The near-field effect had been studied, but the
results had recommended different ratios of wave path length to the wavelength (Ltt/λ)
which questions the efficiency of the recommended ratios (Leong et al., 2009; Jovicic
et al., 1996; Viggiani & Atkinson 1995a; Sa´nchez-Salinero et al., 1986).
Although the bender element is used commonly in the laboratory, little
attention had been paid to developing the usage of the bender element in the field. The
field BE method can be useful for examining thin soil layers (e.g. compaction layers
and pavement) where the resolution of other seismic methods was low and subjected
to several limitations rendering its results uncertain (Castellaro et al., 2015; Everett,
2013). Most BE field trials were applied in a single layer while field conditions are
often multi-layer. Moreover, there is no specific definition for the boundary condition
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