they rarely supen'ised men. Societyhad long since deemed certain jobs toodirty, too dangerous, too strenuous, orfor unspecified reasons, just not suita-ble for women.

In this social climate, the MarineCorps set out to select, train, classi-fy, and assign 18,000 newly recruit-

ed civilian women at the rate of morethan 1,000 a month, and have themon the job and making a contribu-tion in the shortest time possible.That it was done as magnificently asit was is a tribute both to the wom-en who made it happen and to themen who allowed it to happen.

Colonel Streeter's philosophy was'1 . . anything except heavy lifting andcombat. They could try:'

One of the first WR officers, Cap-tain Cornelia Williams, with a doc-toral degree in psychology from theUniversity of Minnesota and wideexperience as a college administrator

Regiment at Camp Lejeune in August 1944.

21

Pencil sketch ly Marion A. Allen in Marine Corps Art Collection

Photo courtesy of Sarah ThorntonWomen drivers and mechanics comprised the Motor Transport Section at Parris Island in 1944.

Women Marines worked in the office of the Sergeant Major of the Schools Training

commissioned six years kiter fri the first

in student personnel work, reportedto Headquarters on 19 February 1943for duty in the Classification Divi-sion, Detail Branch. Her task seemedsimple enough: come up with a planthat balanced the new Marines' skillsand abilities against the needs of theMarine Corps. Initially, Marinesstudied the systems used by theWACs and the WAVES, but in theend, the answer was found closer tohome and the preferred plan wasbased directly on the system alreadyset up for male Marines.

On 1 January 1944, the original ar-rangement which involved threewomen officers working in variousdivisions of the Detail Branch waschanged, and a separate Women'sReserve Section of the Detail Branchwas organized. Beyond analyzingjobs and translating the duties intomilitary occupational titles and com-piling a directory of training courses,its mission was to design the Wom-en's Reserve Qualification Card

postwar Women's Officer Training Class.

(NAVMC-940 C), write appropriateinstructions for maintaining it, selectclassification tests to be given allWomen Reservists, plan for selectionand training of women classificationspecialists, and train people in thefield in the basics of the classificationprocess.

For the most part, there was littledifference in the methods and proce-dures used to classify officers and en-listed women: the same tests wereused for both. In the case of officers,however, closer attention was paid toassessing personality traits and prob-ability of success as leaders and su-pervisors. While male officers couldreasonably expect to be assigned atthe bottom rung of an organization,working under the watchful eye andcare of experienced senior officersand non-commissioned officers,women officers had neither seniorrole models nor seasoned non-cornsto guide them. It was a sink-or-swimsituation where they faced the

22

prospect of teaching and supervisingwomen as green as themselves.

At first, the basic test battery chos-en included the Army standardizedtests to assess general learning,mechanical, and clerical ability. FromSeptember 1943 through May 1944,the Army Radio Operators AptitudeTest was given to all enlisted women.In June, a test of vocational and jobinterests was added, and finally inDecember 1944, when the decisionwas made to send selected womenMarine volunteers to Hawaii, perso-nality and adjustment tests wereadded.

Once again, just as had happenedin the early phases of training, be-cause this was a start-up operationwith no women experienced in clas-sification, male Marines ran the sys-tem until SNRs were qualified to takeover. With classes of about 500 bootseach arriving at the recruit depot ev-ery two weeks, the challenge ofmatching the women to critical jobopenings was ambitious enough, butthe novelty of using females to fillmilitary titles caused more than a fewmiscues.

It just wasn't the same as it waswith the men who were transferredfrom boot camp to their first dutystation in large troop drafts, based onthe theory that most military skillshad to be learned by all. In contrast,women were transferred with theirnames linked to identified job vacan-cies because many possessed uniqueskills. The idea was sound, but itssuccess depended upon a cooperativeadjutant at the receiving station as-signing the women as planned. If, forexample, a woman was classified asa telephone operator and arrived ata post only to be assigned by the C-ias a soda jerk in the post exchange,the process broke down.

The Marine recruiting brochuresin 1943 promised women openings in34 job assignments: the shortsight-edness of the planners can be seen inthe final statistics recording womenin more than 200.

Department of Defense Phoeo (USMC) 6265Cpl Essie Lucas and PFC Betty 1. Ayers, graduates of Motor Transport School,replace a reconditioned engine at Camp Lejeune's post garage in 1943. Lucas was

Miscalculations led to bothersomereassignments when newly identified,high-priority jobs had to be filledbut qualified women were no longeravailable. For example, the first callsfor IBM tabulating machine opera-tors, teletypewriter operators, sewingmachine operators, draftsmen, utilityrepairmen, and even telephone oper-ators came only after many womenwith this kind of civilian training andexperience had been assigned to otherduties.

Expensive errors in judgment weremade because no one knew exactlyhow many women were needed andMarines underestimated their skillsand efficiency. Marines requested fartoo many women, especially for

office work at Headquarters, becausethey thought that half again as manywomen were needed to replace agiven number of men. For clericalwork, the reverse was generally true.Worse, in the time-honored traditionof the Corps, Marines often asked fortwice as many women as were need-ed, expecting to receive half of whatwas requested.

Adding to the confusion, manymen did not understand the duties in-volved in specific job titles, and peo-pie who could not dictate requestedstenographers, and people needingfile clerks asked for clerk typists. Inthe end, large numbers of womenMarines felt let down and were boredby monotonous assignments that

took only a fraction of their time andmade scant demands on their skills.Colonel Streeter understood theirfrustration and made it a habit tovisit women Marines in the fieldoften to give regular pep talks on thevital importance of every job to theoverall war effort.

Contradicting the adage that thereis never too much of a good thing,the exceptionally high caliber of thewomen recruited in the early phasesof the war resulted in too many un-deremployed WRs. In Colonel Street-er's opinion:

In test scores, educational lev-el, civilian experience, and spe-cial skills, these women, as agroup, were well above "aver-age:' Only a few of the jobsopen to them in the MarineCorps were "above average" inresponsibility and demands forskill, a great majority of thejobs were quite ordinary, andmany more were actually ex-tremely simple. Yet, somebodyhad to do these simple jobs.There were not enough womensufficiently lacking in intelli-gence, clerical abilit)c educationand skill to be happy in thesesimple jobs. So, Women Reser-vists capable of more skilledwork had to be misassigned —especially at first and especial-ly at Headquarters MarineCorps.

One woman who was not boredwith her job in Washington wasAudrey Bennington', who summa-rized her tour from 23 March 1943to 25 October 1945 and declared itone of the most important times ofher life:

May 1st 1943 'assigned toHeadquarters Colonel Streeter'ssection, working with ColonelCecil Rhoads, and MajorCharlotte Cower. February1944, first Woman Marine —oldest Marine Barracks, 8th &Eye Streets, Washington, secre-

Cpl Ellen V Russell freed a Marine to fight when she served as a butcher in thepost commissary at the Marine Barracks, Quantico, Virginia, during the war.

Department of Defense Photo (USMC) 25224

23

tary to the CO and his officers.Every 10 days taken to thenShangri La (Camp David now)to do ration records. That postwas where the action was, be-lieve me. I wish I were capableof writing a book—whatmaterial I have.

With time, the dilemma of toomany, overqualified women resolveditself because as the war progressedthere was ample work for everyone,male supervisors eventually gainedconfidence in the women and weremore willing to release the men theyhad held back to train them, and thelater recruit classes had fewer excep-tionally skilled enlistees.

More than half of all WomenReservists were engaged in clericalwork—about the same percentage asin civilian life. But new ground wasbroken as women went to work asradio operators, photographers,parachute riggers, motor transportdrivers, aerial gunnery instructors,cooks, bakers, Link trainer instruc-tors, control tower operators, motionpicture technicians, automotivemechanics, teletype operators, cryp-tographers, laundry managers, postexchange salespersons and managers,auditors, audio-visual librarians, as-

sembly and repair mechanics, metal-smiths, weather observers, artists,aerial photographers, photographanalysts, chemists, postal clerks, mu-sicians, statisticians, stewardesses,and writers.

In a 1979 interview, ColonelStreeter confided she was greatlyamused that WRs were in "secret andconfidential files" because" ... theyalways claim that women can't keepa confidence, you know:' One WR se-cond lieutenant assigned to secret andconfidential files presumably had lit-tle trouble with the securityclearance — Eugenia D. Lejeune, theyoungest daughter of Major Gener-al Commandant John A. Lejeune.

The most open-minded militaryunits throughout the war and afterwere the aviation components of allthe services. Presumably becausethey were relative pioneers them-selves, aviation leaders were lesstradition-bound, and they en-thusiastically asked for large numbersof women and were willing to assignthem to technical fields. Marineswere no exception and right awayasked for 9,100. Eventually, nearlyone-third of the Women Reservistsserved in aviation at Marine Corps

24

Air Stations (MCAS) at CherryPoint, Edenton, Santa Barbara, ElToro, Parris Island, Mojave, El Cen-tro, Quantico, Ewa, and at the Ma-rine Corps Aviation Depot (MCAD)in Miramar.

Because of the large number ofwomen posted to air commands,Aviation Women's Reserve Squa-drons were formed: Number 1 atMojave; Number 2 at Santa Barbara;Number 3 at El Centro; Numbers 4and 5 at Miramar; Numbers 6-10 atEl Toro; Number 11 at Parris Island;Number 12 at Ewa; Numbers 15-20at Cherry Point; and Number 21 atQuantico.

World War 11 changed for all timethe notion of proper women's work.In the Armed Forces as in civilian life,necessity caused the rules to be re-written and while an effort was madeto fit the women into jobs related totheir former occupations, there was,by necessity, an openness to newideas. Fewer Marine women thancivilians were used as stenographersand general clerks, but more were as-signed as typists; fewer were used asoffice machine operators, but farmore were assigned to supply and su-pervisory work. Fewer women Ma-rines were considered professionalsin the Corps, but this was due to thelarge number of school teachers whoenlisted but could not be used as in-structors.

Fewer women were used in skilledtrades than came from these jobs incivilian life, but more womenproportionately were used inmechanical jobs than came fromthese jobs as civilians—especially inaviation.

In 1945, looking towards the fu-ture, Colonel Streeter suggested thatif women were ever again to be en-listed into the Marine Corps, thewhole process of classification andassignment could be greatly im-proved if all jobs were categorizedinto four classes:

Department of Defense Photo CUSMC) 8927Crew Chief TSgt Selma 'Rusty" Olson, standing below the propeller, directs a WRrepair crew servicing a North American Mitchell B-25 bomber at Cherry Point inMarch 1945. In the war, 40 percent of the women Marines held jobs in aviation.

Class I jobs in which womenare better, more efficient thanmen.

Class II jobs in which wom-en are as good as men, i.e., theycan or did replace men on aone-to-one basis.

Class III jobs in which wom-en are not as good as men, butit is possible to use them if theneed is great.

Class IV jobs in which wom-en cannot or should not be usedat all.

Until February 1944, the Women'sReserve Section, Officer Procure-ment Division, a entity within theDivision of Reserve, handled mostadministrative matters concerning

Women Reservists. Then, as a resultof a reorganization at Headquarters,all matters involving recruiting,uniforming, recreation and welfare,plans and training were transferredto the appropriate departments anddivisions, stripping the Women'sReserve Section of much of its work.After that, its principal duties were:to form and move basic trainingclasses to the recruit depot, to makeappropriate selections for officer can-didate school, to process resignationsand separations of MCWR officers,and to maintain the records and han-dle correspondence concerning theabove matters.

In essence, the MCWR as an or-ganization was always more a per-ception than reality. Generally, thewomen were regarded as "extra" Ma-

25

rines to be managed by the long-established divisions that oversawthe administration of the men. Fur-thermore, when Women Reservistswere assigned to posts and stations,they reported to the commandingofficer of their unit, who was subor-dinate to the commanding officer ofthe post, and who, in turn, wasresponsible to the Commandant ofthe Marine Corps. The MCWRDirector was a staff officer not in thechain of command, and, in truth, shehad nothing to "direct."

There was never any question thatthere had to be an MCWR Director,especially to gain the public's favor,but her authority was an illusion.She had a great deal of influence but

could not take independent action.The Director was clearly responsiblefor the tone of the Women's Reserveand as Marines gradually gained con-fidence in her judgement, they paidmore attention to her suggestions.

At the outset, in an unusual move,Major Streeter was assigned a run-

The WRs parade at Camp Lejeune in 1944

fling mate—the very patient MajorRhoads who sat beside her for sixmonths and taught her the MarineCorps way. As it turned out, this wasa great advantage both for the Direc-tor and for the MCWR. CaptainMcAfee, first WAVE Director, onceremarked that she had not had a run-

Photo courtesy of Mary R. Rich

fling mate, and since she came intothe Navy totally inexperienced inmilitary custom, she made some un-fortunate mistakes which stirred upa certain resentment against her.Grateful for Major Rhoads' guidance,but somewhat embarrassed that af-ter six months on the job, she was the

Henderson Hall women Marines presented a stage production,"Manhattan Scene," in which they could once again don for-mal civilian attire in 1945. From left are: Sgt Shirley Heyser;

Sgt Margaret Michalik; Sgt Myrtle Douglas; Cpl EmmaGuidry; PFC Angeline Porfilio; Sgt Vivian Coss; Cpl BernicePeart; Sgt Mary Thompson; and Cpl Mary Kerkhoff.

Department of Defense Photo (USMC) 13064

26

Marine Corps Art CollectionArtist Marion A. Allen drew this sketch of Barracks 57 in the living quarters "homier" with an abundance of photographs,WR area at Camp Lejeune in 1944. The women made their stuffed animals, and other mementos of their civilian lives.

Members of the 2d Headquarters Battalion at Henderson Hall tor of Personnel at Headquarters, Marine Corps. With Genpass in review for BGen Littleton W T Wailer, Jr., the Direc- Weller is Maj Martrese R. Ferguson, battalion commander.

DeparLment of Defense Photo (USMC) 13470

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Photo courtesy of Sarah ThorntonCpl June Richardson models a "new" uni-form at a Parris Island fa5hion show.

only woman director with a mentorat her elbow, Major Streeter sent amemo to Colonel Wailer asking formore autonomy. Officers at everylevel in the chain of command recom-mended disapproval, but MajorStreeter eventually prevailed by ac-knowledging the wisdom of their de-cision to give her a runningmate — which she admitted kept herfrom falling flat on her face — and bymaking the points that one can't stayin leading reins forever, it would bemore dignified if she would be al-lowed to take over alone, and theMarine Corps wasn't getting itsmoney out of her.

So, on 29 October 1943, she be-came a Special Assistant to the Direc-tor of Personnel to advise him onmatters of policy. A month later on22 November, the law amended, shewas promoted to lieutenant coloneland then, on 1 February 1944, tocolonel. Still, she had no authorityof her own, never signed official let-ters except acknowledgements ofmonthly reports, and was expectednot to interfere unless the situationinvolved blatant disregard of ap-proved policies. Even then, she mere-ly apprised the Director of Personnelof problems and perhaps offered sug-gestions, but he took such action ashe saw fit.

It was quite a disappointment to

Colonel Streeter when she recog-nized, quite by chance, the limits ofher position. Once, looking for sym-pathy, she went to Colonel Wailerand said, "You know, Colonel, it's alittle hard on me. I've got so muchresponsibility and no authority."She was taken back by his quickresponse, "Colonel Streeter, you haveno responsibility either." It served hervery well that no one else — male orfemale—was ever quite sure just howmuch authority she did have.

The concept that WRs were Ma-rines just like all others, to be ad-ministered and managed in the samemanner as the men, was not easilyput into practice. Routine informa-tion was transmitted through the es-tablished chain oi command, but theDirector needed to know much moreif she held any hope of guiding thefledgling organization, nourishingand encouraging the good and put-ting a stop to the bad. Therefore, ateach station where WRs served, thesenior woman was designated Assis-tant for the Womens' Reserve and shewas charged with keeping the postcommander informed of all matterspertaining to the women under hiscommand.

Perhaps more importantly, shewas expected to keep in close touchwith the MCWR Director, advising

her on the state of health, welfare,jobs, training, housing, recreation,morale, and discipline of the wom-en while not violating the chain ofcommand. Each month, she sent awritten report to Headquarters witha copy to the post commandingofficer. It contained information onall aspects of the well-being of thewomen, along with comments ofparticular interest at the station. Nor-mally, the information was sharedwith Colonel Streeter who used it tosupplement her own frequent inspec-tion trips to assess the success orfailure of official policies.

In most cases, men supervisedwomen Marines on the job, but rou-tine matters of discipline were left tothe women officers. When maleofficers had serious problems withthe women at work, they generallyturned to the senior woman onboard. This unusual idea of sharedresponsibility was certainly alien toMarines and caused more than a fewproblems, but in most instances itworked.

Ordinarily, women Marines wereorganized into battalions or squa-drons with women line officers incommand. If a WR did not performher work satisfactorily, or arrivedlate, her male work supervisor didnot discipline her but reported theproblem to her commanding officer

At whatever base they were stationed in the States, women Marines had an activeathletic program, as shown by this 1945 MCWR softball team at Parris Island.

Photo courtesy of Sarah Thornton

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for action. On the other hand, if aWR requested leave, her command-ing officer did not grant it withoutfirst clearing it with the work super-visor. It often happened that unit ob-ligations in the barracks area, such asmess duty, training, parades, "fielddays;' and inspections conflicted withwork schedules, and this createdsome animosity between femalecommanders and male work super-visors.

There was genuine ambiguity, aswell, about the authority invested inwomen officers and NCOs. The stat-ed policy said that it was limited tothe administration of the Women'sReserve and to be exercised solelyover WRs. Someone had determinedthat the relationship of womenofficers and noncommissionedofficers to enlisted men was akin tothat of a civilian teacher in a militaryschool — senior women could give in-structions, but matters of disciplineand job performance were to bereferred to the man's commandingofficer.

In time, the Commandant foundit necessary to provide some clarifi-cation. "It appears that the servicesof officers and non-commissionedofficers of the Marine Corps Wom-en's Reserve are not being realized tothe fullest extent due to some doubtas to the scope of their authority

he wrote in March 1944. Ex-plaining that the matter had beenconsidered by the Navy Departmenthe continued, " ... it is concludedthat it is entirely proper for a wom-an officer to be assigned to dutysubordinate to a commanding officerand her directions and orders in theproper performance of such duty arethe acts of the officer in command,even though such orders are direct-ed to male personnel:' This simplestatement allowed women to becomeadjutants, personnel, and messofficers.

Out of consideration for thewomen — their welfare, morale, and

reputation — geographical assign-ments were based on several factorsbesides Marine Corps personnelneeds. Originally, women were to besent only to posts where their serv-ices had been requested and thenonly if appropriate housing wasavailable. The November 1942 sur-vey which queried Marine Corpsposts on the number of women theycould use also asked about suitablequarters.

In the 1940s, "nice girls" seldomlived away from home or by them-selves, and when they did, there wasalways a chaperone figure some-where in the picture. Even in war-time, and even in the midst of suchunusual circumstances as womenserving in the Armed Forces, homagewas paid to the accepted protocol. Toprevent loneliness and avoid un-favorable comments, no fewer thantwo Marine women were assigned toa station or sub-station, enlistedwomen could not be assigned to apost unless there was a womanofficer in the near vicinity, and it wascustomary to assign women officersto units of 25 or more WRs. The ra-tio was considerably less in theprocurement offices in large cities.

On most posts women Marineshad a commanding officer whoreported to the post commander.However, there was a new wrinkle inthat the women were an autonomousentity—proud to run their own out-fit, handling general administration,barracks area maintenance, and messhalls. The relatively few women Ma-rines stationed in large cities weregiven subsistence, a monetary al-lowance to pay for housing andmeals.

An exception was made iiiWashington, D.C., where a new andindependent post, Henderson Hall,was built to house the 2,400 WRs sta-tioned there. Officially, it was namedfor the first Commandant, GeneralArchibald Henderson, but under-standably it became "Hen Hall:'

When women joined the Marine

29

Corps they elevated the quality ofbarracks living up a notch or two.Stark squadbays were sometimessoftened with pastel paint and stuffedanimals could be found resting ontightly made bunks. Dressers werelined up to provide a little privacy,shower curtains were hung, anddoors closed off toilet stalls. Dayrooms set aside to entertain dateswere furnished with board games, pi-anos, and record players and spacewas found for cooking appliances,hair dryers, and sewing machines inlounges reserved for women only.

Marines didn't rush to embrace thefeminine touches, but after a reasona-ble period of adjustment, command-ing officers were proud to traipsevisitors and dignitaries through theimmaculate WR barracks and messhalls — clothing hung facing in onedirection, sparkling mirrors, no dustkittens under the bunks, and glossyfloors buffed to perfection withKotex.

As early as November 1942, Head-quarters wisely considered a discipli-nary plan for the Women's Reserve.The other services were no help sincethe WAACs still served with theArmy but were not part of it and theNavy had no predetermined policyexcept to say they would treatproblems according to principlesgenerally used for men withwhatever modifications might benecessary for special instances suchas sex offenses.

Not knowing what to expect andunwilling to leave it to chance, Ma-rines wisely established disciplinepolicies for Women Reservists:

1. Distinctions between officersand enlisted personnel would, ingeneral, be the same as made be-tween officers and enlisted men of theregular Marine Corps.

2. Officers would exercise normaldisciplinary functions and MCWRofficers would have similar respon-

sibility when they attained appropri-ate rank and command.

3. Establishment of brigs or postprisons for the confinement of wom-en was not contemplated, but con-finement to quarters was deemedappropriate.

4. Exclusive of sentences involvingconfinement, punishment would beawarded as it was for officers andmen of the regular Marine Corps.

5. Trial by court-martial would berecommended only in serious cases,particularly when confinementseemed a possiblity.

6. For offenses not warranting tri-al, separation from service would beby the most expeditious means in ac-cordance with policies applicable tomen.

Little time was wasted on femaleoffenders, and fortunately, there wererelatively few problems. Because oftheir communal, intense desire to beaccepted by Marines and approvedby the general public, women Ma-rines were their own severest criticsand peer pressure to walk a tight lineproved very effective. The recordsshow only 36 enlisted women sepa-rated out of the total of 18,000 as aresult of general and summarycourts-martial. When officersresigned to escape a general court-martial, their discharge was "underother than honorable conditions."

Unauthorized absences — usuallyless than 10 days —accounted for themost common infractions; violationsof regulations (uniform, fraterniza-tion, etc.) followed. Unlike earlierpolicies governing female militarynurses, marriage was a cause forneither discharge nor punishment,and pregnancy was considered amedical rather than disciplinary case.

Much as with the men, punish-ment included confinement to quart-ers, loss of pay, reduction in rank,extra police duties, and in extremecases, disciplinary discharges.However, the severity of punishmentmeted out to men and women ac-cused of sex offenses differed

markedly and the female officersbalked at the harsh treatment of WRsin these instances.

Marines are the acknowledgedmasters in matters of discipline andmorale, but there was no history tohelp them bridge the gender gapwhen the women landed. Thesewomen were not pliant teenagers, butrather adults, all 20 years old orolder. Some were married, some hadchildren, and a few had grandchil-dren. Since it was a time when fe-males were expected to adhere tonear-Victorian standards, militaryleaders assumed a paternalistic atti-tude and the inevitable occurred—grown, mature women were oftentreated like school girls. The seniorwomen officers, many with roots inacademia, were often more guiltythan the men.

A galling but unchallenged rulewas that women on board a base, un-like men of equal rank, could not

have an automobile. It added to theallure of assignment to the motorpool that the drivers of trucks, jeeps,and buses were more mobile thantheir sisters.

Luckily, Colonel Streeter was ableto balance high standards of behaviorwith an earthy understanding of hu-man nature and she seemed to knowjust when to tighten the reins andwhen to turn her head. She was prag-matic about discreet instances offraternization and she recognizedthat when dealing with men andwomen, some things could not bestrictly regulated. She was a giftedleader who subscribed to the theorythat ". . . the most able commanders,be they men or women, are thosewho take care of their people andwho keep them out of trouble by an-ticipating the problems that may con-front them."

She expected women officers,regardless of their assignment, to

Twin sisters Irene and Made! ene Spencer toured New England with the War Bonddrive show, "Direct Hit," which starred boxing champion Jack Dempsey, who wasa Coast Guard officer, cowboy star Gene Autry, and comedian Frank Fontaine.

Photo courtesy of Irene and MadeTene Spencer

30

share responsibility for the moraleand welfare of enlisted women andthis policy was sacred until separatewomen's units were abolished in the1970s. Colonel Streeter was rightfullyproud that the Women's Reserve or-ganized a recreation and educationservice long before the Special Serv-ices Division was formed, and shecredited it with the high morale of thewomen Marines. Yet, in the end, itwas her own good sense, concern forher women, pride in the MarineCorps, and determination that sus-tained the wartime WRs.

Since the Women's Army Corpsbegan as an auxiliary, it was lessstrictly regulated than the otherwomen's services. Consequently,WACs served in all theaters of warincluding the Southwest Pacific Area,the Southeast Asia Command, theChina-Burma-India Theater, the Chi-na Theater, and the Middle EastTheater, as well as in Europe, Afri-ca, Hawaii, Alaska, New Caledonia,Puerto Rico, and sevezl smaller sites.

While some members of Congress,uncomfortable about Americanwomen so close to combat, arguedfor restrictions, there were militarymen like Marine Lieutenant GeneralHolland M. Smith who insisted thatwomen Marines could be used atPearl Harbor to release men for com-bat. His view was shared by NavySecretary James V. Forrestal, whotold Congress that an estimated 5,000naval servicewomen were needed inHawaii. The outcome was new legis-lation, Public Law 441, 78th Con-gress, signed on 27 September 1944which amended Section 504, PublicLaw 689, 77th Congress, 30 July 1942by providing that:

Members of the Women'sReserve shall not be assigned toduty on board vessels of theNavy or in aircraft while suchaircraft are engaged in combatmissions, and shall not be as-signed to duty outside theAmerican Area and the Territo-ries of Hawaii and Alaska, andmay be assigned to duty outside

31

the continental United Statesonly upon their prior request.

Colonel Streeter, anticipating thenew policy, was concerned aboutchoosing mature, stable women forduty outside the continental UnitedStates. So, she went to see WACDirector Colonel Hobby, and said,"Look, Oveta, what did you find wasthe best way of selecting your peo-ple to go overseas?" By her own ad-mission, going straight to ColonelHobby was '1 . . not exactly accord-ing to Hoyle," but ". . . it was certainlysensible and nobody fussed about it"

Colonel Hobby offered simple ad-vice: "A person who's had a goodrecord in this country is likely to havea good record abroad, and a personwhds had disciplinary problems inthis country or whose health wasn'tgood, we wouldn't send abroad.Sometimes you sent more matureones than the newest enlistees."

With this in mind, the MarineCorps laid out the criteria for select-ing volunteers for duty in Hawaii:satisfactory record for a period of six

Following the devastation visited upon the carrier Franklin inoperations off Japan, as seen in the picture held by these Worn-

Photo courtesy of Evelyn Wailman Gins

en Marines, they were sent on a bond tour in 1945, whichtook them to Dallas, Texas, where this picture was taken.

months military service subsequentto completion of recruit or specialisttraining; motivation, the desire to doa good job, rather than excitement orhope of being near someone theycared about; good health; stable per-sonality; sufficient skill to fill oneof the billets for which WomenReservisits had been requested; andage. Not having been a significantfactor for success in the WACs, agewas not specified, but since the mini-mum tour was to be two years withlittle hope for leave, the health andstatus of dependents and close familymembers was considered.

This settled, in October 1944,Colonel Streeter and Major MarionB. Dryden flew to Hawaii to preparefor the arrival of the women andmost of all to inspect the proposedliving arrangements. Major Dryden,the senior woman officer serving inaviation, accompanied the Directorbecause half the women were to bestationed at the Marine Corps AirStation, Ewa.

There was no shortage of volun-teers and on 2 December an advanceparty of four officers—Major Mari-on Wing, commanding officer; First

Lieutenant Dorothy C. McGinnisadjutant; First Lieutenant Ruby V.Bishop, battalion quartermaster; andSecond Lieutenant Pearl M. Martin,recreation officer— flew to Hawaii tomake preliminary arrangements atPearl Harbor. Not long after, theywere followed by the advance partyfor Ewa, Captain Helen N. Crean,commanding officer; First LieutenantCaroline 1. Ransom, post exchangeofficer; Second Lieutenant Bertha K.Ballard, mess officer, along with Se-cond Lieutenant Constance M. Ber-kolz, mess officer for Pearl Harbor.

Meanwhile, a staging area was es-tablished at the Marine Corps Base,San Diego, where the women under-went a short but intense physical con-ditioning course that includedstrapping on a 10-pound pack topractice ascending and decending car-go nets and jumping into the water

Photo courtesy of Marine Corps GazetteCol Ruth Cheney Streeter, Director of Women Reserves, and Maj Martrese Fergu-son, commanding officer of the WRs at Henderson Hall, review a parade in Oc-tober 1944 during a conference of senior WR officers at Headquarters. Marine Corps.

In early 1945, first Women Reserves to be deployed overseas embarked for Hawaii,carrying haversacks with blanket rolls. Upon arrival they were greeted with acclaim.

Photo courtesy of Mary R. Rich

32

from shipboard. In the classroom,they learned about the people ofHawaii, how to recognize Allied in-signia, shipboard procedures, and theimportance of safeguarding militaryinformation.

On 25 January 1945, with CaptainMama V. Brady, officer-in-charge,the first contingent of five WRofficers and 160 enlisted women,with blanket rolls on their backs,marched up the gangplank of the5.5. Matsonia to sail from San Fran-cisco to Hawaii. Their shipmateswere a mixed lot of male Marines,sailors, WAVES, military wives, andex-POWs, and because of the lopsid-ed ratio of men to women, the WRswere restricted to a few crowdedspaces on board ship.

Two days out to sea, they changedto summer service uniform, and on28 January, they disembarked inHonolulu as the Pearl Harbor Ma-rine Barracks Band played "The Ma-rine's Hymn;' the "March of theWomen Marines;' and 'Aloha O&'The WAVES went ashore first—dressed in their best uniform. Thencame the iNRs — astonished that their

no-nonsense appearance in dun-garees, boondockers, and overseascaps seemed to please the crowd ofcurious Marines who had gatheredto look them over and welcome themto Hawaii.

The majority was quartered in bar-racks recently vacated by the Seabeesat the Moanalua Ridge Area adjacentto the Marine Corps Sixth BaseDepot and Camp Catlin. The large,wooden, airy barracks were alreadyvery comfortable, but neededmodifications for female occupants,so a small number of Seabees re-mained behind to do some recondi-tioning. Major Wing, the command-ing officer, '1 . . had a fine way oftreating men" according to ColonelStreeter.

No Seabee could pay for acoke. As many cokes a day ashe wanted and he couldn't payfor them. We got more workout of those Seabees than youcould ever imagine.In Hawaii, the women worked

much the same as in the States, withmost assigned to clerical jobs. Morethan a third of the women at Ewa

33

came from the Marine Corps Air Sta-tion, Cherry Point, and lost no timebefore picking up their tools andworking on the planes.

At Pearl Harbor, the WRs ran themotor transport section, servingnearly 16,000 persons a month.Scheduled around the clock and witha perfect safety record, they maneu-vered the mountainous roads ofHawaii in liberty buses, jeeps, and alltypes of trucks carrying mail, peo-ple, ammunition, and garbage. Ma-rines easily became accustomed to thesight of women drivers, but neverquite got used to grease-covered fe-male mechanics working under thehood or chassis of two-and-a-half-ton trucks.

The Deputy Commander, Head-quarters, Fleet Marine Force, Pacific,gave the WRs high marks for their ef-ficiency, attitude, and enthusiasm,and reported: 'The work of Women'sReserve personnel trained in MarineCorps Specialist Schools has meas-ured up to the standard of perfor-mance required of men in special-ists' assignments, such as Quarter-master Supply Men, Radio Opera-tors, Radio Repairmen, FinancialClerks, Drivers, and Mechanics:'

He went on, however, to criticizethe typical women's command struc-ture and recommended that, in thefuture, the administration of theWomen's Reserve be handled by theunit to which the women are at-tached for duty. It was a widespreadcomplaint, already voiced by ColonelStreeter and destined to be repeatedby Marines—men and women—fornearly 30 years until the all-femaleunits were finally disbanded in themid-1970s.

Just before she left the Corps,Colonel Streeter expressed somereservation about the wisdom ofsending WRs to Hawaii — despitetheir substantial contribution. Afterthe initial enthusiam, interest waned,boyfriends were opposed to havingtheir girls go so far away, especiallywhere they were vastly outnum-

Photo courtesy of Mildred Cornwell KelliherSoon after arriving in Hawaii, WRs stand to for evening colors in the women's area.

bered, and parents were put off bythe length of the tour. There was un-easiness among the women caused bythe shifting pronouncements fromFleet Marine Force, Pacific, abouthow many WRs they really needed,and at the same time, it was becom-ing clear that victory over Germanywas imminent. Fewer women volun-teered for overseas and the Directorwas disappointed.

By the summer of 1945, there were21 officers and 366 enlisted WomenReservists at Ewa, and 34 officers and580 enlisted women in the Women'sReserve Battalion, Marine GarrisonForces, 14th Naval District. Somestayed to process the men beingshipped through Hawaii on their wayhome for demobilization, but theywere all back in the States by Janu-ary. Because women serving overseasaccumulated credits for discharge atthe rate of two per month, comparedto one per month for those in theUnited States, most were eligible fordischarge soon after V-J Day.

Probably the most colorful of allthe Women's Reserve units was theMarine Corps Women's Reserve Bandformed in November 1943 by Cap-tain William F. Santelmann and

trained by members of the MarineBand. Prominent music schools andcolleges were canvassed for candi-dates and talented enlisted womenwere auditioned to find the requisite43 musicians. Its director was Master

Women Marines participated smartly in the VJ-Day paradein Honolulu on 11 August 1945. They also took part in other

Photo courtesy of Mildred Cornwell Kelliherceremonial events on the island of Ohu while stationed inthe islands, a tour they all found extremely enjoyable.

The WR Band at Parris Island, trained by musicians from the Marine Band inWashington, DC., played for women's reviews and men's formal guard mounts,and entertained both on and off of the bases throughout the country during the war.

Photo courtesy of Sarah Thornton

34

Sergeant Charlotte Plummer, form-erly director of the Portland, Oregon,public school system band and mem-ber of the city's municipal band.

The Camp Lejeune-based bandgave concerts at Parris Island, Cher-ry Point, Henderson Hall, and on na-tional radio programs. It played atguard mounts, inspections, gradua-tions, dances, and occasionally at theofficers club. It may be best remem-bered for stirring performances at theweekly Saturday morning MCWRrecruit depot reviews, marching tothe rhythm of its own "March of theWomen Marines;' written especiallyfor it by Musician First Class LouisSaverino of the Marine Band.

The band members were deeplyaffected by the hospital concertswhere they entertained young Ma-rines on gurneys, in wheelchairs,propped up in bed, and trying to ap-plaud without hands. They couldn'thelp but think of their own hus-bands, boyfriends, brothers,brothers-in-law, cousins, classmates,neighbors, and loved ones. Not aweek passed that a band memberdidn't receive bad news from thefront.

Playing for the wounded andmaimed Marines added an achingpoignancy to the graduation paradeswhere the band stepped off in front

of thousands of men headed for thePacific. And, it was equally hard formembers to be indifferent to thetrainloads of arriving recruits, as theygreeted the youths with stirring mar-tial music, already thinking of theday when they, too, would graduateand go off to war.

The WR Band played for PresidentRoosevelt and Admiral Chester W.Nimitz and, at the request of theTreasury Department, it made WarBond and Victory than tours, travel-ing to Chicago, Pittsburgh, Philadel-phia, and Cleveland — always to greatacclaim.

The work must have seemedfrivolous and glamorous and it cer-tainly had those moments. But theband members rehearsed long hours;toured in crowded, poorly main-tained buses; and carried heavy in-struments in pouring rain, under thebroiling sun, and while marchingthrough sucking mud. Most hadplayed in orchestras and bands ascivilians, but had never worked attheir music for eight intensive hoursa day.

The practice room was unheatedand Loudene Grady (saxophone andclarinet) and Louise Hensinger(Sousaphone and dance bandvocalist) had to get up before theothers and go over to the room and

build a fire in the coal stove beforerehearsals.

Ellen Stone and Bonnie Small-wood (snare drum, traps, percussion)recalled the base concerts:

The weather was changeableOne day a cold wind

would blow the marchingwomen musicians off balance,hitting the instruments againsttheir teeth and bruising theirarms. The drums would loosenup and have no tone. Valves onthe brass instruments wouldstick. The clarinets would crackand lips would stick to the brassmouthpieces.

No complaints were heard in Au-gust 1945 when the band directorcalled the women together to an-nounce that Japan was expected tosurrender at any moment:

we're to hit the streets inuniform, and we're to parade,parade, and parade! Whenword of the surrender comes,we must be ready to fall out andparade immediately . . . . Wehave to be ready to put on ouruniforms, get our instruments,and our music pouches, and beout of here.

They freshened their make-up,rolled up their hair, brought their in-

The MCWR Band, directed by TSgt Charlotte L. Plummer, performed in concert at the Camp Theater, Camp Lejeune.Department of Defense Photo (USMC) 7305

35

struments into the squadroom for thefirst time in two years, and quietlywaited. When at about 1900 on 14August the announcement finallycame, the women cheered and fellout for the victory celebration. Forthree hours they zigzagged through-out the base, playing until their lipswere sore, and blisters formed ontheir fingers and heels.

Thousands of Marines, men andwomen, spilled out of the barracksand the theater and danced in andout of their ranks. The womenplayed every march they knew byheart because they couldn't read theirmusic in the pandemonium that fol-lowed them. And, when entire sec-tions couldn't play because of theirtears, the drums just beat out thecadence.

Strength

A mere two-and-a-half years afterthe formation of the Marine CorpsWomen's Reserve, there were 18,460women on active duty: 17,640 enlist-

Photo courtesy of Audre Fall wells ed persons and 820 officers. WomenAudre Fall was the first drum major of the Marine Corps Women's Reserve Band, commanded 28 units and comprised

WRs Jo Meers, Mickey Merrill, Mary Szoroletta, and Neva "lemonade" at the Blue Mirror, a favorite "watering hole" onVredevoogd celebrate the end of the Pacific War with 14th Street in Washington, D.C., where Marines often met.

Photo courtesy of Neva Vredevoogd Austin

36

another 17. A few were assigned in-dependently to specialities such asrecruiting.

When the war finally ended withthe abrupt surrender of the Japanese,women Marines were working in 225specialties in 16 out of 21 functionalfields, filling 85 percent of the enlistedjobs at Headquarters Marine Corpsand comprising one-half to two-thirds of the permanent personnel atall large Marine Corps posts andstations.

Despite the tentative beginning,women's units flourished. Line or-ganizations included Women'sReserve battalions at HendersonHall, Quantico, Camp Lejeune, Par-ris Island, San Diego, Camp Pendle-ton, and Pearl Harbor; the SchoolDetachment at Camp Lejeune; andWomen Reservist companies at SanDiego, San Francisco, and the NavyYard at Mare Island, California, andin Washington, D.C., along with avi-ation units at Cherry Point, Quan-tico, Parris Island, El Toro, Miramar,El Centro, Santa Barbara, Mojave,

Ewa, and Eagle Mountain Lake(Texas).

Since it was natural to use womenin the quartermaster field, WRs wereworking at the Depot of Supplies inPhiladelphia; South Annex, Norfolk;Camp Elliott, California; and Depotof Supplies, San Francisco. They alsoworked at the four procurement dis-tricts: Eastern, in Philadelphia;Southern, in Atlanta; Central, inChicago; and Western, at SanFrancisco.

Demobilization

The task of demobilizing the warmachine was essentially an adminis-trative process requiring more clerksthan warriors. There's an old sawthat says an army fights on beansand bullets. In 1945, the War Depart-ment learned that an army disbandson a mountain of paperwork.Although nearly everyone expectedthe women to return home quickly,they were needed more, not less.Policies regarding the discharge ofwomen — not only from the MarineCorps, but also from the other

37

services — changed daily. Even whileacknowledging their own oppositionto women in uniform, a lot of menwere anxious to keep female clerkson the job to process separation ord-ers, cut paychecks, distribute medalsand decorations, arrange transporta-tion, assist surviving dependents,and otherwise settle the accounts ofthousands of Marines.

The demobilization procedurescalled for mandatory resignation ordischarge of all WRs, officers and en-listed women, by 1 September 1946.In fact, in November 1945 the Com-mandant was quoted in thenewspapers as saying that the MarineCorps Women's Reserve would bereduced to 2,638 enlisted women and200 officers by 30 June 1946 and theorganization '1 . * will completelyvanish from the picture by Septem-ber...:'

With the MCWR already at two-thirds its peak strength, ColonelStreeter, believing women should re-main no longer than needed, askedto be released. She resigned on 6 De-cember 1945 and, the following day,her assistant, Lieutenant ColonelKatherine A. Towle, was appointedthe second Director of the wartimeMarine Corps Women's Reserve andpromoted to colonel. To ColonelTowle fell the dual responsibility ofoverseeing the demobilization of thewomen and planning for a postwarwomen's organization.

In the spring of 1946 there was asteady stream of correspondenceamong the Services exploring vari-ous proposals to give women perma-nent status in the military. TheCommandant endorsed a plan for asmall women's reserve to be led inpeacetime by a director with threeofficers at Headquarters and six inrecruiting.

Conceding that some sort of wom-en's military organization was in-evitable, and legislation authorizingit was pending, the Marine Corpsrelaxed the requirement that WR

Photo courtesy of Sarah ThorntonAs other WRs look on, SSgt Elaine Martin cuts the birthday cake on 13 February1946 for Parris Island Marines celebrating the 3d anniversary of the founding worn-en's program. Demobilization of women Marines had already begun by this date.

officers resign. Those still on activeduty could ask for assignment to in-active status, and those already sepa-rated were sent a letter asking themto reenlist in the Reserve and remind-ing them of the privileges andresponsibilities of belonging to theMarine Corps Reserve. Upon re-quest, they were reappointed to thepermanent rank held upon resig-nation.

A point system, similar but notidentical to the one used for men, wasworked out to control the flow ofseparations. Women with 25 pointson 1 September 1945 were eligible forimmediate discharge and the requirednumber of points was progressivelyreduced until it reached zero the fol-lowing July. Exceptions were madeand immediate separation was pos-sible for women at least 38 years old(later changed to 35) and for marriedwomen whose servicemen husbandshad been discharged. Married wom-en with a minimum of one year'sservice could be released if their hus-bands, discharged or not, were in thecountry.

At first, commanding officersreleased women directly from theirduty stations and when a unit'sstrength fell below 100, it was dis-banded. Later, separation centerswere set up at Henderson Hall,

Camp Lejeune, San Diego, and ElToro. In contrast to the others, theWRs in San Diego were attached tothe male 1st Separation Company.Maintaining the paternalistic stancetaken right from the start, femaleleaders were charged with assistingthe women through the transitionfrom Marine to civilian.

The office of the wartime MCWRwas closed on 15 June 1946 whenColonel Towle began terminal leave.Before leaving the Marine Corps toreturn to the University of Califor-nia's Berkeley campus as administra-tive assistant to the vice presidentand provost, Colonel Towle pro-posed the name of Major Julia E.

Photo courtesy of Raelyn Harman Subramanian

The WRs of Squadroom 1, Barracks & Company L, Henderson Hall, enjoy a farewell dinner on Admiral Nimitz Day in 1945.

Capt Henry W Bransom swears in Julia E. Ham blet, the first woman from thenation's capital to join the Marine Corps, who became the director of the postwarWomen's Reserve, 1946-1 948. She is credited with maintaining the interest of thereleased WRs during those years and for organizing WR platoons across the country.

Marine Corps Historical Collection

38

Hamblet to be director of the wom-en's postwar organization. She wrote:

It is believed that MajorHamblet has all the attributesand qualifications desirable ina director of a postwar MCWR.She is a college graduate, about30 years of age (which is consi-dered a great advantage in ap-pealing to volunteers amongyounger women, especiallythose of college age), of fine ap-pearance, with a great deal ofnatural dignity and poise, andhas an outstanding servicerecord and reputation. She hashad experience in both line andaviation assignments and hasserved in the present MCWRsince her commissioning in theFirst Officers' Class in May1943.The recommendation was ac-

knowledged by Headquarters but notacted upon. Meanwhile ColonelTowle's assistant, Captain Mary V. II-lich, set to work tidying up the de-tails of shutting down the wartimeWomen's Reserve. With one privatefirst class, Captain Illich expected tofinish by 15 July 1946, about amonth and a half ahead of the Com-mandant's schedule.

Ironically, on the day before sheleft, Colonel Towle, in a report of thestate of the MCWR to the Directorof Personnel, wrote:

General morale duringdemobilization has beengratifyingly high. Part of thishad been due to the definitestand the Marine Corps itselfhad taken from the beginningon MCWR demobilization,particularly in setting andmaintaining 1 September as theterminal date of the wartimeWomen's Reserve. It has been agoal to work toward, and Ma-rine Corps women have neverhad the uncertainty and confu-sion concerning demobilization

The cover of the music for "March of theWomen Marines," music and words byLouis Saverino and Emil Grasser,respectively, of the U.S. Marine Band.

cover sheet courtesy of Marine Band

which have occurred in some ofthe other women's services be-cause of the shifting of date andchanges in policy.

How could she have foreseen thatas the September deadline neared,case after case of exception would berequested? Few were granted, but itkept Captain Illich so busy that on30 August she received an assistant,First Lieutenant Mary Janice Hale.Lieutenant Hale's appointment cameon the heels of a major change inpolicy when on 7 August 1946 theCommandant authorized keeping100 WRs on active duty at HQMC,for a period of eight months. Thewomen, clerk typists, payroll clerks,and auditors were assigned to a newdivision of the Personnel Division toadminister the Armed Forces LeaveAct of 1946. As an inducement tostay, qualified privates first class whoapplied were automatically promot-ed to corporal.

The very next day, on 8 August,the Commandant authorized theretention of even more WRs —200who would stay until 30 June1947—10 months beyond the origi-nal deadline for complete disband-ment. He clearly specified that thesewomen". . . must have clerical, steno-graphic or other specific ability (nocooks, truck drivers, hairdressers,etc., unless they have a secondaryclerical specification)."

So, in the midst of a determineddrive to demobilize the Women'sReserve, 300 women were asked tostay, and even as the last of the WRbarracks was being closed, a newunit, Company F, 1st HeadquartersBattalion, Headquarters, U.S. MarineCorps, commanded by First Lieu-tenant Regina M. Durant, was acti-vated on 19 August 1946 with 12officers and 286 enlisted women.

An anonymous author summedup the demobilization of the MarineCorps Women's Reserve quite well inan undated, unsigned brief historythat begins:

Photo courtesy of Raelyn Harman SubramanianSisters Petrina and Rose Nigro, with their fellow Marine, Betty Hall, have dinnerin Washington, D.C., in 1945, before Rose and Betty leave for duty in San Diego.

39

It is rumored that when itwas announced that womenwere going to be enlisted in theMarine Corps the air wascolored with profanity in thelanguage of every nation as themembers of the old Corpsgathered to discuss this earth-shattering calamity. It is entire-ly probable that the wailing andmoaning which went on thatday amongst the old Marineswas never equaled — never, thatis, until it was announced thatthe women Marines were goinghome. Then, with a completereversal of attitude, many ofthose same Marines declaredthat the women in their officeswere essential military person-nel and absolutely could not bespared from the office.

On its first-year anniversary, 13February 1944, the Women's Reservereceived a treasured message fromPresident Franklin D. Roosevelt:

The nation is as proud of youas of your fellow Marines — forMarine women are upholdingthe brilliant traditions of theCorps with a spirit of loyaltyand diligence worthy of thehighest admiration of allAmericans. You have quicklyand efficiently taken over scoresof different kinds of duties thatnot long ago were consideredstrictly masculine assignments;and in doing so, you have freeda large number of well-trained,battle-ready men of the corpsfor action .

But, standing out among all thebeautifully worded accolades be-stowed on the women Marines ofWorld War II, is a simple statementmade by General Holcomb, the Com-mandant so opposed to having wom-en in the Marine Corps in thebeginning: 'like most Marines, whenthe matter first came up I didn't be-lieve women could serve any usefulpurpose in the Marine Corps .Since then I've changed my mind:'

Department of Defense Photo (USMC) A119296The statue of Molly Marine at the corner of Elke Place and Canal Street in NewOrleans was dedicated on 10 November 1943 to the women of the Marine Corpsand serves as a symbol of continuous service for today's women Marines, who sendan anniversary tribute each year from their duty stations around the world.

Doris Bibb and members of the Women Marines Association and other former Ma-rine associates gather at the funeral of Col Ruth Cheney Streeter, on 3 October 1990.

Photo courtesy of Doris S. Bibb

40

The primary sources for this pamphlet areHistory of the Marine Corps Women'sReserve: A Critical Analysis of its De-velopment and Operation, 1943-1945(Washington 6Dec45), written by ColsRuth Cheney Streeter and Katherine A.Towle at the end of the war, and LtCoI PatMeid's Marine Corps Women's Reserve inWorld War II (Washington: HistoricalBranch, G-3 Division, Headquarters, U.S.Marine Corps, 1968).

Oral history transcripts of interviewswith Col Streeter, Ruth Cheney Streeter, ALively Life (Morristown, N.J. 1979), andCol Katherine A. Towle, Katherine A.Towle, Administration and Leadership(Berkeley: University of California, 1970),give behind the scenes insights into the era.

Women in the Military: An UnfinishedRevolution, written by MajGen JeanneHoIm, USAF (Ret), is a key reference be-cause it presents a complete picture, com-paring the road taken by each service inintegrating women into the Armed Forcesand argues that interservice cooperationamong the female directors played a vitalpart in the success of all.

Special thanks are reserved for Peter A.Soderbergh, who allowed the author to useanecdotal material from his entertainingand informative social history, WomenMarines: The World War/I Era (Westportand London: Praeger Publishers, 1992).Stories about the women of the WR Bandare from their privately published history,Musical Women Marines of World War 11.

The author's previously published, AHistory of the Women Marines, 1946-1977(Washington, D.C.: History and MuseumsDvision, Headquarters, U.S. MarineCorps, 1986), and Coping With Sexism inthe Military (New York: The Rosen Pub-lishing Group, 1990), were also used. Ma-rine Corps World War II recruitingbrochures and booklets, especially "Be AMarine . . . Free a Marine to Fight: U. S.Marine Corps Women's Reserve'ç and "SoProudly We Serve: U. S. Marine CorpsWomen's Reserve;' were important soucesof information regarding recruiting, train-ing, and job opportunities.

"Lady Leathernecks," written by ColTowle for the Marine Corps Gazette andpublished in February 1946, is a good sum-mary of the era. Finally, the contributionsof the WRs who entrusted me with theirprecious photographs and took the time topen their personal stories were immeasura-ble. I hope this overview brings back manyfond memories.

C olonel Mary V. Stremlow, U.S. MarineCorps Reserve (Ret), Deputy Director, New

York State Division of Veterans' Affairs, has abachelor of science degree from New York StateUniversity College at Buffalo. Her Marine Corpsservice includes experience as a company com-mander; staff operations officer; executive officer,Woman Recruit Training Battalion, Parris Island;inspector-instructor, Women's Reserve Platoon,3d Infantry Battalion, Boston; instructor at the

Woman Officer School, Quantico; woman officer selection officer for the 1st Ma-rine Corps District; and officer-in-charge, Mobilization Station, Buffalo.

She is the author of an official history, A History of the Women Marines,1 946-1977, and of Coping With Sexism in the Military. She is a frequent publicspeaker on the history of women veterans and for three years served on the U.S.Department of Veterans Affairs Advisory Committee on Women Veterans.

Colonel Stremlow counts three other women Marines in her family — SergeantRose M. Nigro and Master Sergeant Petrina C. Nigro, both Women Reservists inWorld War II, and her sister, retired Major Carol Vertalino Diliberto.

PCN 190 003129 00

, '-zz-'t'9%

WORLD WAR II

THIS PAMPHLET HISTORY, one in a series devoted to U.S. Marines in theWorld War II era, is published for the education and training of Marines bythe History and Museums Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps,Washington, D.C., as a part of the U.S. Department of Defense observanceof the 50th anniversary of victory in that war.

Editorial costs of preparing this pamphlet have been defrayed in part bya bequest from the estate of Emilie H. Watts, in memory of her late husband,Thomas M. Watts, who served as a Marine and was the recipient of a PurpleHeart.

WORLD WAR II COMMEMORATIVE SERIES

DIRECTOR OF MARINE CORPS HISTORY AND MUSEUMSBrigadier General Edwin H. Simmons, USMC (Ret)

GENERAL EDITOR,WORLD WAR II COMMEMORATIVE SERIES

Benis M. Frank

CARTOGRAPHIC CONSULTANTGeorge C. MacGillivray

EDITING AND DESIGN SECTION, HIS TORY AND MUSEUMS DIVISIONRobert E. Struder, Senior Editor; W. Stephen Hill, Visual Information

Specialist; Catherine A. Kerns, Composition Services Technician

Marine Corps Historical CenterBuilding 58, Washington Navy Yard

Washington, D.C. 20374-5040

1994