College Knowledge - storage.googleapis.com · college-eligible students from middle-income backgrounds to enroll in college (Berkner & Chavez, 1997; Choy, 1998). Even high achieving

College Knowledge:Addressing

Information Barriersto College

Joel H. Vargas, Ed.D.

Published byThe Education Resources Institute

(TERI)

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The Education Resources Institute (TERI)





(TERI)





(TERI)

The Education Resources InstitutePark Square Building

31 St. James Avenue, 6th floorBoston, MA 02116

TERIPhone: 800-255-TERI

Fax: 617-422-8841Web: www.teri.org

Copyright © 2004The Education Resources Institute (TERI)

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COLLEGE KNOWLEDGE: ADDRESSING INFORMATION BARRIERS TO COLLEGE

TERI MISSION STATEMENTTERI’s mission is to promote access to education at all levels forstudents of all ages and backgrounds. TERI believes that effectiveeducation provides the means for the creation of opportunities foreach individual within our free society and the means for advancingthe social, economic and moral conduct of our society.

TERI pursues this mission through: (i) efforts to improve K-12education in our community; (ii) sponsorship of college accessinformation programs and centers; (iii) administration and guaranteeof its national and international education loan programs; and(iv) leadership of local and national public policy analysesrecommending actions to promote educational opportunity.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

• TERI’s programs and activities will be conducted with thehighest degree of integrity and professionalism and will be asbroadly inclusive as possible.

• TERI’s efforts will be guided by an intellectual andanalytical honesty seeking the best interests of current andprospective students.

• TERI will play a leadership role in identifying and developingpublic policy issues concerning the quality of education andopportunities for access to education.

• TERI will partner with other organizations in both its loanprograms and college access programs in the pursuit ofcommon objectives to achieve greater results and impacts.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSCollege Knowledge: Addressing Information Barriers to College, written byJoel H. Vargas for The Education Resources Institute (TERI), was made possible bythe Wallace-Reader’s Digest Fund whose mission is to foster fundamental improve-ment in the quality of educational and career development opportunities for all school-age youth and to increase access to these improved services for young people in low-income communities. Vargas is Senior Project Manager at Jobs for the Future.

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Possessing the knowledge about how toprepare for and apply to college is essential to

students’ obtaining the opportunity to attend. Yet,getting information and advice about collegepreparation, financial aid, and planning is mostdifficult for those young people who are foundleast often in higher education institutions,namely, low-income students, racial and ethnicminorities, and youth from families with noprevious college-going history1.

These are the unsettling findings of researchregarding the role of information and guidance inenabling students to secure a college education.Individuals from families where the parents havenot gone to college are less likely to have thepersonal or institutional connections throughwhich students typically receive encouragement toattend college as well as guidance in the collegeplanning process. Considering how critical collegeattainment is to future economic status andprofessional mobility (National Center forEducation Statistics, 1999; 2001), policies topromote college access must include a focus onways to provide underserved students with theinformation and guidance they need.

A review of the research illustrates the unmetneeds of low-income, first-generation, andminority students for information and guidanceessential to college access. This study describesthe information that constitutes the “collegeknowledge” needed to apply to and attend college

and analyzes the barriers faced by low-incomeand minority students and those who are the firstgeneration in their families to attend college.The analysis is based on research reports andsyntheses of literature about the role of informa-tion, counseling, and other factors in studentsgoing to college. The report’s main findings are:

• College-preparatory information andguidance are major components in realizingcollege aspirations.

• Students traditionally underrepresented inhigher education do not naturally possess“college knowledge.” Most come fromfamilies with limited or no college experienceand attend schools that provide only minimalcollege guidance.

• The knowledge gap for underrepresentedstudents is exacerbated by their limitedaccess to technology and technologicalinnovations in college admissions andrecruitment via the Internet.

• Finally, although the information gapproblem is severe, it is not insurmountable.Research suggests that interventions focusedon providing information and guidanceabout college to underrepresented studentsand families, both early and often, can supplythem with the “college knowledge” theysorely need.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

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Considerable research has been conducted onthe barriers to higher education access and

success faced by low-income students and thosewho are the first generation in their families toattend college. This paper discusses much of thatresearch and summarizes the main findings.Several key findings clearly demonstrate thereasons why college-preparatory information andguidance for underserved students are so important:

• Because underrepresented students and theirfamilies lack basic knowledge about thecollege-going process, they have a great needfor extensive information, beginning as earlyas the 5th grade, related to connecting theirpossible career interests with theireducational goals, describing the courses theyneed for college admission, and explainingthe availability of financial aid.

• Underrepresented students also have a greatneed for intensive guidance in order to talkthrough their fears and concerns about

INTRODUCTION

college, their aspirations and theireducational and career goals, their need forfinancial aid, and the decision-makingprocess related to college attendance.

• Regrettably, the students who have thegreatest need for access to collegepreparatory materials and to one-on-oneguidance are usually the ones least likely toreceive these services in their schools due tosuch constraints as reductions in the size ofschool guidance staffs, the huge student-to-guidance counselor ratios at many schools,and the necessity of the overburdenedguidance staff to concentrate on disciplineissues and administrative tasks.

Although college information and guidanceservices are oftentimes not readily available todisadvantaged and low-income students in theirschools, they are available in those cities acrossthe country that have community-based collegeaccess centers.

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WHAT ROLE DOES INFORMATION PLAY INCOLLEGE ACCESS?

Knowledge about college throughout the middle andhigh school years plays an important role in securingaccess to higher learning, from cultivating college aspira-tions to choosing an appropriate college and getting finan-cial aid. There is evidence to suggest that students aremore likely to attain a college education when they andtheir families are informed about how to prepare and planfor it.

Parents have a critical impact on the college aspirationsof their children. Such aspirations are a prerequisite for,and indeed may statistically relate to college attendance(St. John, 1991). Children of more educated parents aremore likely to develop college aspirations than those withless educated parents. College-educated parents communi-cate their educational “values” to students, are “familiarwith the [college] experience and are better equipped toexplain . . . how the college system is structured, how itworks, and how the student can prepare for it” (Hossler,Schmit, & Vesper, 1999, p. 26).

Above and beyond whether students possess theacademic qualifications or desire to attend college, whenthe time comes to apply, access to “college knowledge”may determine whether or not they ultimately go. Studiessuggest that college qualified low-income students whoreceive college preparatory guidance are more likely toattend college than those who don’t (King, 1996). Thosetaking the appropriate admissions steps are as likely ascollege-eligible students from middle-income backgroundsto enroll in college (Berkner & Chavez, 1997; Choy, 1998).

Even high achieving students from low-income back-grounds who aspire to attend college often encounterinformational barriers which may prevent their enrollment.For example, only 53 percent of low-income students withhigh standardized test scores enrolled in college if neitherthey nor their parents “[spoke] to someone about financialaid” (Akerhielm et al., 1998) whereas 84 percent of low-income students who reported that they or their parentsconsulted with someone enrolled in college. (Akerhielm etal., 1998).

Research also indicates that most low-income studentsmake notably different types of college choices than

Nicole Yandow began participating inthe Vermont Student AssistanceCorporation (VSAC) Outreach Programin the fall of her junior year at ColchesterHigh School in Vermont on the advice ofher guidance counselor. Nicole camefrom a single parent family with a modestincome where she was the first person toaspire to higher education. She was anexcellent student, maintaining a 3.92 GPA,while working two part-time jobs.

Nicole knew that she wanted to go tocollege, but she needed help identify-ing appropriate colleges to apply tobased on her interests, and help withapplying for financial aid. Financial aidwas very important in her decisionabout where to go college. Shereported that counselors at VSAC “werevery helpful in explaining the financialaid process, assisting me with thefinancial aid forms, and interpreting thetypes of financial aid for me.”

As a result of the financial aid shereceived, Nicole was able to enroll inthe Univesity of Vermont.

How College Knowledge Helps

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higher-income students. One study found that“students with less educated or lower-incomeparents . . . were especially likely to attend lower-selectivity institutions, even if their academicability and achievements were high” (Hearn, 1991,p. 164). This finding suggests that low-incomestudents are not fully aware of their collegeoptions nor do they develop higher aspirationsregarding college selection. Other research find-ings show that low-income students are notencouraged by their families, communities, orschools to broaden their college-option horizons(Horvat, 1996; McDonough, 1997).

WHO POSSESSES WHAT KINDS OF

COLLEGE KNOWLEDGE?Low-income, minority and first generation

students are especially likely to lack specific typesof “college knowledge,” which appears to be ofsubstantial importance. They often do not under-stand the steps necessary to prepare for highereducation. These steps include knowing abouthow to finance a college education, to completebasic admissions procedures, and to make connec-tions between career goals and educationalrequirements. Underrepresented students espe-cially need encouragement to take rigorouscollege-preparatory courses and to consider anappropriate range of college options, in light of therole college selection plays in future academicsuccess and college persistence.

Inequities in college knowledge mayresult from the fact that the families ofunderrepresented students do not haveexperience or familiarity with theeducational system leading to college.Students do not naturally inherit the“cultural capital” (Bourdieu, 1973)necessary to realize or to perceivethemselves as being entitled to certaineducational opportunities (Lareau, 1989;McDonough, 1997; Perna, 998a; Perna,1998b).

Some of the major differences and discrepanciesin college knowledge and guidance are discussedbelow.

Paying for CollegeParents and students from underrepresented

groups consistently are the most misinformedabout college costs and financial aid. They com-monly overestimate college costs and are unawareof the possibility of and procedures for receivingfinancial aid to pay for college.

An American Council on Education (ACE)study found that the “most uninformed andfearful” respondents regarding college financingwere “first-generation college families, minoritygroup members, and those with low incomes”(Ikenberry & Hartle, 1998). While a more recentfollow-up study by ACE showed improvements infinancial aid awareness, the authors warned thatthe continued “pronounced” level of misunder-standings about the cost of college amongunderrepresented populations could still discour-age them from attending (Ikenberry & Hartle2000). Another study found that low-incomeparents often did not realize that most financialaid is awarded on the basis of financial needrather than academic merit, and many low-incomeparents of high-achieving students simply “didnot know how” to apply for financial aid(Akerhielm et al., 1998, p. 56).

Lacking financial aid information clearly candiscourage students from pursuing college.Research suggests that parents’ expressions ofdiscouragement about college plans and students’non-enrollment may be directly related to the lackof adequate information about college costs andfinancial aid (Akerhielm et al., 1998; GeneralAccounting Office, 1990; Ikenberry & Hartle, 1998;Post, 1990; Virginia State Department of Education,1993).

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Barbara Camille graduated from EastBoston High School in Massachusetts.She came from a family that puts a highvalue on education. She maintained a3.31 average, while working part timedeveloping programs for school childrenwho visited the Boston Children’sMuseum.

Barbara was encouraged by a friend tovisit Boston’s Higher Education Infor-mation Center. She said that theassistance she received in thinkingthrough what she might like to doprofessionally after college helped herdetermine where she would apply.The counselors also helped her throughthe financial aid application process.She applied to several colleges and wasadmitted to LeMoyne College in NewYork with financial aid.

Applying to CollegeThe processes involved in applying to college—taking

the SAT or the ACT, for instance—may seem to be com-mon knowledge, but they are not obvious to under-represented students and their families. Research showsthat first-generation, low-income, and minority studentsare less likely than others to take college entrance exami-nations or complete application procedures, even when theyaspire to college (Orfield & Paul, 1994) and are otherwise“college-qualified” (Berkner & Chavez, 1997). A recentreport found that among African-American and Hispanicseniors who took the ACT college admissions exam, manysaid that while their parents encouraged their collegepursuits, they also “often were unaware of the many stepsinvolved in postsecondary planning” (Noeth & Wimberly,2002).

These findings underscore the likelihood that thefailure of underrepresented students to prepare for collegeis not solely attributable to absence of ability or will.Rather, these students and their families often do notreceive basic information about college admissionsrequirements. They also may find it challenging to man-age all of the various deadlines and paperwork associatedwith applying to college and for financial aid (Noeth &Wimberly, 2002). The acute need among underrepresentedstudents for information and guidance in negotiatingadmissions and financial aid procedures is also echoed inearlier research reports (Dixon, 1986; National Student AidCoalition, 1985).

Connecting Career and Educational PlansAcademic preparation is an essential part of career and

college planning. Since many professions require specifictraining and credentials, students need to know whateducational pathways will lead to their desired goals andhow current academic performance affects future options.Yet, underrepresented students often do not connectfuture career expectations with current educationaldecisions (Arbona, 1994).

Even though low-income middle school stu-dents consistently express high academic andoccupational aspirations, often they do notdemonstrate realism of choice or planfulness in



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their career development . . . Students also needto become aware of the relationship betweentheir high school grades and curriculum, andtheir probabilities to attend college and attaintheir occupational aspirations in the future(Arbona, 1994, p. 21).

Likewise, a study of high school students in Indianafound that while students overwhelmingly expressed“high hopes” for their educational and career advance-ment, they often faced “long odds” in realizing these hopesbecause they lacked tangible knowledge about how theircurrent academic choices affected their future goals(Orfield & Paul, 1994).

Parental influence is also pivotal to helping studentsmake connections between academic preparation andcareers. Parents with less formal education are less likelythan others to engage in discussions with their childrenabout career plans (Arbona, 1994; Southeastern Educa-tional Improvement Lab, 1989; Wells & Gaus, 1991).

High School Course TakingResearch demonstrates that students who take rigorous

college preparatory courses are much more likely to attendcollege (Akerhielm et al., 1998; Horn, 1997; Horn & Nuñez,2000; Oakes, Gamoran, & Page, 1992; Pelavin & Kane,1990). Yet, when compared to high-income students andthose whose parents have more education, underrepre-sented students are less likely to take courses that predictcollege enrollment or that are required for admission(Akerhielm et al., 1998; Horn & Nuñez, 2000; Orfield &Paul, 1994).

One reason for such disparities may be that studentsand their parents may not know the significance of takingcertain courses. For example, among 487 students fromMassachusetts middle schools serving high concentrationsof minority and low-income youth, many studentsplanned to attend college, but only a fraction intended totake the courses in high school needed for college admis-sion (Mayer, 1991). Parents of underrepresented studentsare less likely than other parents to know about therepercussions of current course choices on future classplacements, to know about the differences between highschool curricular tracks, or to feel entitled to request

Charles Berry graduated from StrawberryMansion High School in Philadelphia in2000 with a GPA of 3.2. He attends theUniversity of the Arts in Philadelphiamajoring in computer graphics andminoring in dance.

Charles became involved in thePhiladelphia College Access Center in middle school. He used many of theCollege Access Center services while hewas in high school, including informationresources and advising services. He saidthat, “If I hadn’t had the help, guidance,and encouragement from my accesscenter counselor, I would not have goneto college.” His counselor encouragedhim to choose a major that he knew hewould enjoy; as a result, he is combininghis interests with his creative talents in thearts.


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changes to higher-level courses for their children (South-eastern Educational Improvement Lab, 1989; Useem, 1992;Yonezawa, 1997). Student and parental confusion aboutcourses can be compounded when high schools offer awide variety of courses, which include non-college prepa-ratory classes (Lee, 1993; Powell, Farrar, & Cohen, 1985).

Students’ need for the information and encouragementto take challenging high school courses is particularlycritical because of the effects of course taking on academicachievement and college degree completion. A report(Oakes et al., 2000) on the distribution of advanced coursesin California high schools described the importance ofhigh school courses in these terms:

Several studies have documented that the moreacademic courses students take, the morepositive their schooling outcomes. Advancedcourses, in particular, have positive effects onstudent achievement, particularly in science andmathematics, in students’ preparedness for college,and in their success in college-level work. (p. 16).

Given the importance of a student’s high school course-taking record as a factor in completing a four-year collegedegree (Adelman 1999), students who receive the informa-tion regarding the proper courses to take are more likely todevelop the academic skills associated with degreecompletion.

College SelectionWhen exploring and applying to colleges, knowing

how to identify a list of appropriate colleges from numer-ous options has important consequences. Research showsthat finding a college which coincides with students’ socialand academic expectations and interests may be a criticalfactor in their success in and completion of college(Braxton, Vesper, & Hossler, 1995; Merisotis, 2000). Further,students who engage in more “diverse” informationgathering may subsequently be more satisfied with theircollege choices than those who do not (Hamrick & Hossler,1996). Students attending more selective colleges are morelikely to persist to degree completion than studentsattending less selective schools, even when comparingstudents with comparable pre-college academic achieve-ments (Bowen & Bok, 1998; Kane, 1998).

Frank Baptiste, a graduate of ColchesterHigh School in Vermont, is from a singleparent family whose only income isdisability insurance. He always workedhard in school and challenged himselfacademically by taking honors andupper-level courses. While maintaining a3.5 GPA in high school, Frank worked atDunkin Donuts after school and onweekends.

Frank participated in the VermontStudent Assistance Corporation(VSAC) Outreach Program beginning inmiddle school. While in middle school,he met with a mentor who helped himfocus on school and assisted him withplanning his high school courses. Duringhigh school, he received help from VSACin goal setting, college planning andcareer exploration. Frank said that theVSAC staff and volunteers “alwaysencouraged me to challenge myself andto aim high, and they helped me to stayon track.” As a result of the support hereceived, Frank applied to several privatecolleges and the University of NewHampshire where he is now a student.


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Low-income students are less likely to engagein wide-ranging information gathering, whichmay be related to finding a good college match(Hamrick & Hossler, 1996). Also when comparedto students of other social backgrounds but withsimilar levels of academic performance, studentsfrom underrepresented backgrounds are morelikely to attend two-year colleges or less selectivefour-year colleges (Choy, 1998, Berkner & Chavez,1997; Gándara & Bial, 2001; Hearn, 1991). Eventhough two-year colleges play an important role inthe higher education system2, these findingssuggest many such students are unaware of thefull range of college options available to them3.

HOW WELL DO SCHOOLS MEET THE

COLLEGE KNOWLEDGE NEEDS OF LOW-INCOME AND UNDERREPRESENTED

STUDENTS?Students who are less likely to have the initial

knowledge required to find their way to collegenecessarily rely more heavily on their schools forsuch information (General Accounting Office,1990; Orfield et al., 1984). Studies suggest thatthere is a positive correlation between students’access to counselors in high school and theirenrollment in college preparatory classes.(Gándara et al., 1998; Lee & Ekstrom, 1987).

Unfortunately, those students who need accessto college-preparatory guidance in schools aremost often the least likely to receive it. Withinpublic schools, guidance-counseling resources areat a premium with average ratios of 500 studentsfor every counselor (National Center for Educa-tion Statistics, 1999). Furthermore, guidancecounselors frequently are preoccupied withpressing disciplinary issues or administrativetasks, which take time from providing collegeadvising (Arbona, 1994; Hart & Jacobi, 1992;Orfield & Paul, 1994; Steinberg, 1988; VirginiaState Department of Education, 1993). Counselorsalso may not have received adequate training to

offer up-to-date guidance with regard to highereducation or the labor market (Hart & Jacobi, 1992;Orfield & Paul, 1994). In confronting such institu-tional constraints, they may be forced to be more“reactive” than “proactive” in providing college-preparatory advising (Hart & Jacobi, 1992, p. 29).Thus, they may, by default, favor students who aremore aggressive in seeking them out or studentswhom they perceive to be college ‘material’ (Hart& Jacobi, 1992; Virginia State Department ofEducation, 1993).

Among public schools, many inequities exist inthe availability of college guidance. In terms oftime dedicated to college counseling, student-to-counselor ratios, and the frequency of student-to-counselor contact about college, schools servingmore low-income and minority students onaverage appear to offer less guidance than thoseserving higher-income and predominantly whitepopulations (Holmes, 1986; Lee & Ekstrom 1987;Orfield et al., 1984; Steinberg, 1988). Other examplesof inter-school inequities may include the greaterrates at which counselors from higher-incomeschools avail themselves of professional develop-ment opportunities (Hart & Jacobi, 1992) and thelower frequency with which college admissionsrepresentatives visit lower-income schools(Holmes, 1986). Thus, it appears that students whodo not initially have college preparatory knowledgeare often at risk of not receiving it from whatcould be a ready source.

Recent school counseling research providesdetailed descriptions of the role schools play instudents’ selection of colleges. For example,depending on schools’ social compositions, theircollege counseling systems may implicitly com-municate different expectations to students abouttheir college options, and reinforce and reflect,rather than expand, students’ existing preferencesand aspirations for various colleges (McDonough,1997). Different schools may organize collegecounseling in ways that encourage students toemploy different strategies for admission and to

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pursue different types of colleges—private schoolstudents applying to a broader array of institutionsgeographically and in terms of selectivity than publicschool students, for example (Horvat, 1996).

Evidence about school-based college guidanceindicates that counseling needs to be better structured tohelp underrepresented students improve their preparationfor college and to broaden their consideration of collegeoptions. The Education Trust and others are currentlyworking to promote improvements in several facets ofschool counseling and consider the effort integral toschool reform (The Education Trust, 2001). Withoutimprovements to school counseling, underrepresentedstudents may be left in a situation which Arbona (1994)characterizes as “double jeopardy,” referring to the lack offinancial aid counseling offered by low-income schoolswhose students “are in most need of help from counselorsregarding postsecondary education financing; however,because of lack of counseling resources in low-incomeschools, they are unlikely to receive such help” (p. 20).

CAN TECHNOLOGY HELP TO EQUALIZE ACCESS

TO COLLEGE KNOWLEDGE?The explosion of Internet use for college search and

application processes on its face holds great promise forequalizing students’ access to college knowledge. Thosestudents and families with the greatest need for collegeinformation, however, are the same ones who have leastaccess to Internet technology (U.S. Department of Com-merce, 1999; 2000). The move toward greater technologi-cal innovation in college admissions processes could infact exacerbate existing college inequities, in the absenceof a thoughtful policy to prevent that from occurring.

College Marketing and Recruitment viathe Internet

The Internet is quickly redefining how students seekout and apply for higher education. Many colleges aremoving away from costly view books and instead usingInternet capabilities to tailor the information and adver-tisements they send to students, through electronic mailmarketing made possible by the purchase of students’e-mail addresses from the College Board and others

Nicole Bervine was a senior at BenjaminFranklin High School in Philadelphia, PA.She maintained a 3.2 GPA and wanted acareer in social work. She applied to andwas accepted at Westchester University,Lincoln University, and Kutztown University.

Nicole is enthusiastic about the assistancethat she received from the PhiladelphiaCollege Access Center. She said herhigh school guidance counselor had somany students to advise that it was notpossible for her to get the help sheneeded in school. The College AccessCenter advisors were able to give her thetime that she needed, and “were veryunderstanding and helpful.”


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(Marklein, 2000a; Marklein, 2000b). In admissions, collegesand state university systems see increasing numbers ofstudents submit their applications via the Internet, withsome schools even offering incentives for electronicsubmission through discounted application fees (Gottlieb,2000; Marklein, 2000b). The U.S. Department of Educationreports that student applications for federal financial aidfiled over the Internet are more accurate than those mailedon paper and that electronic filers receive the benefit ofimmediate computer estimations of their Expected FamilyContribution toward college costs (Colon, 2001).

The growing importance of the Internet as a source ofcollege knowledge is illustrated in a survey of college-bound students who reported that the Internet rankedsecond only to guidance counselors in their decisionsabout where to apply to college (Art & Science Group Inc.,2000). The prevalence of new technology in obtainingcollege knowledge calls attention to the issue of who hasaccess to the technology.

The U.S. Department of Commerce’s periodic survey oftechnology use shows low-income and minority groupshave less home access to computers and the Internet thanothers (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1999; 2000). Only10 percent of households with annual incomes of $15,000or under, for example, have Internet access whereas over80 percent of families with incomes of over $75,000 haveaccess. Similarly, less than 25 percent of African Americanstudents have Internet access as opposed to almost 50percent of white students.

The technological picture is not entirely bleak.Community points of access to technology provideimportant alternative channels of connection to theInternet for low-income and minority groups, who are farmore likely than others to rely on libraries’ and schools’computing resources for Internet-related tasks (U.S.Department of Commerce, 1999; 2000). Yet, current com-munity access may not be adequately meeting the techno-logical needs of underrepresented populations.

Evidence that low-income schools have on averageslower Internet connections than wealthier schools(Gladfelter, 2000), for example, indicates the need toimprove community access. Studies about the technologi-cal resources of the federally sponsored TRIO college

Dominique Thompson was a senior atthe Wisconsin Conservatory of LifelongLearning, a public K-12 school inMilwaukee. Through his work withCOMPASS Guide, a virtual collegeinformation center in Milwaukee, and thehelp that he received from the COMPASSstaff, Dominique identified severalUniversity of Wisconsin campuses as wellas out-of-state colleges that interestedhim. He saved this information in his“virtual locker”—a component of theCOMPASS Guide program designed tohelp students easily search, save, andretrieve information as part of the college-planning process.


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access programs illustrate the urgency of this need. Up-ward Bound and Talent Search—programs serving college-aspiring and college-qualified students from under-represented college backgrounds—report that theirstudents have little access to technology at home, school,or in the community (Norfles, 2000a; 200b). Furthermore,programs possessing the fewest technological resourcesthemselves tend to be those serving students in the mostsevere need of access.

HOW CAN WE MEET THE NEEDS OF LOW-INCOME AND UNDERREPRESENTED STUDENTS

FOR COLLEGE KNOWLDEGE?Despite the disparities in access to college information

and guidance, research suggests informational interven-tions can help to address these inequities. Policies designedto promote college access, therefore, should includeproviding information and advice, early and often, duringkey stages in students’ educational careers.

Research shows that receiving college information andparticipating in organized programs that provide collegeinformation are associated with improved college access.In one study among students typically at risk of notreaching college, those more likely to attend collegereported having participated in “college preparationactivities” or having discussed financial aid with someone(Horn & Chen, 1998). Another study found that low-income students were more likely to take the steps associ-ated with subsequent college enrollment if they reported“[speaking] with at least one person about financial aid”(Berkner & Chavez, 1997, p. 60).

Participation in programs with prominent informationcomponents also was found to be related to students’college-preparatory course taking or plans to take suchcourses (Gándara et al., 1998; Merisotis, 2000) and may beassociated with college enrollment (Horn & Chen, 1998;Merisotis, 2000).

The evidence about the role of information and guid-ance in college access suggests several key elements ofeffective informational interventions.

Vania Calderon, a first generationcollege student, graduated from the J.Eugene McAteer High School in SanFrancisco, California with a 2.68 averageand enrolled in San Francisco StateUniversity.

Vania began visiting the San FranciscoCollege Resource Center in hersophomore year in high school.She knew that she wanted to attendcollege, but she needed help findingappropriate higher education institutions,understanding the admissions process,and identifying sources of financial aid.Her center advisor provided her withinformation materials, as well as helpthinking through possible career goals,selecting appropriate colleges, andapplying for financial aid.


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● Early intervention should begin in elementaryschool in order to play a role in developing collegeplans which students may form as early as 8th or 9th

grade (Hossler et al., 1999). Information at an early stageshould be tailored to the appropriate developmentallevel and focus intensively on the link between careerand educational plans, the various ways of financing acollege education, and the availability of financial aid(Hossler et al., 1999).

● Information about college financing and financialaid should target parents. Parents often believe thatcollege is more expensive than it actually is and,therefore, beyond their reach. When parents areinformed about the various ways that a highereducation can be financed, and they begin to save fortheir children’s college education, this has a positiveinfluence on students’ educational plans (Hossler et al.,1999).

● Information and guidance in middle school andthroughout high school should focus on ensuringthat students take the most challenging academiccourses possible. Guidance should include informingstudents and families about the importance of takingcollege preparatory courses and about the significanceof Advanced Placement (AP) and honors courses ingaining college admission (also see Oakes et al., 2000).

● High school students and families need tounderstand the importance of taking collegeentrance examinations and meeting registrationdeadlines. They also are likely to need assistancewith completing financial aid forms and navigatingthrough the college admissions process in general.

● Guidance at the college application stage shouldfocus on encouraging students to research andapply to a wider array of colleges than they mightnormally consider in addition to helping studentsdistinguish between private and public colleges andtwo-year and four-year schools—something low-income students are not always able to do (Ikenberry &Hartle, 1998).

Precious Butler, a student at Hyde ParkHigh School in Boston, lived with hergrandmother and helped her take care ofthe younger siblings after school whilemaintaining a 3.0 GPA.

A counselor from the Higher EducationInformation Center visited her highschool twice a week, and Precious metwith him for the past two years to talkabout career interests and colleges thatmight be appropriate for her. She alsowent on field trips to various colleges, inMassachusetts, DC and Connecticut. Shestated that her counselor helped her tounderstand and navigate the admissionsand the financial aid processes andcomplete the right forms. “He was verysupportive,” she said.


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● Substantial investment in the technologicalinfrastructure will allow students to keeppace with the increasing volume of college-related transactions conducted over theInternet. Increasing community points ofaccess outside of the home should be oneimportant consideration.

Community-based college access centers, locatedin the inner-city in several communities throughoutthe country, are a promising alternative for provid-ing college information and guidance to students.Located in public libraries, churches, and low-income neighborhoods, these centers provide freeinformation and guidance services. While open toeveryone, the centers target primarily under-represented and disadvantaged populations.Services include college awareness activities, collegeadvising, help locating financial aid, and applicationassistance. Most offer high speed Internet access andsupport in using available technology to facilitatethe college search and application process.

Centers are funded from public and private sources,including the federal TRIO programs (Talent Searchand EOC).

Highlighting the need for college informationand advising does not downplay the need foraddressing other factors, which present barriers tocollege access. Supporting high school success incollege-preparatory courses is another criticalneed, along with providing students with mentorswho can provide social guidance to students intheir academic lives (Levine & Nidiffer, 1996). Yet,policies designed to expand higher educationopportunity should include, as one importantdimension, interventions addressing the inequi-ties in college knowledge. Policies establishingalternative sources of college planning informa-tion, guidance, and technology access, also holdpromise for helping first-generation, low-income,and minority students plan for and obtain accessto postsecondary education.

ENDNOTES1 For findings about disproportionate college atten-

dance by underrepresented students, see (Cuccaro-Alamin, 1997; Gladieux, 1996; Levine & Nidiffer, 1996;McDonough, 1997; Orfield & Miller, 1998; Orfield & Paul,1994; The Education Trust, 1996).

2 For example, Associate’s Degree completion may beassociated with future earnings (Brown, 1999; NationalCenter for Education Statistics, 2001).

3 Also see discussion later in this paper of (Horvat,1996) and (McDonough, 1997a).

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BACKGROUND INFORMATION

I n 1995, The Education Resources Institute (TERI), with support from theWallace-Reader’s Digest Fund, embarked on a college access center

replication project for the purpose of promoting college going amonglow-income students and those who are the first generation in theirfamilies to attend college. The project involved establishing community-based college access centers in several cities modeled after the highlysuccessful Higher Education Information Center in Boston, Massachusettswhich was launched by TERI in 1985. This paper, which analyzes theresearch on the importance of college-preparatory information andguidance to underserved students, is one component of the projectfunded by Wallace-Reader’s Digest. The others are:

• A Guide to Establishing College Access Centers—The Guideserves as a blueprint for other communities interested inestablishing centers. It describes what a college access center isand the steps that are necessary in order to start and sustain acenter.

• College Access Program/Center Toolkit—The Toolkit containsspecific descriptions of fully operational community-basedprograms and centers as well as numerous examples of actualmaterials used to plan, start, and sustain a program or a center.

• Paths Toward College: Follow-Up Study of Clients Served byCollege Access Centers—The purpose of the study, which wasconducted by the Opinion Dynamics Corporation, a nationallyknown and recognized survey research company, was todetermine the effectiveness of three of the college access centersdescribed in A Guide to Establishing College Access Centersin addressing the needs of low-income youth and their familiesfor college planning information and assistance. The study resultsdemonstrate that these centers have a positive influence on low-income and underserved students’ college decision-makingprocess, their ability to finance college, and their ability toprepare for college entrance exams. The results also show that thecollege access centers are successful in increasing the college-going rates of disadvantaged youth and those who are the firstgeneration in their families to attend postsecondary education.

For print copies of the Guide or the Follow-Up Study, contact:

College Access ServicesThe Education Resources Institute (TERI)

31 St. James Avenue, 6th FloorBoston, MA 02116

TEL: 1-800-255-8374, ext. 0535

For access to the Guide, Toolkit, Follow-Up Study,and/or this paper on the web, visit the TERI website at:

www.teri.org.

Documents

College Knowledge - storage.googleapis.com · college-eligible students from middle-income backgrounds to enroll in college (Berkner & Chavez, 1997; Choy, 1998). Even high achieving