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THE MINISTRY OF THE HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL

EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN

THE UZBEK STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY

On the rights of manuscript

TOVMASYAN ELINA ARMENOVNA

COGNITIVE METAPHOR IN FICTIONAL TEXT

Speciality 5A 220102

Linguistics (the English language)

DISSERTATION PAPER

Dissertation for Master’s Degree

The work has been discussed Scientific advisor:

and recommended for defence Doctor of philology

The Head of Department prof. Ashurova D.U.

«_____»____________2013

Tashkent – 2013

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Preface

Introduction……………………………………………………………….…….3

Chapter I

1.1. Cognitive Linguistics and Stylistics. ……………………………………..…..6

1.2. The Notion of Cognitive Metaphor…………………………………..............15

1.3. Typology of Cognitive Metaphors………………………………….............. 23

Conclusions …………………………………........................................................29

Chapter II

2.1 Cognitive Metaphor in Fictional Text………………………….......................31

2.2 Cognitive Metaphor in Newspaper Text…..………………………….……….55

2.3 Cognitive Metaphor in Poetry………….……..…………...……………….64

Conclusions………………………………….........................................................70

Summary …………………………………...........................................................73

The List of Used Literature………………………….…….................................78

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Introduction

The dissertation paper is devoted to the problem of Cognitive Metaphor.

As theory of cognitive metaphor is of special interest to the researchers, the From

the end of the XXth century till the present times, cognitive linguistics has become

one of the most important directions in modern linguistics. Theory of cognitive

metaphor plays an important role in this study. Theory of cognitive metaphor is

studied by such scientists as George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Chudinov I. S,

Ashurova D. U, Kubryakova Е.С, V. Z. Demyankov and many others. The

principal difference of cognitive metaphor from traditional one lies in the cognitive

approach to the nature of the phenomenon. Cognitive metaphor is understood as

way of thinking; as perception of the world. Cognitive metaphor is operated by

domains and there exist certain prototypes that can be represented by numerous

smaller types of cognitive metaphor.

The novelty of the research lies in the following:

- Cognitive Metaphor is regarded not only as a stylistic device, but as a way

of thinking and cognition

- The main assumptions of conceptual blending an conceptual domains have

been applied to conceptual analysis of cognitive metaphor

- The special features of Cognitive Metaphor in Fictional Text; Newspaper

Text and Poetry have been analyzed

The topicality of the research is defined by the cognitive approach to

Cognitive Metaphor regarded as one of the main ways of human cognition.

The aim of the work is to discuss the cognitive essence of metaphor, its

types and utilization in different text types.

To reach the aim, the following objectives were set:

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- To study the main problems and notions of Cognitive Linguistics and its

branches

- To define the term Cognitive Metaphor and to reveal the difference between

Cognitive Metaphor and traditional metaphor

- To describe types of Cognitive Metaphor

- To discuss the theory of conceptual blending and conceptual domains

- To analyze the peculiar features of Cognitive Metaphor in Fictional Text

- To describe the special features of Metaphor in Newspaper Text

- To investigate conceptual structure of cognitive metaphor in Poetry

The object of the research is cognitive metaphor. The object of the work is

text fragments including Cognitive Metaphor. The subject of the investigation is

the cognitive nature of metaphor and its specific features in different text types.

Methodological basis of the given dissertation paper is works of such

scholars as G. Lakoff and M. Johnson, Kubryakova, V. Z. Demyankov; Chudinov

and many others.

The methods of investigation that are used in this work are metaphorical

conceptual analysis including cognitive mapping and conceptual blending.

The language materials are works of fiction by British and American

writers (J. Galsworthy, E. Hemingway, O. Henry) and poets such as G. Byron, W.

Wordsworth and S. Coleridge and newspapers articles.

Theoretical value of the dissertation lies in the fact that the research is done

in the framework of a new modern trend- Cognitive Linguistics. The results of the

research make a certain contribution in the development of Cognitive Linguistics

and Theory of Cognitive Metaphor.

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that it might help in the further research of this field; different definitions and

typologies of cognitive metaphor suggested by different scholars were gathered in

this work.

Practical value is that the results of the research can be used at the lectures

and seminars in Text Linguistics, Cognitive Linguistics, and Stylistics.

The structure of the dissertation paper is the following: introduction, 2

chapters, conclusion, bibliography.

The introduction describes the dissertation paper, its novelty, aim and

objectives, theoretical and practical value, etc.

The first chapter deals with theoretical data connected with the theory of

cognitive metaphor: Cognitive Linguistics and its branches; The notion of

Cognitive Metaphor; Typology of Cognitive Metaphor

The second chapter analyzes the examples of cognitive metaphor that were

found I different sources: Cognitive Metaphor in Fictional Text; Cognitive

Metaphor in Newspaper Text; Cognitive Metaphor in Poetry

In the conclusion the researcher summarized the main points of the

dissertation paper and the results that were made.

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1.1 Cognitive Linguistics and Stylistics

Cognitive Linguistics is a new branch of linguistics. Cognitive linguistics

studies relationship between language and mind; it views the process of producing

speech as a cognitive, psychological process. According to V. Z. Demyankov and

E. S. Kubryakova, cognitive linguistics views language as a cognitive mechanism

that plays an important role in coding and transferring knowledge. Cognition is the

mental act or process by which knowledge is acquired, including perception,

intuition, and reasoning; it is a cognitive process of transferring and analyzing

information in mind. There are strong links between cognitive linguistics and

psychology, neurophysiology and other sciences, as linguistic activity in a human’s

brain (such as listening, speaking, reading and writing) is connected with different

areas of a brain. The basic unit for cognitive linguistics is a concept. In the process

of language activity people activate their knowledge of various spheres, knowledge

about the world and people, in order to make this process easier, our mind

categorizes all information stored in our mind. Basic cognitive categories such as

space and time, scenes and events, entities and processes, motion and location,

force and causation, attention and perspective, volition and intention- are stored in

our mind using some categorization mechanisms to make it easier to remember and

produce this knowledge. However, language is not represented similarly in

different situations. On the contrary, in each context the meaning is represented in

a new way according to our cognitive resources.

Cognitive linguistics started its development in 1960s. The most prominent

scientists in the field of cognitive linguistics are: Wallace Chafe, Charles Fillmore,

George Lakoff, Mark Johnson, Ronald Langacker, Leonard Talmy, E. S.

Kubryakova and I. S. Demyankov.

There are many trends in cognitive linguistics: cognitive grammar, cognitive

stylistics, cognitive semantics, gender linguistics, ethno linguistics, cognitive

phonetics.

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Cognitive Grammar

The term “Cognitive Grammar” has two meanings. In wide sense Cognitive

Grammar is synonymous with Cognitive Linguistics- it views language

phenomena in their connection to cognitive processes such as memory, perception,

attention and thinking. In narrow sense Cognitive Grammar is a direction of

Cognitive Linguistics. Talmy and Langacker are the most famous researchers in

the field of Cognitive Grammar. Talmy argued that grammar categories specify

cognitive ones. Grammatical category of number is subdivided into “singular”,

“dual”, “plural”, while cognitive category will continue this classification to:

“even”, “odd”, “dozen” or “numerable”. While talking about “Cognitive

Grammar” it is important to say that the term “Grammar” is used in its broad sense

and it refers to the whole language system, including sound, meaning and

morphosyntax. From this point of view grammar is considered to be a symbolic

phenomenon (Langacker).

Cognitive Grammar does not regard language as a system of words and

rules. If earlier scholars were concentrated on syntax and morphology, now they

view the same language units from another point of view- more symbolic. As

grammar is a part of general cognition it interacts with other cognitive

mechanisms, such as memory or attention. Speakers may choose which way to

express their thoughts, and it is shown by the grammar structures they use. Thus,

we can say that Cognitive Grammar reflects speakers’ world-picture, knowledge

and other aspects of his/her personality. As Cognitive Grammar views language as

symbolic or image-based, it is closely tied to literary criticism.

There are several important notions in Cognitive Grammar that are necessary

to know and understand. The first notion is Construal- one of the basic units in

Cognitive Grammar. According to Taylor it is “the process by which a given state

is structured by a language-user for purposes of its linguistic expression”. The

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same phenomenon can be construed in different ways by different people. We can

take an example of a star sky. Each person looking at the sky will describe it in

his/her own way: it can be a group of stars or spots of light at night. Each

explanation will depend purely on the speaker. One more notion is Abstraction.

From the point of view of Cognitive Grammar, the units, grammar consists of, are

derived from the actual use of language. This is done with the help of the process

of abstraction. When we use some structures appear as a result of generalizations.

This process is called Abstraction. For example, if a speaker often uses word

“discover” he or she will have certain group of words, phrases, sentences that are

commonly used with that word and of course each phrase or sentence will have

certain meaning associated with it.

Cognitive Semantics

The first scholars who drew attention to cognitive linguistics were

psycholinguists. They proved the existence of non-verbal thinking, and they argued

that there is a conceptual system, existing in a human’s brain. The conceptual

system consists of concepts, which constantly change and develop. They argued

that the signs are created by people to transmit the most important information, but

conceptual system is much bigger and only a small part of it is marked by signs.

According to R. M. Frumkina Cognitive Semantics is closely connected with

cognitive psychology. Cognitive Semantics studies relationships between language

meanings in the way they exist in mental worlds of individuals. As opposed to

traditional semantics, Cognitive Semantics tries to explain linguistic phenomena

with the help of extra-linguistic factors- mostly psychological and socio-cultural. It

is based on empirical data. One of the most prominent scientists dealing with

Cognitive Semantics is A. Wierzbicka.

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Why is it so important to study Cognitive Semantics? While studying signs

we can learn conceptual system of a person or people and we can find out what

was important for this or that nation at a certain period of time and what was not so

important and left out. As it was mentioned above thinking process of any person

is non-verbal and it is realized with the help of signs.

From the point of view of Cognitive Semantics language is a container and

organizer of knowledge in the mind of a person. Language becomes a human

quality. Thus, we can say that Cognitive Semantics is connected with pragmatics

as two sciences have similar area of study. Cognitive Semantics divides meaning

into two basic units: meaning-construction and knowledge representation.

According to the scholars meaning is conceptual, which means that it is not

necessary connected with a referent in the real world. On the contrary, it may be

associated with an idea or object in the mind of a speaker and can be individual.

Which means, that another person would never understand that idea in this way. It

is possible to say that meaning depends on personal experience of a speaker. One

of the notions of Cognitive Semantics is Extension. Extension is the connection

between cognitive domain or concepts and language unit. It is considered that there

is a direct connection between a language unit and a concept (direct meaning);

another additional connection is considered to be extension (indirect or extended

meaning).

Talmy agrees with traditional view that language is divided into two

systems: the grammatical and the lexical. Lexical system contains open classes of

linguistic forms, such as adjectival, verbal, and nominal roots. However,

grammatical system is closed one and it includes grammatical relations,

grammatical categories and subcategories and syntactic structures. Sentences help

speakers create cognitive representations. Lexical system helps to construct content

and grammatical – structure. Our linguistic competence depends on the ability to

unite distant conceptual content and conceptual structure to construct cognitive

representation and to create unlimited range of cognitive representations with

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limited range of lexical and grammatical forms as well. Talmy suggested the

notion of “satellite”. It is a closed class element that is added to a verb to create

“verb complex”. For example:

“misfire”- “mis” is a satellite

“start over”- “over” is a satellite .

One more important notion for Cognitive Semantics is Prototype theory,

investigated by E. Rosch. She claimed that everything in the world can be

categorized. And these categories have prototypical character, which means that

some objects are best representations of a given category, while others are not. If

we take category “Birds”, the best and most popular representatives will be:

sparrow, robin. However, penguin and ostrich that are also birds will be mentioned

much later, although they are also birds. The same can be observed in other

categories as well.

The scheme above gives brief definition of Cognitive Linguistics, Cognitive

Grammar and Cognitive Semantics and their areas of study.

Cognitive Stylistics

Cognitive stylistics is interconnected with many sciences and branches of

sciences, such as Stylistics, Metaphor Theory, Cognitive Pragmatics, Cognitive

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Semantics, Literary Studies, Cognitive Semiotics, Text Linguistics and even

Psychology. Basically Cognitive Stylistics evolved from Cognitive Linguistics and

Cognitive Psychology.

There are two terms: Cognitive Stylistics and Poetics. Some scientists

consider them to be synonymous, absolutely equal in meaning. However, another

group of scientists distinguishes them. They say that term “Cognitive Linguistics”

is wider in its meaning than “Poetics”. They prove that Poetics is connected with

poems mostly, while Cognitive Stylistics refers to any kind of texts. In this work

we shall distinguish these two terms and shall use term Cognitive Stylistics.

Cognitive Stylistics started to develop actively during last decades.

If we compare Traditional Stylistics and Cognitive Stylistics we may find a

lot of differences between these two sciences. Traditional Stylistics mostly focuses

on linguistic aspects of a text (stylistic devices, poetics details, etc.), while

Cognitive Stylistics studies author’s idiolect- how he or she writes a text and how

it is perceived by readers. The perception depends on the readers’ knowledge,

opinions and beliefs. Cognitive Stylistics studies the influence of foregrounding on

the readers’ mind; interpretations that readers make while and after reading a text.

That is widely used and studied by scientists. Some parts of the text are put

forward and while reading a text the readers pay special attention to these parts.

Title, epigraph can serve as examples of foregrounding. Cognitive stylistics is

more concerned with mental representation than with textual.

Cognitive Stylistics views literature from a completely different point of

view. Let’s take an example of Peter Stockwell. He gives a short poem:

We that had loved him so, followed him, honoured him,

Lived in his mild and magnificent eye,

Learned his great language, caught his clear accents,

Made him our pattern to live and to die!

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And he proves that most people just read these four lines and never think deeply

about their meaning, what was the author’s message, they even seldom discuss

what they have read or understood. Cognitive Stylistics deals exactly with these

problems- how to read effectively- not superficially, but deeply and how to

understand what the author wanted to say by his/her work. Cognitive Stylistics

tries to give answer to the question “what do we do while reading?” as well. The

subject of investigation of Cognitive Stylistics is vast- it studies not only readers

and literary works- it studies the process of reading itself.

After reading those four lines each of us should have some questions such as

what is the main idea, what does it mean for me, what did I understand after

reading or who is the author, when and why did he or she write the story or a

poem. All these questions belong to the cognitive context. Context is one of the

main notions of Cognitive Stylistics. Of course it would differ for everyone and it

would depend on many factors. One of the factors may be the setting. If we ask

question “what do the four lines mean?” the answers will vary according to the

situation. If we are at the university listening to the lecture the answer may be

connected with deep understanding of the poem. However if someone tells that he

or she remembered about dead cat that would sound ridiculous and inappropriate!

Here we come across the relevance and appropriateness of our ideas to the context.

The meaning is not stable. On the contrary it is changing phenomenon and each

person who reads those four lines will add his/her own meaning to them. And each

meaning will depend on the context we associate with it. We may infer that there

are as many meanings as many contexts. Peter Stockwell proves this idea, saying

that although saying about your cat was absolutely inappropriate during the lecture

at the university it may sound quite well or symbolical at the funeral of your cat in

your garden. These two notions of context and appropriateness can be applied in

any area of literary studies. From this point of view our understanding of literary

text does not depend on real facts of the period when it was written. As it was

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already mentioned Cognitive Stylistics deals with understanding of the text:

circumstances and users, knowledge and beliefs. With the help of Cognitive

stylistics we can systematize our knowledge about above mentioned aspects, it

shows how language is used in literature to achieve some effects.

Cognitive Stylistics deals with different problems, such as:

The problem of cognitive style

The problem of conceptualization of stylistic means

Cognitive principles of text production and perception

Cognitive basis of stylistic devices

The theory of cognitive metaphor

Peculiarities of an individual style (idiostyle)

Now, we shall shortly describe some of the aspects. Every piece of writing

belongs to a certain style. Each style has its own stylistic means. If we take

scientific text- it will be concentrated on factual information. It is impossible to

give some personal examples. Scientific text is based on reasoning. However,

fictional text is a combination of different forms.

One more area of study of Cognitive Stylistics is test structure. Again, every

type of text as its own compositional structure. A story consists of the following

parts:

title exposition initial collision development of action ruination

development of action ruination denouement end.

If we take an application form it is quite different:

1. Heading- includes all data about the applicant;

2. Text- the request (the applicant describes his/her problem);

3. Concluding phrase and signature.

The next problem is cohesion of the text. Cohesion forms structure of the

text. It can be achieved with the help of such stylistic devices as repetition

(anaphora, epiphora, chair repetition, etc.), parallel construction and symbols.

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The last but not least important aspect studied by Cognitive Stylistics is

author’s individual style (idiostyle). It has already been mentioned above.

“Individual style (idiostyle) is regarded as a complex structural unity of the

means and forms of verbal expression peculiar to certain authors, and reflecting

their world vision, and subjective evaluation of the described phenomena”

(Ashurova). Ideostyle represents personality of the author, the way he/she thinks

and creates a text.

This paragraph we gave brief description of such branches of Cognitive

Linguistics as Cognitive Grammar, Cognitive Semantics and Cognitive Stylistics.

Their areas of study, peculiarities and main questions they deal with.

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1.2 The Notion of Cognitive Metaphor

Metaphors have been studied for a long time. And since ancient times there

have been many attempts to define this term. Metaphor can be defined as «a figure

of speech in which an implied comparison is made between two unlike things that

actually have something in common». There is one more definition of metaphor –

“a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action that

it does not literally denote in order to imply a resemblance, for example he is a

lion in battle” (Literary & Literary Critical Terms). With the development of

cognitive linguistics new notions came to existence. One of new terms in

Cognitive Linguistics is “Cognitive Metaphor”. The theory of Cognitive Metaphor

was suggested by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. They were the first to pay

special attention to this phenomenon; they viewed cognitive metaphor from

different angle. Nowadays many researchers study cognitive metaphor, its

characteristics and types. Among them we may mention names of such famous

scholars as M. Black, A. Richards, E. S. Kubryakova, Jose Ortega y Gasset, E.

McCormack and many others. Cognitive Metaphor is one of the fundamental

processes of human cognition, a specific way of conceptualizing reality based on

the mental process of analogy and knowledge transfer from one conceptual field

into another (Ashurova ). At present cognitive metaphor is regarded not just a

stylistic device, but a tool of cognition. We perceive the world around us through

and with the help of cognitive metaphors. We may find support of cognitive

metaphor in the analysis of texts, cultural practices and social events and even in

films. Cognitive metaphors help us interpret texts, we may understand the author’s

message (explicit or implicit) with the help of this device. Lakoff and Johnson

claim that the whole human’s cognition is based on metaphor, which means that

we compare all our knowledge about the world and represent it with the help of

other more simple notions or concepts. We can perceive metaphorically almost

everything: people, situations even places. The biggest effect of cognitive

metaphor on human’s cognition is structuring. As it has already been mentioned,

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cognitive metaphors help us understand one concept or idea in terms of another

and we structure the target domain according to definite processes the same as in

cognitive metaphor.

It is also crucial to mention the theory of Conceptual blending. It helped to

make further research in the field of Cognitive Metaphor. Conceptual blending is

also called conceptual integration. It was develop by Gilles Fauconnier and Mark

Turner. This theory suggests that elements of different mental fields are mixed or

“blended” and as a result it influences to people’s thinking and cognition

processes.

(http://markturner.org/blending.html)

Let’s take an example provided by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson:

“argument is war”. They support with different examples, such as:

Your claims are indefensible.

He attacked every weak point in my argument.

His criticisms were right on the target.

I demolished his argument.

I have never won an argument with him.

You disagree? Okay, shoot!

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If you use that strategy, he will wipe you out.

He shot down all of my arguments.

These examples are common in speech although we rarely think about them

as cognitive metaphors. Cognitive metaphor “argument is war” is a very good

example to discuss. While arguing with someone we really see argument as a war:

our interlocutor is our enemy; our arguments or ideas are our warriors; if our idea

is strong we win the battle, if it is weak we lose the battle; if we understand that

our point is incorrect or weak we give up.

However, in some cases while analyzing one idea in terms of another we

highlight one aspect and hide another aspect of that idea. For example, while

comparing argument to a war, we highlight the idea of contradiction or

disagreement, but we forget the idea that argument is also cooperation. While

arguing we spend our time, we try to express our point of view- these actions are

not constituents of war, but on the contrary we show our sympathy and wish to

cooperate.

According to this example we can say that cognitive metaphors help us

understand some phenomena in terms of others.

Let’s take one more cognitive metaphor to prove the idea that cognitive

metaphors are part of one’s cognition. Cognitive Metaphor “time is money” can be

presented by a multitude of examples:

You are wasting my time.

This gadget will save you hours.

I don't have the time to give you.

How do you spend, your time these days?

That flat tire cost me an hour.

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I've invested a lot of time in her.

You're run/ling out of time.

You need to budget your time.

Is that worth your while?

Do you have much time left?

You don't use your time profitably.

I lost a lot of time when I got sick.

Nowadays time is a valuable thing that we all need and lack. We can count

time: decades, years, months, days, hours, minutes and even seconds. People get

salaries according to the time they work, that is why cognitive metaphor “time is

money” is also one of widely-spread ones. However, from the point of view of

religion or philosophy it is not always so. For them money is something not worth

so much effort; they see inner balance as the main essence of life. However,

today’s consumerist society lives according to the idea that “time is money’.

As it was mentioned above cognitive metaphors help us understand some

phenomena of our life with the help of the mechanism of analogy. In cognitive

metaphor “argument is war” there are two general ideas, which are called

domains: source domain and target domain. The first idea, more abstract is usually

called target domain and the second, more concrete- source domain. In the given

cognitive metaphor “argument” is target domain and “war” is source domain,

which explains target domain. In the second example “time is money”, “time” is

target domain and “money” is source domain.

Probably the most well-known example of cognitive metaphor explained by

Lakoff and Johnson in their book “Metaphors we live by” is “love is a journey”.

Target domain in this cognitive metaphor is “love” and source domain is

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“journey”. There are numerous expressions used by people that illustrate this

cognitive metaphor:

Look how far we have come.

It has been a long, bumpy road.

We can’t turn back now.

We are at a crossroads.

We may have to go our separate ways.

The relationship is not going anywhere.

We are spinning our wheels.

Our relationship is off the track.

The marriage is on the rocks.

We may have to bail out of this relationship.

If we imagine that love is a journey or a travel and people who have

relationship are travelers, while having relationship, many people have problems-

that are impediments on their way (bumpy road, we are at a crossroads) or they

break apart (we may have to go our separate ways; we may have to bail out of this

relationship) and at the end they may either finish their travel successfully or do

not reach their destination, which means to split up.

There is another sense in the metaphor “love is a journey”. People can travel

on highways or freeways, where the traffic is too fast and dangerous; so is a love

relationship sometimes. Love can be dangerous and exciting and at the same time

short, it even can be dangerous.

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There is one more part of a language system, that needs to be mentioned-

idioms. Idioms are very helpful for expression of cognitive metaphors. If any

idiom is considered as non-motivated, it might be used in its direct meaning when

it is studied from the point of view of cognitive metaphors. Let’s take idiom

“spinning one’s wheels” as an example. When one hears this idiom, he or she may

imagine a situation when a car is stuck, but the driver still tries to pull the car,

although it is useless and there is no sense in doing this. But at the same time this

idiom can be used as cognitive metaphor “love is a journey”- when a couple has

problems but they still try hard to save their relationship, not understanding that

sometimes it is better to stop and leave it as it is. From this point of view this

expression is quite explicit and understandable for the reader.

Max Black, another prominent researcher, suggested “interaction theory”

according to which cognitive metaphor “projects a set of associated implications

from a primary subject upon a secondary subject”. As a result the reader or hearer

will understand the secondary object through the primary one. Black gives the

following example: “the sky is crying”- as tears are always associated with crying,

we project it to the rain and as a result we construct a cognitive metaphor “sky is a

person”. He also says that we should not see the subjects as independent elements,

but on the contrary, we should view them as a system of interrelated elements, that

create systems and interact with each other.

Although George Lakoff and Mark Johnson were the pioneers in the field of

cognitive metaphor theory there are many other prominent scholars in this field.

One of them Elena Semino, criticized them, saying that the examples they suggest

are artificial and are created to support their theory of cognitive metaphor not

appropriate for deep and versatile analysis. As a result, Andrew Goatly created a

database- Melatude, for cognitive metaphors that exist in the language. Goatly in

his work wants to identify how cognitive metaphors shape our behavior and

thinking patterns in various aspects of life, from education to genetics. Moreover,

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he proves that cognitive metaphors are created with the help of cultural experience.

Melatude is a database of metaphors with direct, metaphorical and grammatical

meanings and examples. Although there are already existing dictionaries of

metaphors, Melatude is a different one, because it takes into account

lexicographical approach as well, but not only cognitive. It consists of 6 columns

that represent categories of Targets and 4 that represent categories of Sources.

The Target categories are: 1) Values, Quantities and Qualities

2) Emotions, Experiences and Relationships

3) Thinking and Speaking

4) Activity and Movement

5) Humans, Humans Senses and Society

6) Things and Substances

The Source categories are: A) Things and Substances (Objects, plants,

Substances, Money, Liquid, Food)

B) Human Body, Animals and Senses

C) Activity and Movement

D) Place and Space.

Some cognitive structures are called “natural”. They are those concepts that

are connected with natural experience, such as love, time, ideas, understanding,

arguments, labor, happiness, health, control, status and morality. Although Lakoff

and Johnson did not discuss cognitive metaphor in connection with culture, but it is

clear that these two notions are interconnected. It is impossible to analyze

cognitive metaphor separately from the cultural context. It has always been

considered that anything of a big size (a living creature or inanimate object) is

more important or valuable than that of a smaller size. Let’s take a proverb “a

great ship needs deep waters”. It means that a big project, for example, will be

given more opportunities and support, as it can bring more benefit. That is why we

consider that “Big” is something good, while “Small” is not.

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Any cognitive metaphor may have different abstract meanings, but if we talk

about practical implementation of a metaphor, the meaning of a cognitive

metaphor will be restricted only to pragmatic meaning.

One of the main functions of cognitive metaphors is to explain. And it is

really true. Cognitive metaphors are frequently used to create an example to

something less familiar with the help of more familiar notions or phenomena. With

the help of cognitive metaphors we may define something new, such as complex

events, different cultures, unexpected situations and emotive experiences. And

Lakoff and Johnson agree with this idea. They write: “metaphor is one of our most

important tools for trying to comprehend partially what cannot be comprehended

totally”.

One more important notion that is connected with cognitive metaphor is

“metaphor cluster”. Cluster is a group of expressions that are connected to one

conceptual metaphor and are used in one text. If we take cognitive metaphor

“Time is money”, all words and phrases, used to form this metaphor will constitute

metaphor cluster: “waste, save, hour, spend, cost an hour, invest, budget, etc.”

Cognitive metaphors unite two seeming absolutely different ideas: they are

more or less regular and conventional and at the same time they are creative and

original. Cognitive metaphors are restricted to some definite examples, but we may

find numerous expressions that prove this cognitive metaphor and some of them

may be unique or created by the speaker during his/her speech.

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1.3 Typology of Cognitive Metaphors

With the development of the study of Cognitive Metaphor, the problem of

typology of Cognitive Metaphor became one of the most important. Several

linguists provided their typology of cognitive metaphors.

Classification of George Lakoff and Mark Johnson is among the most

famous ones. They suggest three types of Cognitive Metaphors: structural,

orientational and ontological. Let’s discuss them in more details.

1. Structural Cognitive Metaphor.

This type is sometimes called the Conduit Metaphor. Describing Conduit

Cognitive Metaphor Lakoff and Johnson state that while speech, the speaker

transfers information into the words, sends them to the interlocutor and the

interlocutor removes these ideas from the words he/she hears or receives.

However, sometimes it is quite difficult to distinguish Structural Cognitive

Examples of Structural or Conduit Cognitive Metaphor may serve the following

expressions:

I gave you that idea.

Your reasons came through to us.

It's difficult to put my ideas into words.

When you have a good idea, try to capture it immediately in words.

The meaning is right there in the words.

Don't force your meanings into the wrong words.

His words carry little meaning.

Metaphor if it is not used I some context. If we take sentence “Please sit in

the apple-juice seat”- we shall not understand it, moreover, we shall think that

there is no sense in this sentence. But if we imagine a situation that at the table

there were four places and for three people there were glasses with orange juice

and one seat with a glass with an apple juice, in this context we may understand

the meaning of this utterance. Or, another example: if we take a phrase: “We need

24

new alternative sources of energy”, different people understand it differently. For

example an Oil Company Director and representative of Green Peace

Organization. So, in cognitive metaphor, and in structural especially not only the

meaning is important, but also the situation, when and how it was told.

2. Orientational Cognitive Metaphor

This type of Cognitive Metaphor is connected with the orientation in space:

left-right; good-bad; deep-shallow; in-out; front-back. This type of metaphor

depends on the culture of people: for some people right is good and left is bad,

but in some countries it may be different and in that situation everything

connected with left will be considered good, but all concepts and phenomena of

life connected with right will be bad. One of the most well-known Orientational

Cognitive Metaphors is “Happy is Up; Sad is down”:

I'm feeling up.

That boosted my spirits.

My spirits rose.

You're in high spirits.

Thinking about her always gives me a lift.

I fell into a depression.

I'm feeling down.

I'm depressed.

My spirits sank.

He's really low these days.

And these examples describe the real situation. When a person is happy, he keeps

his head high, he straightens, but whenever a person has a problem, he/she is sad

and even his posture shows it: shoulders are not straight and he/she may even

stoop.

One more example of Orientational Cognitive Metaphor is “Health and Life

are Up, Sickness and Death are Down”:

He's at the peak of health.

25

Lazarus rose from the dead.

He's in top shape.

As to his health, he's way up there.

He's sinking fast.

He came down with the flu.

His health is declining.

He dropped dead.

Here, we may see the same situation. When a person is ill he lies in the bed, or if

this person dies he also falls, healthy person is on the contrary: active and

energetic.

Although sometimes we may observe Orientational Cognitive Metaphor.

However, there are some other expressions that show this situation differently. Not

so often, but sometimes we come across such phrases that change or widen our

perception of some realia: “Happy is wide, sad is narrow”. No one looked at

“happiness” from this point of view, although it also exists and there are some (but

not many) expressions, which may serve as examples:

“I'm feeling expansive”.

Although in most cultures “happiness” is associated with “up”, which is more

common.

Quite often cognitive metaphors widen their usage and may be used in other

spheres as well. If we take physics, as an example, we may see such expression as

“high-energy particles”- this expression is based on Cognitive Metaphor “more is

up”, or another expression: “low-level phonology”- phonology deals with the

smallest units of a language, that is why word “low” is used here.

3. Ontological Cognitive Metaphor

In Ontological Cognitive Metaphors we view one thing in terms of another:

“life is a game”, or

“Inflation is an essence”:

26

Inflation is lowering our standard of living.

If there's much more inflation, we'll never survive.

We need to combat inflation.

Inflation is backing us into a corner.

Inflation is taking its toll at the checkout counter and the gas pump.

Buying land is the best way of dealing with inflation.

Inflation makes me sick.

All these expressions compare “inflation” an inanimate phenomena to some living

creature that “lowers, backs, makes sick”.

There are also some more examples of Ontological Cognitive Metaphor, such a

“Life is Theatre”, “Life is a Journey” or “Life is a Plant”.

Other scientists also provide their classification of Cognitive Metaphors.

Kubryakova in her Dictionary of Cognitive Terms gives six types of Cognitive

metaphors. Some of them are similar to those of Lakoff and Johnson; however,

others are new and have different interpretation.

1. Structural Cognitive Metaphors- they are formed by transferring some

parts of an object or phenomena to others.

2. Ontological Cognitive Metaphors-categorize some abstract things in more

concrete by making borders in the space.

3. Conduit Cognitive Metaphor– views communication as a process of

movement of senses (meaning fills words and then transported by channel

that unites the speakers)

4. Orientational Cognitive Metaphors- mostly connected with space

orientation (up-down, central-peripheral, etc.)

5. Container Cognitive Metaphor- it can be describes as follows, words are

seen as containers and meaning is that what fills these containers.

6. Blockbuilding Cognitive Metaphor- it represents some big speech

utterances as a group of smaller ones.

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There are also some more classifications of Cognitive Metaphors. Some

researchers categorize Cognitive Metaphors according to the sphere of the source

domain, for example, there are:

1. Military

2. Vegetative

3. Physiological

4. Criminal

5. Sports

6. Zoological

Let’s take a look at some examples of these metaphors:

1. Cold war, informational war, war with drugs;

2. To sow the seeds of dissension, to inculcate habits of work; the extortionate

budget;

3. At the president’s back, to face the problems of the youth; to digest new

information;

4. Political swindler; political killers

5. To come to the finish line; move of the knight;

6. Sharks of business; Communism bacilli; socialist parrots;

Chudinov also suggested one more type of cognitive metaphor, which is

political. He claims that it should be stated separately because politics is a crucial

part of our life. Every time a country embarks on a new stage or changes its leader

the perception of the whole nation changes as well. He provides several examples,

in which a political party is compared to a human body:

Nobody’s a more visible face of the opposition than Sen. Ted Cruz, tea

party star and potential presidential candidate.

In another example that he gives, Chudinov uses sense organs. He points that

a tooth can be compared to a hardness and nose to the ability to acquire new

information.

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Chudinov points out that Cognitive Metaphors describe our life at some

moments. They may show or even warn people about the social situation and some

negative aspects of life at this or that moment. People have always valued money.

But in the twentieth and twenty first century people started to value time as well,

although before people around the world were relaxed and easy-going. But it

became a part of life, people started to compare time to money and some time later,

this expression became a part of humans’ cognition, now most people unite these

notions and it reflects present state. And we can say that this Cognitive Metaphor

helped people to adapt to new way of living and perceiving of the reality.

Another scholar, Maslova found out that there are some stable metaphors,

such as:

World is theatre;

World is a book;

World is a temple;

Love is fire;

Time is water;

Human is a plant

She claimed that these Cognitive Metaphors are the most stable in all languages

and cultures.

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Conclusions to Chapter I

The focus of this dissertation paper is Cognitive Metaphors its types and its

representation in different text types. In the first paragraph of the dissertation paper

the main trends of Cognitive Linguistics have been discussed: Cognitive Grammar,

Cognitive Semantics, Cognitive Stylistics.

Cognitive Linguistics is a new branch of linguistics. On the other hand it is

connected with grammar and stylistics, Text Linguistics, Cognitive stylistics,

Cognitive semantics, and many others. On the other hand it is connected with such

interdisciplinary subjects as linguophychology, culture studies and gender

linguistics. Cognitive Linguistics views language as a cognitive mechanism, as a

means of storing conceptual information. The main unit of Cognitive Linguistics is

concept regarded as a complex of the associations arising in mental area of a

speaker and verbalized in language with the help of lexical means. Cognitive

Grammar is one of the directions of Cognitive Linguistics. It studies grammatical

forms and categories from the point of view of their conceptual meaning.

Cognitive Grammar is referred to the whole language system and includes sounds,

meaning and morphosyntax. The next trend to be discussed is Cognitive

Semantics. It studies conceptual meaning of linguistics units, conceptual systems

of language, the notion of concept, conceptual domains, the notion of conceptual

integrity and cognitive metaphor. The focus of Cognitive Stylistics is to study the

connection between language meaning and how it operates in metal worlds of a

person. Cognitive Stylistics unlike traditional, studies the author’s idiolect i. e.

cognitive style- how the author writes and how the readers perceive it. Cognitive

Stylistics studies the following problems: the problem of cognitive style, the

problem of conceptualization of stylistic means, cognitive principles of text

production and perception, cognitive basis of stylistic devices.

The second paragraph of the dissertation paper is devoted to the discussion

of the notion of Cognitive Metaphor. Traditionally metaphor is understood as «a

30

figure of speech in which an implied comparison is made between two unlike

things that actually have something in common». However, in Cognitive

Linguistics this term acquired another meaning. Cognitive Metaphor is understood

as “a tool of cognition”; mechanism that helps to comprehend the world around us.

It helps us to understand text or discourse. The main effect of Cognitive Metaphor

on language is that it helps to structure the knowledge in the mind. Cognitive

Metaphor consists of two domains: target and source. Target domain is usually

more abstract than source. Source domain illustrates the target domain and makes

it more understandable for the reader or listener. One more notion that is discussed

in this chapter in Conceptual Blending Theory. According to this theory parts,

elements of different conceptual fields are subconsciously “blended” and this

creates new meanings to concepts.

The last paragraph of the first chapter discusses typology of cognitive

metaphor. There are different types of metaphors. The one suggested by Lakoff

and Johnson has three types: In Structural Cognitive Metaphor target sphere is a

model for comprehension of domain sphere. Orientational Cognitive Metaphor is

connected with the orientation in space: left-right; good-bad; deep-shallow; in-out;

front-back. Ontological Cognitive Metaphors views one thing in terms of another.

E. S. Kubryakova distinguishes the following types of Cognitive Metaphor:

Structural Cognitive Metaphors, Ontological Cognitive Metaphors, Conduit

Cognitive Metaphor, Orientational Cognitive Metaphors. Russian scientist

Chudinov I. S. gave his typology: Military, Vegetative, Physiological, Criminal,

Sports, Zoological.

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2.1 Cognitive Metaphor in Fictional Text

In fictional text a great role plays conceptual information as it conveys the

main idea of the story or expresses the author’s attitude towards the events

happening. As it was discussed in previous chapter, a text may contain 3 types

of concepts: mirco, marco and super. A micro-concept is represented in John

Galsworthy’s short story “The Careful Man”. The main hero of the story is a

MP (Member of Parliament). However, he does not take an active part in

debates and discussions of laws. On the contrary, he quietly sits and observes

people arguing, trying to prove their points of view. He never supports either of

the sides. He represents POLITICS like a SEESAW. Two opposing parties are

on two sides and they never or very seldom keep balance: when one side is up,

another is down. It is really true in life as well! If Whigs are in power, it means

that Tories form opposition and vice versa. The man in the story- the careful

man tries to achieve and keep the balance, by sitting in the middle. However, it

is impossible, because one must have his/her own creeds and advance them.

There is only one phrase in the whole story that leads the reader to the

comparison of politics and seesaw:

His leaders on both sides had learned from long experience the daintiness

of his digestion; how very sensitive it was to motion; how, if jolted, it revolted;

and so they did not try too hard to jolt it now, for they naturally hated to be cast

into the air.

While making the analysis of the concepts it is clear that there are some more

resembling features:

Analysis of dictionary definitions:

Politics

32

1. the activities associated with the governance of a country or area, especially

the debate between parties having power

2. the complex or aggregate of relationships of people in society, especially

those relationships involving authority or power

3. any activity concerned with the acquisition of power, gaining one's own

ends, etc

4. the practice or profession of conducting political affairs.

5. the art or science concerned with winning and holding control over a

government

6. political activities characterized by artful and often dishonest practices

Analysis of associations to the concept:

Authoritative Lying Evil Dirty Honest Outer Global

Colonial Progressive False Developing Violent Unstable

Hesitating Vicious Stepped Hurtling

Analysis of proverbs, sayings and quotations:

1. The ballot is stronger than the bullet. Abraham Lincoln.- powerful

2. We hang the petty thieves and appoint the great ones to public office. Aesop.-

unjust

3. When I was a boy I was told that anybody could become President; I'm

beginning to believe it. ~Clarence Darrow-

4. Truth is not determined by majority vote. ~Doug Gwyn- unfair

5. The more you read and observe about this Politics thing, you got to admit that

each party is worse than the other.

6. "Politics is war without bloodshed while war is politics with bloodshed." - Mao

Tse-Tung

7. Although he's regularly asked to do so, God does not take sides in American

politics. George J. Mitchell

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8. “Politics is a pendulum whose swings between anarchy and tyranny are fueled

by perpetually rejuvenated illusions.” Albert Einstein quotes

Analysis of dictionary definitions:

Seesaw

1. a plank balanced in the middle so that two people seated on the ends can

ride up and down by pushing on the ground with their feet

2. an up-and-down or back-and-forth movement

3. a situation characterized by rapid, repeated changes from one state or

condition to another

4. an alternating up-and-down or backward-and-forward motion or

movement;

5. a contest or struggle in which now one side now the other has the lead

Analysis of associations of the concept:

Children Giant Funny Huge Old Ponderous

Creaking Raking Sprawling Lithe Swift Fro Wide

Round Around Inward Noiseless Inwards Nimble

Downward Upward Massy Frenzied Suspended Timed

Hurtling Lust

Analysis of proverbs, sayings and quotations:

1. “What you lose on the SWINGS you gain on the roundabouts.”

2. Worry is like a rocking chair it swings you back and forth and it takes you nowhere.

(African Proverb)

The analysis of dictionary definitions, associative and contextual links of the

source domain “SEESAW” made it possible to list the following conceptual

features of the cognitive metaphor “POLITICS-SEESAW”: balanced, up/down

back-and-forth, childish, funny, violent, unstable, dirty.

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Macroconcept does not represent the whole text; however, it plays an important

role in perceiving the conceptual information of the text.

An example of a macro-concept can be found in stories by Somerset

Maugham. The story is called “Honolulu”. It tells us about life and customs of

people in Hawaii, how it differs from life of Europeans. However, there is one

more idea that definitely supports super-concept, but at the same time leads the

reader to a little bit another direction. Love is usually represented as a positive

feeling- people accomplish feats, change for better and even die for love.

However, not always love brings people happiness and joy. Somerset Maugham

in story “Honolulu” shows another side of love: “LOVE is DEATH”. The story

is simple. We might find numerous other works with the same idea. A man- the

captain of a ship and a girl- local resident love each other. But, the captain’s

assistant also loves the girl. However, the girl refused him and the insulted

young man decided to revenge to the captain. As he was a local resident as well

he put an evil curse on him. Captain was ill, he could hardly move, but when the

girl told him that it was curse he laughed at her beard. The girl decided to save

him and also cursed the young assistant. He died and a few days later the captain

got over his mystical illness. The story is sad, but we can clearly see the

connection between love and killing of a person. The assistant wanted to kill the

captain because he loved the girl, and the girl killed the assistant because she

loved the captain. Nevertheless, there is another question: “Was it a real love?”,

because later the girl ran away with another man. The answer to this question is

“Yes”, it was a real love at least from the side of the young assistant. We do not

know what could have happened if he did not die or if the girl did not escape,

but for that moment they really loved each other.

Although these two concepts seem absolutely incomparable, there are

some similar points.

Analysis of dictionary definitions gave the following results:

35

Death

1. the action or fact of dying or being killed; the end of the life of a person or

organism

2. a damaging or destructive state of affairs

3. a permanent cessation of all vital functions : the end of life

4. the act of dying; the end of life; the total and permanent cessation of all the

vital functions of an organism

Analysis of associations of the concept:

Sick Dishonored Premature Condolent Pestilent Malefactor

Sad, Mournful Punishable Painless Accidental Instantaneous

Avenging Lamented Imminent Tragical Shameful Ghastly

Agonizing Impending Cruel Inglorious Starving

Expiatory Condemning Revengeful Bewailing

Untimely Loving Scared Final Dark Heavenly Eternal

Suffering Free Depressed Farewell Dangerous Sacrificial

Inevitable Mysterious Traitorous Sudden Vain the death of a

martyr War Evil Poisonous Threatening Afterlife

Reviving

Analysis of proverbs, sayings and quotations:

1. Life is a dream walking, death is going home.

2. Poor or rich, death makes us all equal.

3. God grants an easy death only to the just.

4. Death is not a period but a comma in the story of life.- Afterlife

5. Know one knows whether death, which people fear to be the greatest evil, may

not be the greatest good. Plato

6. “To the well-organized mind, death is but the next great adventure.” ― J.K.

Rowling, Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone

36

7. “I do not fear death. I had been dead for billions and billions of years before I

was born, and had not suffered the slightest inconvenience from it.” ― Mark Twain-

8. As soon as man is born he begins to die.

9. Death is a remedy for all ills.

10. Death keeps no calendar.- everlasting

11. Graves are of all sizes.- everlasting

12. Death is never an end or an obstacle but at most the beginning of new steps.

13. The day which we fear as our last is but the birthday of eternity. Lucius

Annaeus Seneca

14. Three things come into the house uninvited: debts, age, and death.- eternal

15. Death is deaf and will hear no denial.

16. Death is God's broom.

17. Death is a black camel that lies down at every door. Sooner or later you must

ride the camel. Arab Proverb- inevitable

18. Death is the grand leveler.- equal

19. Death always comes too early or too late.- eternal

Analysis of dictionary definitions:

Love

1. a strong feeling of affection

2. a great interest and pleasure in something

3. an intense emotion of affection, warmth, fondness, and regard towards a

person or thing

4. a deep, tender, ineffable feeling of affection and solicitude toward a person,

such as that arising from kinship, recognition of attractive qualities, or a

sense of underlying oneness

5. a strong predilection or enthusiasm

6. the object of attachment, devotion, or admiration

7. a profoundly tender, passionate affection for another person

37

Analysis of associations of the concept:

Loving Tender Affection Passionate Devoted Adoration

Passion Yearning Hate Jealous Longing Fondness

Sorrow Everlasting Happy Ardour Platonic Constancy

Blessed Maternal Meek Courtship Faithful Wooing Unselfish

Filial Undying Cherished Inmost Sweet Adorable

Conjugal Unconditional Ardent Parental Tender Passionate

Inordinate Idolize Esteem Mad Enamoured Wed

Idealize Dote Respect Hate Venerate Dearly Ardently

Evermore Sincerely Pain death warmth happiness life trust beauty suffering

Faith Self-sacrifice Dream Unhappy Secret Undivided

Endless Romantic Worrying Selfish Scandalous

Insidious Sad Ruin Blossom Revive Mutual

Constant Mercenary

Analysis of proverbs, sayings and quotations:

1. Either you are motivated by love, or you are a slave to pleasure and pain.

2. The one who loves you will also make you weep. Argentine proverb

3. There is no love like the first love.

4. It's love that makes the world go round! - powerful

5. You call it madness, but I call it love.

6. Perhaps you do not understand me because you do not love me.- understanding

7. Love is the art of making exceptions. Anonymous- forgiving

8. There is no difference between a wise man and a fool when they fall in love.

Jean Paul F. Richter

9. Paradise is always where love dwells. Oscar Wilde

10. Who, being loved, is poor?- rich

11. An old man in love is like a flower in winter. Chinese proverb- fragile

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12. “Being deeply loved by someone gives you strength, while loving someone

deeply gives you courage.” ― Lao Tzu

13. Love is that condition in which the happiness of another person is essential to

your own.” ― Robert A. Heinlein, Stranger in a Strange Land- unselfish

14. Falling in love consists merely in uncorking the imagination and bottling the

common sense.- crazy

15. True love never lives happily ever after - true love has no ending.- endless

16. Where there is great love there are always miracles.- wonderful

17. Love makes a man both blind and deaf. Arabian proverb

18. To love and to be wise are two different things.- mad

19. All is fair in love and war.-

20. Love is never without jealousy.

On the basis of the study of dictionary definitions, proverbs and associative

dictionaries it is possible to figure out cognitive metaphor “LOVE-DEATH” which

ahs the following features: permanent, sad, tragical, eternal, suffering, sacrificial,

everlasting, painful, suffering.

The second story where we can find a macro-concept is “Trimmed

lamp” by O. Henry. It is a story of two simple girls, who work and have their

dreams. One lives her life as it is: she irons clothes and this is her job, she has a

young man, who likes her and does everything for her. The second girl works in

an expensive department store. Every day she sees rich women and men and she

wants to be just like them. She has a few clothes but they are similar to those,

which her famous customers wear and she wants to get married, but not to a

worker on a factory. No! She wants to get married to one of those men, who

enter the store and buy different luxurious things. But, she is not alone. All girls

who work there have the same grandiose plans. To do this they share their

experience and give advice to each other. They see marriage as a hunting and

future husband as a prey. They have their own ways to attract the men and if or

39

when they finally get married it means that the hunting was successful. When

finally rich young men asked her for a date she refused, giving reasons that he

even did not have a million of dollars and she needs more prosperous men. She

is sure that another man will definitely see and fall in love with her because she

knows how to attract them with magnetic looks, attractive smile and high

society manners. Just like an animal can be caught into a trap, a man will fall in

love with her. Here, the author stressed the life of simple people and their

dreams, sometimes impossible and even harmful- life will pass but they stay at

loose ends. And the author continues this idea, showing that the girl changed her

mind and found herself a usual but dependable guy.

In this text we may see the comparison of a marriage to hunting:

The meeting may lack the dignity of the deliberative bodies of man; but it has

all the importance of the occasion on which Eve and her first daughter first put their

heads together to make Adam understand his proper place in the household. It is

Woman's Conference for Common Defense and Exchange of Strategical Theories

of Attack and Repulse upon and against the World, which is a Stage, and Man, its

Audience who Persists in Throwing Bouquets Thereupon.

During this council of war they pass weapons one to another, and exchange

strategies that each has devised and formulated out of the tactics of life.

She bivouacked on the trail of the great unknown “catch”, eating her dry bread and

tightening her belt day by day. . On her face was the faint, soldierly, sweet, grim smile of

the preordained man-hunter. The store was her forest; and many times she raised her

rifle at game that seemed broad-antlered and big; but always some deep unerring

instinct--perhaps of the huntress, perhaps of the woman--made her hold her fire and take

up the trail again.

Analysis of dictionary definitions:

40

Hunting

1. the activity of hunting wild animals or game

2. the activity of searching for something

3. the pursuit and killing or capture of game and wild animals, regarded as a

sport

4. the act of conducting a search for something

Analysis of associations to the concept:

Mad Impatient Great Fortunate Unfortunate Dangerous

Labour Lucky Unlucky Risky Illegal Wonderful

Analysis of proverbs, sayings and quotations:

1. Hunting is not a sport. In a sport, both sides should know they're in the game.

Paul Rodriguez

2. He that hunts others must run himself.-

3. When the mantis hunts the locust, he forgets the shrike that's hunting him.

4. There is a passion for hunting something deeply implanted in the human

breast.

Analysis of dictionary definitions:

Marriage

1. the formal union of a man and a woman, typically as recognized by law, by

which they become husband and wife

2. a close or intimate union, relationship, etc

3. the state of being united to a person of the opposite sex as husband or wife

in a consensual and contractual relationship recognized by law

4. the state, condition, or relationship of being married

5. a close union

Analysis of associations of the concept:

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real modern pompous cancelled holy anniversary happy support

loving duty unhappy misalliance profitable recurring unreal

forthcoming firm stable ideal respectable trustworthy

understanding pro forma marriage forced early terrible decent

short-lived childless holly unstable uneasy short secret

desired awful

Analysis of proverbs, sayings and quotations:

1. What a happy and holy fashion it is that those who love one another should

rest on the same pillow. ~Nathaniel Hawthorne

2. The bonds of matrimony are like any other bonds - they mature slowly.

~Peter De Vries

3. Success in marriage does not come merely through finding the right mate, but

through being the right mate. ~Barnett R. Brickner

4. "A successful marriage requires falling in love many times, always with the

same person." -Mignon McLaughlin

5. "Being in a long marriage is a little bit like that nice cup of coffee every

morning - I might have it every day, but I still enjoy it." -Stephen Gaines

6. A long marriage is two people trying to dance a duet and two solos at the same

time. ~Anne Taylor Fleming - interaction

7. A man in love is incomplete until he has married. Then he's finished.

8. Wife is young man’s mistress; companion for middle age; and old man’s

nurse.

9. Age and wedlock tame even a wildest man.

As a result it is possible to reveal the following conceptual features of the

cognitive metaphor “MARRIAGE-HUNTING”: searching, fortunate,

unfortunate, passionate, happy, unhappy, uneasy, awful, successful.

42

Super-concept represents the main idea of the text, story or novel. It

covers the whole text and can coincide with the title of the story. A short story

by Ernest Hemingway “A Cat under the Rain” can be taken to illustrate this

type of concept. It is a story of a woman who is travelling around Europe with

her husband. Once, they were staying in a hotel in Italy. The weather was bad- it

was raining heavily. Suddenly she saw a kitten outside. It was a small, dirty and

miserable cat, but the woman liked it very much. She told her husband about it,

but he did not pay much attention to her words. Suddenly a maid knocked on the

door and gave the woman a cat, saying that it was a gift from the owner of the

hotel. Nevertheless the woman was disappointed- the cat was big, fat and it was

clear that it was kept at home. Through the image of the “kitten” the author

wanted to show the condition of the woman- she was as helpless and miserable

as the kitten. Her husband did not understand her and could not give her what

she wanted. And through that woman Hemingway wanted to show all lonely

people and their condition.

In the story the reader may trace the connection between the woman and the

cat. Below, we shall analyze two concepts: “WOMAN” and “KITTEN” and try

to find out if there is any connection between them. The analysis consists of the

following parts: analyzing dictionary definitions; analyzing associations to the

concept and analyzing proverbs, sayings and quotations. Before analyzing the

concept it is reasonable to analyze the dictionary definition of the word.

Analysis of dictionary definitions gives the following results:

Woman:

1. an adult human female

2. a man considered as having supposed female characteristics, such as

meekness or timidity

3. distinctively feminine nature

Analysis of associations of the concept:

43

Unmarried Buxom Young Old Womanly Handsome

Aged Fat Working Childless Virtuous Fashionable

Married Shapely Unattractive Poor Ageless

Shameless Unhappy Shy Pale Simple Businesslike

Interesting Awful Loving Honest Brave Experienced

Insidious Strict Serious Crying Helpless Caring Loved

Careful Evil Tall The only Charming Weak

Lonely Rude Fatal Trustworthy Elegant Curious

Beautiful Attractive Wise Jealous Tender Stubborn Graceful

Pretty Defenceless

Analyzing of proverbs, sayings and quotations:

1. “You educate a man; you educate a man. You educate a woman; you educate a

generation.

2. Behind every successful man is a woman.

3. Men build houses; women build homes.

4. Nature has given women so much power that the law has very wisely given them

little. ~Samuel Johnson

5. Every woman beautiful till she speaks. ~Zimbabwean Proverb- talkative

6. A shy woman is worth a city, a shy man is worth a goat. ~Kurdish Proverb

7. Instruct a man, you instruct an individual. Instruct a woman, you instruct a nation.

~Moroccan Proverb

8. Women get the last word in every argument. Anything a man says after that is the

beginning of a new argument.- quarrelsome

9. The wind changes every day; a woman changes every second. ~Spanish Proverb-

changeable

10. A woman’s polite devotion is her greatest beauty.

11. A patient woman can roast an ox with a lantern. ~Chinese Proverb

12. No mirror ever reflected an ugly woman.- beautiful

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13. Where the devil can’t go himself, he sends an old woman. ~German Proverb- evil

14. Wait for a month before you praise a horse, and for a year before you praise a woman.

~Czech Proverb- unreliable

15. A jealous woman will set a whole house on fire. ~Latin Proverb

The analysis of the concept of cat has the following results:

Analysis of dictionary definitions:

Kitten

1. A young cat

2. young domestic cat

3. an immature or young individual of various other small mammals

Analysis of associations of the concept: (Poor+Kitten)

Helpless, homeless, tiny, pitiful, affectionate, small, wet, infirm, humiliated,

miserable, depressed, unhappy, homeless, weak, amusing, playful, stray, frantic,

curious, inquisitive, soft, warm, irresistible, cute, intrepid.

Analysis of proverbs, sayings and quotations:

1. The mice will never play with the kittens.- helpless

2. Rats do not play tricks with kittens.- helpless

3. He bawls like a calf because he is as weak as a kitten.

4. There is no more intrepid explorer than a kitten.

5. It is impossible to keep a straight face in the presence of one or more kittens.-

cute

6. A kitten is the most irresistible comedian in the world.

7. “What feeling is so nice as a child's hand in yours? So small, so soft and

warm, like a kitten huddling in the shelter of your clasp”

8. An ordinary kitten will ask more questions than any five year old.-

inquisitive

9. In the image of the lion made the kittens are small and curious.

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10. “Confront a child, a puppy, and a kitten with a sudden danger; the child will

turn instinctively for assistance, the puppy will grovel in abject submission, the

kitten will brace its tiny body for a frantic resistance”

11. Never pick up a stray kitten . . . unless you've already made up your mind to

be owned by it.

12. The playful kitten, with its pretty little tigerish gambols, is infinitely more

amusing than half the people one is obliged to live with in the world.

13. Rats make havoc in the kitchen when the cat's a kitten.- weak

As the analysis shows the concepts “kitten” and “woman” can be compared as

they have many coinciding features, such as: helpless, defenseless, weak, lonely,

tender, cute, miserable, curious.

The second short story that will be analyzed in this work is “Money” by

John Galsworthy. It shows life of a man- he is quite old, he lived a long life and

he is very rich. He made money when he was young and he still does business.

But he is always worried: at nights he does not sleep- he thinks, all night long he

thinks if his investments are safe, if his bank does not fail. Money was his

religion. He went to church, but there he thought not about god, but about his

money. Money that was the only precious thing in his world. This is cognitive

metaphor “MONEY is GOD”. He taught his children the same. However, when

they grew up they realized that talking about money in society was a sign of bad

manners and they changed the way they talked about it. Instead of saying that

something was expensive, they said that it was not worth their attention. The old

man had a grandson. He was the only “rival” to money. He adored his grandson

and spent much time with him. However, money interfered in this part of his life

as well. He had a game with the boy- they built a bank and kept money there.

There was also a dog that “kept” the bank. Of course it was not so much money,

just for a game. One cold March morning he was found dead I his bed. Doctors

said that he died because of a fear. Something or someone scare him to death.

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This was fear of losing all his money, it killed him. This text comprises a

cognitive metaphor which consists of two domains: source domain “God” and

target domain “Money”.

There are several parts of the story where the author himself shows this

connection:

There was nothing in such sermons, therefore, that could quarrel with his

own religion, for he did not hear them; and even had he heard them, they would

not have quarrelled, his own creed of money being but the natural modern form

of a religion that his fathers had interpreted as the laying-up of treasure in the life

to come.

Still less had any one remarked the deep and silent process by which there passed

from him to them the simple elements of faith.

His children, subtly, and under cover of the manner of a generation which did

not mention money in so many words, had sucked in their father's firm religious

instinct, his quiet knowledge of the value of the individual life, his steady and

unconscious worship of the means of keeping it alive.

His religious feeling about money did not make him selfish, or niggardly in

any way — it merely urged him to preserve himself — not to take risks that he

could reasonably avoid, either in his mode of life, his work, or in the propagation of

his children.

Here is the analysis of the concept “God”

Analysis of dictionary definitions:

1. in Christianity and other monotheistic religions) the creator and ruler of the

universe and source of all moral authority; the supreme being

2. (in certain other religions) a superhuman being or spirit worshipped as having

power over nature or human fortunes; a deity

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3. an image, animal, or other object worshipped as divine or symbolizing a god

4. used as a conventional personification of fate

5. a greatly admired or influential person

6. a thing accorded the supreme importance appropriate to a god

7. the sole Supreme Being, eternal, spiritual, and transcendent, who is the

Creator and ruler of all and is infinite in all attributes

8. a being conceived as the perfect, omnipotent, omniscient originator and ruler

of the universe

9. the supreme or ultimate reality: as the Being perfect in power, wisdom, and

goodness who is worshipped as creator and ruler of the universe

10. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth, love, Mind, Soul, Spirit,

Principle

Analysis of associations of the concept:

Omnipotent Honoured Worshipped Blessed One Everlasting

Eternal Redemptive Almighty Merciful Omniscient Divine

Glorified Sinless Heavenly Spiritual Meek Obedient

Wise True Celestial Bounty Faithful Graceful Eternal

Pure Holy Effulgent Forgiving Celestial Sacrificial

Beneficent Deathless Sacred Almighty Piously Devout

Reverent Charitable

Analysis of proverbs, sayings and quotations:

1. Ask the Lord to bless your plans, and you will be successful in carrying them out.

2. Even the prayers of an ant reach to Heaven.- Fair

3. God hears all living beings. - Fair

4. God is always on the side of the big battalions.

5. Man proposes, God disposes.- Almighty

6. Human beings can make any plans they want, but it's God that decides their

success or failure.

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7. Poor men go to heaven as soon as rich.

8. God makes no distinction between people with money and people without

money.

9. The king speaks with divine authority; his decisions are always right.

10. Trust in Allah, but tie your camel.

11. God and fairies can be wrong as well. (Chinese Proverb)

12. The believer is happy; the doubter is wise. (Hungarian proverb)

13. Pray God, but carry on swimming towards the bank. (Russian Proverb)-

14. If God were not forgiving, heaven would be empty.

15. If you make money your god, it will plague you like the devil. Henry

Fielding

Analysis of the concept “Money”:

Analysis of dictionary definitions:

1. a current medium of exchange in the form of coins and banknotes; coins and

banknotes collectively

2. the assets, property, and resources owned by someone or something; wealth

3. a wealthy person, family, or group

4. persons or interests possessing or controlling great wealth

5. a position of wealth

Analysis of associations of the concept:

Evil happy dirty powerful free angry rubbish problematic

greedy avid slave traitorous need indebted fake cursed sinful foul

scant wasteful generous timeless wealthy successful corrupted dead

lying poor rich broke to be a cheapskate stingy donating

Analysis of proverbs, sayings and quotations:

1. It is better-much better—to have wisdom and knowledge than gold and silver.

2. Money is power.

3. It is better to be born lucky than rich.

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4. A rich man is either a scoundrel or the heir of a scoundrel.

5. Money is the root of all evil.

6. Money is a good servant, but a bad master.

7. He who pays the piper calls the tune.- power

8. A good name is better than riches.

9. The best things in life are free.

10. The rich knows not who is his friend.

11. Beggars can't be choosers.

12. A light purse makes a heavy heart; a heavy purse makes a light heart.

13. "With money in your pocket, you are wise and you are handsome and you sing

well too." Yiddish Proverb

14. "A fool may earn money, but it takes a wise man to keep it." Scotland

15. A kindhearted woman gains respect, but ruthless men gain only wealth.

16. Money is only a tool. It will take you wherever you wish, but it will not replace

you as the driver. Ayn Rand

17. Money is welcome though it come in a dirty clout.

18. When money speaks, the truth keeps silent.- power

19. Money isn't everything--but it's a long way ahead of what comes next. - Edmund

Stockdale

20. It is better to have a little, honestly earned, than to have a large income,

dishonestly gained.

21. All things are obedient to money.

22. When it is a question of money, everybody is of the same religion. Voltaire

23. Money is the wise man's religion. Euripides

The result of the analysis proves the existence of cognitive metaphor and

reveals the following conceptual features: powerful, generous, timeless, wise, honest,

worshipped, almighty, eternal, admired, influential.

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2.2 Cognitive Metaphor in Newspaper Text

Cognitive metaphor can be also used in the newspaper text. The history

of newspapers can be traced back to the 17th century; however, only in the

19th century it gained its own linguistic features. Yet, not all information

found in newspapers can be considered as example of newspaper style, as

there are poems, puzzles and scientific reviews as well, that do not belong to

it. Thus, English newspaper style may be defined as a system of inter-

related lexical, phraseological and grammatical means which is perceived

by the community as a separate linguistic unity that serves the

purpose of informing and instructing the reader. (Galperin I.R.) The aim

of any newspaper article is to inform; nevertheless, there are some more

functions of newspapers, one of which is to evaluate. One of the main

issues in newspaper articles is the topic of politics. It takes the biggest part

of news articles and space in a newspaper.

The style of newspaper articles is not homogeneous; a reader may find

samples of many different writing styles, according to the type and aim of the

article: hard news stories, columns, editorial page, features, advertisements, etc.

Below are given the main characteristics of the newspaper style:

- political words and expressions, clichés, colloquial words, slang,

professionalisms

- a large proportion of dates and personal names of countries, territories,

institutions, individuals

- space ordering

- abbreviations

- neologisms

Besides, there are many stylistically colored words, interrogative sentences,

elliptical constructions, direct speech and stylistic devises

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It testifies to the fact that newspaper text is not deprived of imagery. It

means that cognitive metaphors can be found in newspaper text too. Recently a

new term “political cognitive metaphor” has been introduced. Our aim is to show

special functions of political metaphor, which can be regarded as a cognitive

metaphor as well, as it has prototypical character. The linguistic material we have

found could be divided into 3 image-schemas: elections are compared with

battle/war; sport and hunting.

ELECTIONS-BATTLE/WAR

The conceptual domain of “BATTLE” includes: unequal, fierce,

victorious, great, decisive, forthcoming, aggressive, formidable, ideological,

merciless, dirty, stubborn, just. In the examples provided below we can see that

conceptual features of source domain “BATTLE” have been transferred to the

target domain “BATTLE”.

1. Democratic participation in battleground states appears to have matched or

surpassed that of 2008.

2. Romney and vice-presidential candidate Paul Ryan spent election day flying

across the country, thanking volunteers and "leaving it all on the field", as they

said.

3. Barack Obama’s victory was more than a defeat of Mitt Romney. Obama

also vanquished prejudice, winner-take-all economics, and attacks on the safety

net.

4. On Election Day, Barack Obama was home in Chicago on his way back to

the White House—and the Romney campaign was R.I.P., lurching its last ditch

way back to Pennsylvania and Ohio.

5. The President didn’t maneuver to accommodate this; he confronted it with a

most full-throated populist campaign of any Democratic nominee in decades.

6. And he never arraigned the forces on the other side—or explicitly asked the

defining question: who’s on your side?

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7. His appeal in the final days of his last campaign echoed FDR’s denunciation

of the economic Royalists—and Al Gore’s pledge to fight “for the people—not the

powerful”— a mantra he regrets shying away from in the autumn of 2000.

8. Nor is the defeat of a brazen, unprecedented campaign of lies—which the

Romney strategists presumed would work in an ad-heavy, journalistically

fractured universe.

9. Amid the fusillade of lies, two in particular backfired.

10. But in the 2012 outcome we can also see an array of other losers—pundits

who put ideology ahead of reality; partisan pollsters who seemed to play fast and

loose with numbers; billionaires who wasted their bile and their dollars on not so–

Super PACs; traffickers in race-baiting and purveyors of prejudice.

11. Move On and Organizing for America (OFA), not to mention ACORN (or

whatever it calls itself now) and a host of other groups just never went home: they

dug in to win, maintaining field offices and staff without a break.

12. And moreover, at some point, if you keep ignoring a development of such

magnitude while the other side keeps using it against you, your outdated tactics

start making you look like the Polish Cavalry being mowed down by German

tanks.

13. "We went into the evening confident we had a good path to victory," said

one senior adviser.

14. Actually, Romney always had an uphill battle: the economy narrowly

favored President Obama's re-election

15. Obama scored a resounding electoral college win on Tuesday night -

despite predictions of one of the tightest finishes in history.

16. He promised 'the best is yet to come' and said the fierce battle with Romney

had made him a better president, vowing: 'I will return to the White House more

determined and inspired than ever.'

17. In the battle for the Senate, Democrats won seats currently held by

Republicans in Indiana and Massachusetts.

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18. Polls were still open in much of the country as the two rivals began claiming

the spoils of a brawl of an election in a year in which the struggling economy put a

crimp in the middle class dreams of millions.

19. His goal was to minimize any losses, or possibly even gain ground, no

matter Romney's fate.

20. President Barack Obama has been re-elected to a second term, defeating

Republican challenger Mitt Romney.

21. Mr Obama prevailed despite lingering dissatisfaction with the economy and

a hard-fought challenge by Mr Romney.

22. He’s absolutely right — on both fronts.

23. Republicans were on course for the same in the House, making it likely that

Speaker John Boehner of Ohio, Obama's partner in unsuccessful deficit talks,

would reclaim his seat at the bargaining table.

Now we will analyze some of the expressions.

Move On and Organizing for America (OFA), not to mention ACORN (or

whatever it calls itself now) and a host of other groups just never went home: they

dug in to win, maintaining field offices and staff without a break.

Dig in to win- the phrase “to dig in” is derived from military sphere and means

“to create (a defensive position) by digging foxholes, trenches, etc”.

However, in this sentence it has figurative meaning, representing to candidates for

presidency as two leaders of opposing parties. Their supporters (field offices and

staff) are soldiers and officers and the elections and pre-election campaigns are

battlefields.

As it is seen from the examples above, the word “battle” is very often used

in the articles about elections and one more phrase derived from this word is

“battleground states”.

Democratic participation in battleground states appears to have matched or

surpassed that of 2008.

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Battleground state- this phrase was originated from the Civil War in the

USA, when South and North fought with each other. Nowadays the meaning of

this expression switched from military to political sphere and means "important but

not defined state (in which the result of presidential elections in unclear till the last

moment as the main candidates have almost equal rights". This phrase has

synonym "swing state". Although their origin is different nowadays they mean the

same. Moreover, there are two more expressions that worth being mentioned; they

are "red state" and "blue state". The colours represent two political parties

Democratic and Republican accordingly. So, the state strongly supporting

Democrats will be called "red state" and state that favours Republicans- "blue

state". And the rest of the states, where no one of the candidates could gain the

majority, are traditionally called "battleground states".

one more expression that is Romney and vice-presidential candidate Paul Ryan

spent election day flying across the country, thanking volunteers and "leaving it

all on the field", as they said.

The next expression that will be analyzed in this work is: "Romney and vice-

presidential candidate Paul Ryan spent election day flying across the country,

thanking volunteers and "leaving it all on the field", as they said".

"Leaving it all on the field"- origin of this phrase goes back to the Middle

Ages and numerous internecine wars between rich landlords. The battles were very

cruel and fierce, neither side wanted to give up. They fought till the last blood drop

and left all their strength on the battlefield. However, there are some variants of

this phrase, such as "leave everything in the ring/arena/stadium". In this case

although the meaning of both phrases is similar, they belong to different cognitive

metaphors, as the latter represents politics as sports. And, analyzing this sentence

we can infer that it should belong to the cognitive metaphor "ELECTIONS-

BATTLE", as it does not say about competition with Barrack Obama, but about

efforts made by Romney and Ryan to win the elections.

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ELECTIONS -SPORT:

The study of associative links of the domain “SPORT” revealed the

following conceptual features of the source domain: venturesome, illegal,

victorious, aggressive, dangerous, professional, opposing, and emulative.

1. But to date, what we've seen is the president out campaigning to the American

people, doing rallies around the country, flying around the country and berating

Republicans.," he said.

2. Obama’s defeat in the first let Romney into the race, but never reshaped a

fundamental structure that accorded the President many more roads to an

electoral vote majority—and back to 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue.

3. The folks at the top in this country, they don’t need another champion in

Washington. They’ve got lobbyists. They’ve got PACs … But [the] people who

need a champion are the Americans whose letters I read every night.”

4. It may also have relegated Chris Christie to the list of also-rans.

5. It’s always easy to dump on the loser, but the truth is, Romney ran a solid

campaign – despite all the Monday morning quarterbacking you are now hearing

– and got beaten.

6. Third, let’s just say it: Obama knocked it out of the park.

7. Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, to a lesser degree Michigan and Minnesota should

have been in play.

8. Those assumptions drove their campaign strategy: their internal polling showed

them leading in key states, so they decided to make a play for a broad victory: go

to places like Pennsylvania while also playing it safe in the last two weeks.

9. Seen to many as a game changer throughout the election, social media made

Tuesday a historic night in more ways than one.

10. Now Mitt Romney finds himself the underdog in an ugly, grueling contest with

President Obama.

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One expression that is particularly interesting for analyzing is: "It's always

easy to dump on the loser, but the truth is, Romney ran a solid campaign -

despite all the Monday morning quarterbacking you are now hearing - and got

beaten". The verb "to quarterback" is taken from American football and it means "a

player stationed behind the centre who directs a team's offensive play". In other

words we can say that to quarterback is to lead a team. In the given example this

meaning is preserved, but certainly it has shifted from football to politics. As

Romney is a candidate for president, he is the leader of his political party and his

election campaign and he directs or quarterbacks all steps that are made by his

staff. However, in this example there is continuation of this idea- "and got

beaten"-which means he lost the "game" and the elections.

American newspapers use many expressions from American football and

baseball in their articles as these types of sport are popular with them; a vivid

example can be the following sentence:

Third, let's just say it: Obama knocked it out of the park. To knock it out of

the park can be defined as "to do something exceptionally well". It should be

mentioned that this idiom is still considered to be slang expression that makes this

sentence even more expressive. However, this meaning is transferred and its origin

lies in baseball. Its original meaning is to hit a ball so strong that it can fly away

from the field or the stadium where the game is held. In the article this expression

used exactly in this meaning- Obama's campaign was perfect, he was very strong

as a candidate and it is no surprise that he won the elections.

Although in newspaper articles dedicated to elections all attention is usually

paid to the candidates, sometimes it can be transferred to other people or things.

Let us analyze the following example to illustrate this idea:

Seen to many as a game changer throughout the election, social media

made Tuesday a historic night in more ways than one.

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The phrase “game changer” is a cognitive metaphor based on the image of

“Sport”, but it concentrates on an important part of modern world- social media.

But what is "social media?" Dictionary defines it as follows: “"Social media

(medium in singular) includes the various online technology tools that enable

people to communicate easily via the internet to share information and

resources. Social media can include text, audio, video, images, podcasts, and

other multimedia communications". So, from the definition above it is clear that

power of controlling people's minds moved from newspapers and journals to

internet websites and social networks that can provide and exchange news in much

quicker time. In the sentence social media is represented as game changer. There

several definitions of this expression but we shall take the one provided by Oxford

Dictionary. It defines this expression as "a person, an idea or an event that

completely changes the way a situation develops". So, social media is

represented here as a power that can influence significantly the process and

result of the elections.

The last group of expressions that will be analyzed in this work is cognitive

metaphor "ELECTIONS –“HUNTING”. “HUNTING” can be: lucky/unlucky,

venturesome, grasping, yearly, tiresome, cruel, unfair, illegal, dangerous, hard and

hopeless. There are not so many expressions of this type, but all of them brightly

illustrate this metaphor.

1. The Romney campaign decided a Donald Trump endorsement was worth

chasing, because it would translate to support from the base.

2. In describing the ground game, the official told of a conversation he had with

a top field director on Monday.

3. Immigrant-bashing lost—and the GOP has to reexamine the party’s game plan

if not its conscience or permanently face an impossible climb back to the White

House.

4. From the beginning, campaign manager Jim Messina had promised a totally

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different, metric-driven kind of campaign in which politics was the goal but

political instincts might not be the means.

The Romney campaign decided a Donald Trump endorsement was worth

chasings because it would translate to support from the base.

In this sentence the whole situation and all participants can be described via

analogue with hunting. Donald Trump is the reach because he is rich and he can

aid Romney in his campaign not only financially/but by his authority and respect

among the public. Romney and his staff are hunters as they are in need of Trump's

wealth and authority and the way Romney's team "chases" him is the process of

hunting- they may guarantee him strong support in case Romney wins. If they

manage to interest Trump and he agrees to support them; so, the hunt is successful.

This part of the dissertation was devoted to the investigation and analysis of

political cognitive metaphor. This type of metaphor is widely used in newspaper

articles and assumes multifarious forms. However, the main image-schemas of

cognitive metaphors are ELECTIONS-BATTLE/WAR, ELECTIONS –SPORT

and ELECTIONS –HUNTING.

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2.3 Cognitive Metaphor in Poetry

One of the basic types of cognitive metaphor in poetry is considered to be the

concept of “TIME”. Time is a basic unit not only in cognitive linguistics, but in

philosophy, literature and aesthetics as well. People’s understanding of time is

changing. Human beings cannot exist out of time and space. Real time is described

as one-dimensional, irreversible, unidirectional (from present to past), extensive

and one-time. Not less important is the notion of “artistic time”. The problem of

artistic time is of great importance to linguists, art and literary critics. Potebnya

distinguished real and artistic time. He mentioned historical changeability of

artistic time. According to Galperin text functions of time are different. As he

points out, past time is more understandable for the readers that the future. Present

time is the most widespread. It shows some real phenomena, values that are

universal. Artistic time is defined as follows- “form of objective, aesthetic reality;

special type of knowledge of the world.

Artistic time unlike real time has its own, unique characteristics. The author

may vary the time. He can make it go fast or slow, it can flow non-stop or it can be

broken by some other events, time can be consecutive or inconsequent. Time can

show past, present or future in one text. Artistic time is subjective as it completely

depends on the author and his ideas. According to the author’s idea, time can

“run”, “stop” or “flash”. For example, time can shrink or elongate. So sometimes,

one minute can last for hours and vice versa years can fly by in a second. In the

fictional text, time is a part of the narration. Time can be “closed”, in this case, the

narration is not connected with any event (with actual, historical time and events).

“Open” time does not separate narration from the actual events that happened or

happen simultaneously. Sometimes time can stop- the author starts thinking about

the results of some situations and as there is no action, there is no time. In some

situations time is quickened. It is often used in epilogues. All events that might

have taken long time are described in brief and it creates the conclusion. Time has

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different characteristics according to the genre (poetry and fictional text). Time and

history are tied. For some authors these ties are strong and the narration is closely

connected with real historical events, for others they are loosely connected and

historical events are mentioned only if it is necessary. However, if there are no

events, there is no time. In descriptions (of people or places) or in philosophical

reflections there are no actions, thus, no time.

Poetry is considered to be highly metaphorical in its nature. The peculiar

feature of metaphor used in Poetry is that it can be expressed by different parts of

speech. This Cognitive Metaphor is analyzed in close relationship with the concept

of “TIME”

Examples of Cognitive Metaphor TIME-HUMAN BEING

Represented by nouns:

1. Could Love for ever Run like a river, And Time's endeavour Be tried in vain

2. Oh, Time the Beautifier of the Dead,

Adorner of the ruin- Comforter

And only Healer when the heart hath bled-

Time! The Corrector where our judgements err,

The test of truth, love- sole Philosopher,

For all beside are sophists…

Time, the Avenger! Unto thee I lift

My hands, and eyes, and heart, and crave of thee a gift.

3. But what is time? What outward glory? neither

4. And proudly steer through time's eventful tide;

Still may thy blooming sons thy name revere, 5. Retrace their progress through the lapse of time,

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Cognitive Metaphor represented by verbs:

1. Laura was blooming still, had made the best

Of Time, and Time return'd the compliment, And treated her genteelly, so that, 'drest 2. Milton appeal'd to the Avenger, Time, 3. Time cannot teach forgetfulness 4. Time steals along, and Death uprears the dart; 5. ---Ill suits the road with one in haste; but we Played with our time; and, as we strolled along, To the memorial majesty of Time 6. Till Time crops the leaves with unmerciful knife, 7. Or prunes them for ever, in Love's last adieu! Thus did the hapless parent mourn, Till Time, which soothes severest woe, Had bade serenity return And made the tear-drop cease to flow. 8. When all my soul was given to thee; Hours that may never be forgot, Till Time unnerves our vital powers, And thou and I shall cease to be. 9. Rather at once our time devour 10. Ah, none! - a father's tears will cease to flow, Time will assuage an infant brother's woe;

11. Years have not seen, Time shall not see

The hour that tears my soul from thee

12. Time taught him a deep answer- when she loved

13. Time may have somewhat tamed them, --- not for ever; 14. The wound that time can never heal.

Cognitive Metaphor represented by adjectives:

1. As might appear to the eye of fleeting time, A deathless spirit. Thou also, man! hast wrought, 2. I left Bethgelert's huts at couching-time, And westward took my way, to see the sun Keen ridicule; the majesty proclaims Of Institutes and Laws, hallowed by time; 3. Cased in the unfeeling armour of old time 4. Devouring Time, blunt thou the lion’s paws,

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5. Sad havoc Time must with my memory make. 6. But lack of tidings from another clime

Had lent a flagging wing to weary Time. 7. And this same impulse would, in tempting time,

Mislead his spirit equally in crime; 8. Thy scanty breathing-time is portioned out

Not idly.--Hadst thou been of Indian birth, 9. Thus much I've dare; if my incondite lay

Hath wrong'd these righteous times, let others say;

The analysis of the given examples shows that the main type of Cognitive

Metaphor used in Poetry is TIME-HUMAN BEING (subdivided into three types

expressed by nouns, adjectives and verbs).

“TIME” as well as human being may have positive and negative qualities:

weary, hallowed, devouring, tempting, sad, havoc, righteous

Time can be “weary”- tired just like a human being:

But lack of tidings from another clime

Had lent a flagging wing to weary Time.

They see, they recognise, yet almost deem

The present dubious, or the past a dream.

In this line time is shown as an old, tired man. In this extract Byron wanted to

say that life without news undermines a man and here Time that “lacks tidings” has

also become weak and tired.

TIME is described as noun:

Avenger, Beautifier, Comforter, Corrector, Healer, sole Philosopher

In these examples TIME is represented as a real, existing person, who can

revenge, heal the wounds and listen to problems and console. Byron is trying to say

that when time passes, we look back and see different events or situations in a new

light. Time is the healer of the wounds- sooner or later we forget about pain, betrayal

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and failures. “Time heals”, “time is the best healer” - these expressions are often

used not only in English culture, but in any other as well, which shows that this is

universal metaphor. “Avenger”- as it is said “time will sort everything out in the

end”. Life is often unfair, innocent people may suffer. However, although it may take

years and even decades, the truth comes out. Time itself will revenge for all offences

and injustices. “Corrector”- time flows and it is impossible to stop it. We make

many mistakes in our lives and it is Time that corrects our mistakes.

In other examples Time is represented in verbs.

Such characteristic as “to heal” has already been analyzed above. However, there are

many others.

Where shall they turn to mourn thee less?

When cease to hear thy cherish'd name?

Time cannot teach forgetfulness

While Grief's full heart is fed by Fame.

In this example, TIME is seen as a teacher or someone who can teach people. It

is quite clear that only a human being can teach and here we can see personification

of the TIME. Time itself is a teacher. Experience teaches us in our lives, but

experience comes with time. Time can also “return” and “treat”:

Laura was blooming still, had made the best

Of Time, and Time return'd the compliment,

And treated her genteelly, so that, 'drest

Time just like a man can return all good and bad things that were made by

people. This idea has a lot in common with the comparison of TIME as Avenger.

Time can take vengeance on somebody for bad deeds and vice versa, it can “return

the compliment”, “treat genteelly”.

Time can “assuage”:

Ah, none!—a father’s tears will cease to flow,

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Time will assuage an infant brother’s woe;

To all, save one, is consolation known,

While solitary friendship sighs alone.

Here, again it is necessary to point out similarity between verbs “to heal” and “to

assuage” as both mean “to relieve or alleviate”. From these two lines it is possible to

infer that Byron is writing about death of a young man. And only time can assuage,

can diminish the pain of the death.

So, the analysis of the given examples has shown that the conceptual features

of the source domain HUMAN BEING are ascribed to the target domain TIME.

According to the dictionaries the following conceptual features of HUMAN BEING

were revealed:

HUMAN BEING is- free, powerful, great, the only, wise, dangerous,

honest/dishonest, gallant, decisive, boring, experienced, featured, lasting, kind,

happy, lawless, lost, estimable, irretrievable, powerful, empty, tiring, greedy,

valiant, unprincipled, inexorable, young, covetous, weary, hallowed, armed,

devouring, desperate, tempting, sad, influential, havoc, righteous.

HUMAN BEING can- do, come, pass by, answer, stop, know, see, disappear, call,

leave, return, grab, look for, unnerve, laugh, kill, run, laugh, approach, repeat, fly,

run, lose, tame, wait, help, change, stop, stretch, assuage, heal, hold, prove,

approach, stand still, die, find, measure, find, capture, tempt, steal.

HUMAN BEING is a – avenger, fighter, creator, artist, dictator, beautifier, mover,

healer, announcer, enemy, hunter, predator, eater, comforter, historian,

philosopher, servant, teacher, criminal, leader, corrector, monster, ruler, observer,

builder, healer.

At the final stage of our analysis we compared associative links of HUMAN

BEING and compared with concrete examples and by means of inference have

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revealed the conceptual features of Cognitive Metaphor TIME-HUMAN BEING:

beautiful, powerful, great, wise, honest/dishonest, featured, lasting, kind, lawless,

estimable, irretrievable, tiring, valiant, unprincipled, inexorable, covetous, weary,

hallowed, armed, devouring, desperate, tempting, influential, havoc, righteous,

avenging, healing.

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Conclusions to Chapter II

The second chapter of the dissertation paper analyzes Cognitive Metaphor in

different text types: Fictional, Newspaper texts and Poetry. The analysis of Cognitive

Metaphor in Fictional text is aimed to reveal the role of Cognitive Metaphor in

conveying micro, macro and super-concepts of the literary text. Micro-concept is

verbalized within a sentence. It represents a part of conceptual information related to

the conceptual information of the whole text. The analysis of source and target

domains of Cognitive Metaphor “POLITICS-SEESAW” and its cognitive mapping,

expressing the micro-concept of the text in a short story by Galsworthy “A Careful

Man” makes it possible to reveal the following conceptual features ascribed to the

target domain POLITICS: balanced, up/down, back-and-forth, childish, funny,

violent, unstable, dirty. Macro-concept helps the reader to understand the information

that is kept in the text; however, it is not the main idea of the text (it is represented by

super-concept). Macro-concept is found in the following short stories: O. Henry

“Trimmed Lamp”- MARRIAGE- HUNTING and S. Maugham “Honolulu”-

“LOVE- DEATH”. The result of componential analysis makes it possible to reveal

the following conceptual features: “MARRIAGE- HUNTING”- searching,

fortunate, unfortunate, passionate, happy, unhappy, uneasy, awful, successful.

“LOVE- DEATH”- permanent, sad, tragical, eternal, suffering, sacrificial,

everlasting, painful, suffering. Super-concept is found in works of E. Hemingway and

J. Galsworthy. Usually it completely coincides with the title of the story. In the short

story of Hemingway “Cat under the Rain” the following cognitive metaphor was

found: WOMAN-KITTEN. The study of the material was supported by the analysis

of definitions of the concepts, associative dictionaries and proverbs and sayings. The

result of the study revealed the following conceptual features of Cognitive Metaphor

“WOMAN-KITTEN”: helpless, defenseless, weak, lonely, tender, cute, miserable,

curious. In the story by John Galsworthy “Money” the following cognitive metaphor

“MONEY-GOD” was identified, which has the following conceptual features:

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powerful, generous, timeless, wise, honest, worshipped, almighty, eternal, admired,

influential.

The second paragraph was dedicated to the analysis of Cognitive Metaphor in

newspaper text. The aim of the research was the analysis of “Elections” and cognitive

metaphors that might be found. The result of the investigation revealed three image-

schemas: ELECTIONS-BATTLE, ELECTIONS-SPORT and ELECTIONS-

HUNTING. “BATTLE” includes the following conceptual features that were found

in the newspaper articles about elections: unequal, fierce, victorious, great, decisive,

forthcoming, aggressive, formidable, ideological, merciless, dirty, stubborn, just.

(Democratic participation in battleground states appears to have matched or

surpassed that of 2008).

Barack Obama’s victory was more than a defeat of Mitt Romney. Obama also

vanquished prejudice, winner-take-all economics, and attacks on the safety net.)

The concept “SPORT” has such conceptual features like: venturesome, illegal,

victorious, aggressive, dangerous, professional, opposing, and emulative. These

conceptual features are found in several articles describing elections in the USA:

(Obama’s defeat in the first let Romney into the race, but never reshaped a

fundamental structure that accorded the President many more roads to an

electoral vote majority—and back to 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue. The folks at the

top in this country, they don’t need another champion in Washington. They’ve got

lobbyists. They’ve got PACs … But [the] people who need a champion are the

Americans whose letters I read every night.”). The third image-schema

ELECTIONS-HUNTING gives another representation of this Cognitive Metaphor.

HINTING is described as: lucky/unlucky, venturesome, grasping, yearly, tiresome,

cruel, unfair, illegal, dangerous, hard and hopeless. (The Romney campaign

decided a Donald Trump endorsement was worth chasing, because it would

translate to support from the base. In describing the ground game, the official told

of a conversation he had with a top field director on Monday.)

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The third paragraph studied Cognitive Metaphor in Poetry. Works of Byron,

Coleridge and Wordsworth were analyzed. As a result of the study, Cognitive

Metaphor TIME-HUMAN BEING was discovered. It was divided into three

subtypes according to the part of speech it was represented: noun, verb or

adjective. The analysis of the poems gave the following results: as a noun TIME is

avenger, beautifier, comforter, corrector, healer, philosopher. (Oh, Time the

Beautifier of the Dead, Adorner of the ruin- Comforter) As verb it has the

following conceptual features that can be ascribed to HUNAM BEING: return treat

heal teach assuage (Laura was blooming still, had made the best Of Time, and

Time return'd the compliment, And treated her genteelly, so that, 'drest). The last

group is found in adjectives. It has such features like: weary, hallowed, devouring,

tempting, sad, havoc, righteous (But lack of tidings from another clime, Had lent a

flagging wing to weary Time.)

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Summary

The dissertation paper is devoted to the problem of Cognitive Metaphor in

Fictional Text. It consists of introduction, two chapters, conclusion and list of used

literature. In introduction the aim, topicality, novelty, methods of investigation and

value have been described. The topicality of the dissertation lies in the fact that

cognitive approach to the analysis of metaphor is used. The novelty is proved by

the following: Cognitive Metaphor is considered to be not only a stylistic device,

but a way of thinking and cognition.

The first chapter- theoretical- deals with the study of such notions as

Cognitive Linguistics and its trends (Cognitive Grammar, Cognitive Semantics,

Cognitive Stylistics). It is known that Cognitive Linguistics emerged in the second

half of the XXth century. It was a completely new approach to language study.

Cognitive Linguistics views language as a cognitive mechanism. It studies

relationship between language and mental processes, human experience and

knowledge. Language is considered to be a mechanism which stores, transfers and

represents knowledge. Cognitive Grammar studies grammatical forms and

categories from the point of view of their conceptual meaning. Cognitive

Semantics studies conceptual meaning of linguistics units, conceptual systems of

language, the notion of concept, conceptual domains, the notion of conceptual

integrity and cognitive metaphor. Cognitive Stylistics studies: the problem of

cognitive style, the problem of conceptualization of stylistic means, cognitive

principles of text production and perception, the theory of cognitive metaphor.

The first chapter defines the term Cognitive Metaphor in comparison with

traditional metaphor. The theory of Cognitive Metaphor is relatively new. It differs

from traditional metaphor in many aspects. So, if traditional metaphor is

understood just as a figure of speech, Cognitive Metaphor is a tool that helps us

perceive the world around us; it is a way of conceptualizing reality based on

transfer from one conceptual field into another. Cognitive Metaphor is studied as

70

reflection in language of images existing in mind. Via Cognitive Metaphors we

transfer the knowledge of one domain -source domain- to an absolutely new and

unknown field (target domain). Any Cognitive Metaphor consists of two domains-

Source and Target. Features of Source domain (already known, concrete) are

ascribed to the Target, as it is more abstract and probably less known. It can be

proved by the fact that cognitive metaphor helps people in the process of

categorization of knowledge in our mind. Cognitive Metaphors have a prototypical

character, which means it is possible to outline a model of Cognitive Metaphor that

might have different representations in language. Moreover, Cognitive Metaphors

help generate new meanings. The analysis of Cognitive Metaphor is based on the

theory of Conceptual Blending. It is possible to say that the result of conceptual

blending is Cognitive Metaphor. Conceptual blending is a cognitive operation of

meaning construction that involves integration of two or more conceptual domains

into one “blended” mental space.

One more objective of this chapter is to study various types of Cognitive

Metaphor provided by researchers. There are different approaches in defining types

of Cognitive Metaphor. The most famous are the ones suggested by G. Lakoff and

M. Johnson, E. S .Kubryakova and I. S. Chudinov. The one suggested by Lakoff

and Johnson has three types: Structural Cognitive Metaphor views target sphere as

a model for acquiring domain sphere. Orientational Cognitive Metaphor deals with

the orientation in space: up-down; left-right; good-bad; front-back. Ontological

Cognitive Metaphors views one thing in terms of another. E. S. Kubryakova

distinguishes four types of Cognitive Metaphor that partly coincide with Lakoff

and Johnson’s types. They are: Structural Cognitive Metaphors, Ontological

Cognitive Metaphors, Conduit Cognitive Metaphor, Orientational Cognitive

Metaphors. Russian scientist Chudinov I. S. has another approach in this field. He

suggests the following types of Cognitive Metaphor: Military, Vegetative,

Physiological, Criminal, Sports, Zoological.

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The second chapter of the dissertation paper is connected with the analysis

of Cognitive Metaphor in different texts, such as Fictional, Newspaper texts and

Poetry. For this purpose, fictional texts, newspaper articles and poems were

carefully analyzed and the role of Cognitive Metaphors was discussed. The results

show peculiarities of Cognitive Metaphor in each type of text. It is based on the

Theory of Conceptual Domains and Conceptual Blending. The analysis of

Cognitive Metaphor is done with the help of such methods as componential

analysis and Cognitive Mapping.

Fictional texts are analyzed from the angle of conceptual information which is

subdivided into micro, macro and super-concepts. Accordingly Cognitive Metaphor

is subdivided into 3 subtypes conveying micro, macro and super-concepts. In

fictional text the aim of Cognitive Metaphor is to represent conceptual information,

help understand the writer’s conceptual world picture. For micro-concept a short

story by John Galsworthy “A Careful Man” was analyzed, it is represented by

Cognitive Metaphor POLITICS-SEESAW. As result of the analysis the following

conceptual features of source domain SEESAW were ascribed to the target domain

POLITICS: balanced, up/down, back-and-forth, childish, funny, violent, unstable,

dirty. Macro-concepts are revealed in short stories by Somerset Maugham (Honolulu)

and O Henry (The Trimmed Lamp). In the story Honolulu Cognitive Metaphor

LOVE-DEATH has been analyzed. The results showed that the following conceptual

features of DEATH coincide with the concept of LOVE: permanent, sad, tragical,

eternal, suffering, sacrificial, everlasting, painful, suffering. The Trimmed Lamp has

the following Cognitive Metaphor “MARRIAGE-HUNTING”. The conceptual

features of source domain HUNTING are attributed to the target domain

MARRIAGE: searching, fortunate, unfortunate, passionate, happy, unhappy, uneasy,

awful, successful. Super-concept is found in a short story by John Galsworthy

“Money”. It is represented in the Cognitive Metaphor MONEY-GOD. It has the

following conceptual features: powerful, generous, timeless, wise, honest,

72

worshipped, almighty, eternal, admired, influential. The second story is “Cat under

the Rain” by Hemingway. Cognitive Metaphor WOMAN-KITTEN has the following

conceptual features: helpless, defenseless, weak, lonely, tender, cute, miserable,

curious.

The second chapter analyzes Cognitive Metaphor in Newspaper Text.

Cognitive Metaphor used in newspaper text is characterized by its specific

features. It is used to describe and evaluate political events, political parties,

political figures, etc. for our analysis we have chosen the sphere of elections.

Inasmuch as this is a very important political event in political life of any country.

Cognitive Metaphor is describing elections are mainly presented by three types

reflecting the following image-schemas: ELECTION-WAR; ELECTION-SPORT,

ELECTION-HUNTING. In the first image-schema- ELECTION-WAR, the

following features of the source domain WAR are ascribed to the target domain

ELECTION: unequal, fierce, victorious, great, decisive, forthcoming, aggressive,

formidable, ideological, merciless, dirty, stubborn, just. The second image-schema

ELECTION-SPORT has the following results. Conceptual features of SPORT are

attributed to the target domain ELECTION: venturesome, illegal, victorious,

aggressive, dangerous, professional, opposing, and emulative. In the third image-

schema ELECTION-HUNTING, the conceptual features of target domain

HUNTING are ascribed to the source domain ELECTION: lucky/unlucky,

venturesome, grasping, yearly, tiresome, cruel, unfair, illegal, dangerous, hard

and hopeless. The study of Cognitive Metaphor in Newspaper Text was focused on

Political Metaphor and the result of the analysis shows that Political Metaphor

creates a certain attitude (positive or negative) towards any political unit (political

party or elections).

Cognitive Metaphors used in Poetry are characterized by high emotional

tension, expressiveness and subjective evaluative attitude. For our research we

have chosen Cognitive Metaphors depicting the category of TIME. As it is known

73

the category of TIME is one of the main categories defining the humans’ existence.

In the literary text the notion of Artistic Time should be introduced. Artistic Time

is a form of aesthetic reality presenting a specific time of the world knowledge.

The analysis of language material made it possible to reveal the main type of

Cognitive Metaphor depicting TIME: TIME-HUMAN BEING. The conceptual

blending of two domains reveals the transference of the conceptual features

attributed to HUMAN BEING- which serves as the source domain to the target

TIME. From this perspective TIME is presented as a real person who can: teach,

cure and wound, steal, tempt, capture, help, prove, change, fly, love, kill, run,

insult, hurt, unnerve, assuage, see. This model of Cognitive Metaphor is verbalized

in a great multitude of concrete metaphors used in a Poetical text. They are

verbalized with the help of nouns, adjectives and verbs. In analysis of Poetical

metaphor we used the method of componential analysis and cognitive mapping,

which helped reveal the most essential cognitive features: beautiful, powerful,

great, wise, honest/dishonest, featured, lasting, kind, lawless, estimable,

irretrievable, tiring, valiant, unprincipled, inexorable, covetous, weary, hallowed,

armed, devouring, desperate, tempting, influential, havoc, righteous, avenging,

healing.

In conclusion it should be stressed that the problem of Cognitive Metaphor is

a central problem both of Cognitive Linguistics and Cognitive Stylistics. And it

can be defined as one of the fundamental processes of human cognition, a specific

way of conceptualizing reality based on the mental process of analogy and

knowledge transfer from one conceptual field into another.

74

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