Cognitive Metaphor and English-Chinese Translation

Zinan YeThe School of Translation, Interpretation

and Language Studies

1 ． Language is fundamentally metaphorical

3 ． Universality of conceptual metaphor4. Cross-cultural aspect of metaphor and translation

5. Weighing the significance of metaphor

6 ． Examples

1 ． Language is fundamentally metaphorical

The traditional view

1. Metaphor is for most people a device of poetic imagination and the rhetorical flourish - a matter of extraordinary rather than ordinary language.

2. Metaphor is typically viewed characteristic of language alone, a matter of words rather than thought.

A new cognitive view:

1. Metaphor is a tool so ordinary that everyone uses it everyday.

2. Far from being merely a matter of words, metaphor is a matter of thought.

Some important scholars holding this view: George lakoff, Mark Turner, Mark Johnson, Raymond Gibbs and Zoltan Kövecses, etc.

If we agree with the above theory, then

Metaphor is everywhere. It exists extensively in our language, such as in everyday talks, in economic, commercial, technical, legal, political or many other types of texts.

We can thoroughly discuss translation by way of discussing metaphor.

No, that is impossible!!!!!

You mean metaphors coming out of my mouth each time when I speak?

I don’t believe it!

OK, let me try to convince you.

People might say that they try to give their children an education so they will get a good start in life. If their children act out, they hope that they are just going through a stage and that they will get over it. Parents hope that their children won’t be burdened with financial worries or ill health and, if they face such difficulties, that they will be able to overcome them. Parents hope that their children will have a long life span and that they will go far in life. But they also know that their children, as all mortals, will reach the end of the road.

People might say that they try to give their children an education so they will get a good start in life. If their children act out, they hope that they are just going through a stage and that they will get over it. Parents hope that their children won’t be burdened with financial worries or ill health and, if they face such difficulties, that they will be able to overcome them. Parents hope that their children will have a long life span and that they will go far in life. But they also know that their children, as all mortals, will reach the end of the road.

“But I have never thought that they are metaphors.”

Metaphor has to be redefined.

When an abstract concept needs to be expressed, we try to use a concrete concept for help.

Metaphor is a handle.

When something is hard to grasp, you need a handle.

我们可以看出，上面这段文字是描写人生的，显然作者借用了一个“把手”，也就是人们非常熟悉的旅程（ journey ）概念。

1.They will have a good start in life.2. They will go far in life.3. They will have a long life span.4. They will reach the end of the road. 5. He is without any direction in life.6. I’m where I want to be in life.7. I’m at a crossroads in my life.8. She’ll go places in life.9. He’s never let anyone get in his way.10. She’s gone through a lot in life.

LIFE IS A JOURNEY

1. conceptual metaphor ( 概念隐喻 )2. linguistic metaphor (or metaphorical expression)

3. target domain ( 目标域 )4. source domain ( 源域 )

The essence of metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.

Target is harder to understand; Source is easier to understand.

We try to understand target through source.

Conceptual metaphor and linguistic metaphor

“I” am up in mind. I am conceptual. Linguistic metaphors, you are under my control. I am your leader!!!We are down in language. We are linguistic metaphors. Conceptual metaphors, please give us orders. We will follow you.

Conceptual metaphor

LIFE IS A JOURNEY.

I am target domain

I am source domain

LIFE IS A JOURNEY

I AM A CONCEPTUAL METAPHOR:

We are linguistic metaphors:

A good start,Go far,A long life span,End of the road,Without direction,At a crossroads……..We can go on and on…

LIFE IS A JOURNEY

1. We have the chance at any moment to walk outside our prejudices.

2. Some of the talented young are swiftly defeated, and retreat into more ordinary lives. Others are shooting stars, here and gone. Those made of sterner stuff last longer.

3. Now and then an author comes along who rewires a part of our brains. (The New York Times)

4. We have a mountain to climb in the House to achieve an override. (The Wall Street Journal)

5. Many women actually abandon ship before they reach the pinnacle of their success. (The New York Times)

6. To reach the port of heaven, we must sail sometimes with the wind and sometimes against it, but we must sail, and not drift, not lie at the anchor. (Oliver Wendell Holmes)

7. At twenty man is a peacock, at thirty a lion, at forty a camel, at fifty a serpent, at sixty a dog, at seventy an ape, at eighty nothing at all.

8. escaped from the primary tumor of the lungs, entered the blood circulation, and eventually invaded the brain.

9. blocked the tumor cell’s invasion and killed the tumor cells

10. Software, bridge, mailbox, rounter, windows, open, close, noise, recycle bin (computer)

11. Soft landing, hard landing, bull market, bear market, face value, back-to-back loan, (economic)

12. …there is the New York of the commuter—the city that is devoured by locusts each day and spat out each night. (Here is New York, by E. B. White)

13. On any person who desires such queer prizes, New York will bestow the gift of loneliness and the gift of privacy. (Here is New York, by E. B. White)

14. When the storm of grief had spent itself she went away to her room alone. (The Story of an Hour, by Kate Chopin)

Can we think without metaphor?

Can we think about subjective experience and judgment without metaphor? Hardly. If we consciously make enormous effort to separate out metaphorical from nonmetaphorical thought, we probably can do some very minimal and unsophisticated nonmetaphorical reasoning. But almost no one ever does this, and such reasoning would never capture the full inferential capacity of complex metaphorical thought.

These colors are similar.

These colors are close.

Barry and I are close.

Universality or the cross-cultural aspect of

conceptual metaphor

1. Metaphors are quite common and unnoticeable.

2. Image schema-based metaphors are universal.

3. Even some image metaphors can be universal.

Image-schema based metaphor vs. image metaphor

意象图式隐喻和意象隐喻embodied experience (体验）　

Image-schema based metaphor

图式和体验有关，即人在生活中与物质世界互动后在大脑中形成的意象图式，这些图式是我们用概念隐喻感知抽象世界所需的媒介。这些最基本的图式是源于生命中最早期的经历，如婴儿第一次站起来走路时的愉快，后来摔倒在地的痛哭，这类上下体位的变化不知不觉地和孩子的心情连了起来，正是这类经历慢慢孕育了 happy is up; sad is down 这个概念隐喻。这种图式虽然也是意象，但是它们的特点是粗线条，没有具体内容，比如路径图式（ path schema ）、力图式（ force schema ）、接触图式（ contact schema ）这些图式都没有具体的内

容，像路径给人的感觉是经过行走，人可以从一点到另外一点，这个感觉就构成了一条线形的移动路径，其基本成分就是两点一线，非常粗线条，没有更为丰富的内容，难怪有些认知语言学家把这类意象图式成为 skeletal image schema ，好像仅仅是个架子。 根据这样的定义，那些以上下、内外、容器等为图式基础的概念隐喻就都是意象图式隐喻，而被这类概念隐喻诱发的隐喻为数可观，比如人们一般并不认为下面的句子里含有隐喻：

I am out of trouble. (based on the in-out schema) I am in love. (based on the in-out schema) That was a low trick. (based on the up-down schema) He went crazy. (based on the motion schema) You are driving me crazy. (based on the force schema) 　

Metaphors based on common things

a theory is a building (That is a foundation for this theory.)

anger is a hot fluid in a container (I could not contain my rage.)

love is a journey (Our love is at a crossroads.)

anger is fire (He is smoldering with fire.)

Image metaphors (one shot metaphor)

My wife’s waist is an hourglass

the city that is devoured by locusts each day and spat out each

night

The degree of universality:

Metaphors based on image schema--------------highly universal

Metaphors based on common things------------universal depending on the “thing”

Metaphors based on strong images---------------universal depending on the

“image”

In short, cognitive metaphors are not culture-specific. They are cross-cultural, or universal to a great extent.

They are

* Experiential basis of metaphor （经验基础） * Bodily motivation 身体经验的引发或诱导

or

Embodied mind

Conceptual metaphors are grounded in or motivated by human experience (sometimes physical experience).

CONTROL IS UP. （ I am on top of the situation. ）

HAPPY IS UP; SAD IS DOWN. (feeling up or down.)

TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT. （ The new semester is approaching. ）

Embodied nature of metaphors

AFFECTION IS WARMTH.

Experience ： When someone hugs you, you feel the warmth.

Universal experience: This warmth has no cultural difference.

Shared conceptual metaphor ： AFFECTION IS WARMTH

English linguistic metaphor: warmly welcome, cold reception

Chinese comprehension: Easy to understand.

Chinese translation: Literal translation is fine: 热烈欢迎 , 冷遇。

LOVE IS A JOURNEY

Experience ： We all have the experience of taking a trip.Universal experience: This experience is not culture-bound. Shared conceptual metaphor ： LOVE IS A JOURNEY. English linguistic metaphor: We have to go our separate ways.Chinese comprehension: Easy to understand.Chinese translation: Literal translation is fine: 我们不得不分道扬镳。

More linguistic realizations of LOVE IS A JOURNEY:

We can’t turn back now.The relationship is not going anywhere.It has been a long and bumpy road.We are just spinning our wheels. The relationship is a dead-end street.

LOVE IS AN ECONOMIC EXCHANGE

Experience: We all have experiences of trading in market with money. Universal experience: This experience has no cultural difference.Shared conceptual metaphor ： LOVE IS AN ECONOMIC EXCHANGE. English linguistic metaphor ： The love is such I can no way repay 。Chinese comprehension: Easy to understand.Chinese translation: Literal translation is fine: 爱至如此，无法偿还。

The cross-cultural aspect of conceptual metaphor and translation

Translation is a process of finding an equivalent at different levels.

1. We like Professor Smith. 2. 他又丈二和尚摸不着头脑了。　

Q: Do we need to achieve an equivalent at the cognitive level?

A: The answer is “no”, unless the cognitively meaningful language element is intended by the writer.

Translation: This means we don’t need to translate all the metaphorical expressions motivated by conceptual metaphors. In other words, we don’t translate cognitive metaphor as a system, or cognitive equivalence is not our goal.

In other words, we pick and choose in translation.

Cognitive metaphor gives us a better perspective when we do picking and choosing.

Image schema motivated---------system-based Common experience motivated----system-based? Strong image mapping ------ writer created

The more system-based a metaphor is , the less need to retain in translation; the more individually created, the more need to retain in translation, because a metaphor created by a particular writer is often not accepted into the language system and it is more foregrounded in the system, more unique.

TIME IS MONEY

You’re wasting my time. （你在浪费我的时间。） This gadget will save you hours. （将为你节省几个小时。） I don’t have time to give you. （我没有时间可给你。） That flat tire cost me an hour. （ ... 让我损失了一小时。） Put aside some time for Ping Pong. （留点时间打乒乓。）

These metaphors are based on things or concepts that are very familiar to us. The cultural barrier is minimal. The “direct” translation is highly possible, but these metaphors are not very valuable. To retain them or not should not become a big issue. Everyday, we use numerous metaphors of this type. There is no way to give much attention to this type of metaphor in translation.

ANGER IS A CONTAINER

His pent-up anger welled up inside him. He could barely contain his rage.

To retain the metaphoric image (ANGER IS A

CONTAINER) is not necessary, even though it is possible

to do that, as the ANGER IS A CONTAINER concept is

universal.

In some contexts, are they interchangeable in translation?

We often paraphrase in translation, so can we paraphrase

1 by using 2? After all, the two sentences say the same

thing: He is very angry.

His pent-up anger welled up inside him. He could barely contain his rage.

But if we take other factors into account, then to

retain the image may become necessary, for example,

if this is in a literary text in which the writer is

vividly describing a person’s anger.

But in an informative text in which the focus is not

on details of the emotion, but just the general fact,

then totally eliminating the image is quite

acceptable: he is extremely angry.

MOUNTAIN AS A HANDLE

We have a mountain to climb in the House to achieve an override.

如要在众院推翻法案，仍有一座山要爬。若要在众院推翻法案，仍有一个难关要过。若要在众院推翻法案，仍相当困难。

But these two specific-level metaphors are from the more abstract generic-level metaphor: BARRIERS ARE DIFFICULTIES, as “mountain” and “pass” are specific examples of a barrier.

Climbing mountains is a common human experience, which is probably already in our system, both in English and Chinese, hence no cultural barrier to overcome. But it is also not very valuable either, so change it, replace it, or totally eliminate it is quite acceptable: 非常难 in some informative texts, even though you do lose “flavor”.

ROCKS AND LIONS AS A HANDLE

Her way was strewn with invisible rocks and lions.

“Way” is metaphoric (LIFE IS A JOURNEY). “Rock” and “lions” are metaphoric. (IMAGE metaphor)

1. 她的道路上布满了看不见的岩石和狮子。 (literally with rocks and lions)

2. 她的道路上布满了看不见的障碍物和危险物。 (with things that block her and things that are dangerous)

3. 她的道路上布满了看不见的障碍和危险。 (with obstacles and dangers)

Moving from “rocks and lions” to “things/things ” to “obstacle/danger” is

moving from specific to generic. The translator needs to weigh the value of

the metaphors to keep or discard them. The context needs to be considered.

ORIENTATION AS A HANDLE

Conceive of the target by means of some basic human spatial orientations, such as “up and down”. Those orientations are very basic and shared by different cultures.

Happy is up; sad is down.

I am feeling up (or down), I am soaring with happiness, he is down.

Conscious is up; unconscious is down.

wake up, fall asleep （醒来，睡去等） More is up; less is down.

My salary goes up; the number of students goes down. （工资上去 )

Good is up; bad is down.

We hit a peak last year, but it’s been downhill ever since. （顶峰下坡）

Since these metaphors are based on human spatial orientations, which are not culture-bound, to keep the original orientation is not totally impossible, even though it is not required to do so in most cases.

The cognitive perspective gives us a very powerful tool to look at metaphoric expressions in translation so that we know the value of a metaphor in a given text. When other factors are taken into account together with this cognitive factor, the translator is more accurate in translation.

But there are metaphors relying on images with rich details (strong image) .

IMAGE METAPHOR

My wife’s waist is an hourglass.

Supermodel is just a twig.

Most of those are metaphors intentionally created, and can be more significant. “Direct” translation is encouraged whenever it is possible to keep the image. ( 很瘦、骨瘦如柴、瘦得像根树枝儿 )

HARDSHIP IS SHARED RESPONSIBILITY

Has she had her share of human tribulations and trials enough that now they would entitle her to long overdue dignified liberty?

她是否已经承受了足够的艰辛和磨难，而应该获得早该给她的自由与尊严 ?

人类的艰辛与磨难，她该承受的那份是否已经足够，是否应该还她早该给她的自由与尊严？

The cognitive perspective gives us a mental picture, which helps the translator with their comprehension and makes the translation more accurate. As to whether the translator needs to be that accurate (skopos), that is another question.

CLOUD AND SUNSHINE AS A HANDLE

With clouds all around him, Yitzhak Shamir plucked the thread of a silver lining out of the morning headlines. (From the New York Times)

尽管深陷困境，沙米尔还是从晨间的头条新闻中找到了一则令人鼓舞的消息

尽管乌云围绕着他 , 找到一线希望？

This is from news, so no need to retain metaphors, even though retaining them is not impossible. In a literary text, the translator may have more pressure to retain them. The cognitive perspective again provides a way to understand better the value of a metaphor.

LITERARY METAPHORS

I would rather be a bright leaf on the stream of a dying civilization than a fertile seed dropped in the soil of a new era.

我情愿自由欢快地生活在衰败的文明中，也不愿生长在一个能让你有所收获但却少有个人意志的新时代。

我情愿做漂浮在衰老文明溪流上的一片光鲜的叶子，也不愿是掉落在新时代土壤里的一粒能繁育的种子。

我宁愿做一片光鲜的树叶，漂在垂死文明的溪流中，而不愿做一粒待发的种子，呆在新纪元的沃土里。

Strong images are individually created, so they are more valuable, as they could contribute to the writer’s style.

STRONG IMAGE IN LITERATURE

Soon we’ll be sliding down the razorblade of life .

“Life is hard” is a correct interpretation of the sentence, but it loses the force. 太不给力。

Metaphors created by authors may be more valuable than system -based metaphors. Paraphrase them in translation is generally not recommended, unless retaining them is not acceptable in the target language.

LOW IS BADThey have sunk deep into corruption, as in the days of

Gibeah. 【 NIV 】 They have deeply corrupted themselves, as in the days of

Gibeah. 【 KJV 】 They have sinned deeply, as in the days of Gabaa.

【 Douay-Rheims Bible 】 People have deeply corrupted themselves as they once did

at Gibeah. 【 GOD'S WORD 】【和合本】以法莲深深的败坏，如在基比亚的日子一样。 【吕振中】以法莲深深败坏、像在基比亚的日子一样； 【思高本】他们穷凶已到了极点，就如在基贝亚的时日一样【现代本】这些人罪恶滔天，就像他们从前在基比亚时一样

【和合本】以法莲深深的败坏，如在基比亚的日子一样【吕振中】以法莲深深败坏、像在基比亚的日子一样； 【思高本】他们穷凶已到了极点，就如在基贝亚的时日一样【现代本】这些人罪恶滔天，就像他们从前在基比亚时一样 

Generic metaphoric concept is: LOW IS BAD

Specific concept is: CORRUPTION IS LOW-LYING MATERIAL

 

腐败沉沦到了极点深深地陷入腐败之中

IMAGE-SCHEMA BASED METAPHOR

Brzezinski…discusses the inevitable contradictions and tensions that enmesh a democratic society that is also a global hegemon.

ROOT ANALOGY: CONFLICTING PURPOSE IS OPPOSITE DIRECTION

LITERAL MEANING: force which stretches a rope, cable, string apart

METAPHORICAL MEANING: differences between forces, arguments, or influences

EXAMPLE: the movie explored the tension between public duty and personal loyalty.

The cognitive perspective again provides a mental picture, which makes comprehension easier.

Brzezinski…discusses the inevitable contradictions and tensions that enmesh a democratic society that is also a global hegemon.

I am a democratic society. I want to go left.

I am a global hegemon. I need to go right.

I am the USA. I am experiencing TENSIONS, as I am being pulled in two opposite directions.

CONFLICTING PURPOSE IS OPPOSITE

DIRECTION

Tensions created

here

MOVEMENT AS A HANDLE

broader policies intended to move China toward internationally accepted standards of conduct.

旨在将中国引导到国际接受的行为标准上来。

ROOT ANALOGY: ACTIVITY/PROCESS IS MOVEMENT (FORWARD)

LITERAL MEANING: cause someone to move forward (picture)

METAPHORICAL MEANING: cause somebody to change behavior, or opinion

EXAMPLE: now we have a new boss things are beginning to move faster.

A cognitive perspective helps the translator in choosing the better word.

I am China. I am being moved.

I am China. I am being guided.

Move China Guide China

CONTAINER AS A HANDLEA poem compresses much in a small space and adds music, thus heightening its meaning.

一首诗意义丰富，恰在于言简意赅、抑扬顿挫。(Paraphrasing: A poem is meaningful, concise and musical )

ROOT ANALOGY: A POEM IS A CONTAINER,

LITERAL MEANING: Substance is compressed in a container (an image)

METAPHORICAL MEANING: A meaningful (poem)

EXAMPLE: compressed work schedules

Improved translation: 一首诗集丰富内容于方寸，再配上韵律，便意蕴非凡。

The Cognitive consideration creates a mental image that helps the translator in translation.

A poem compresses much in a small space.

I am a poem. A lot of things are compressed in my small space. A novelist has to write a book about what I described, but I did it in a few lines.

I am a container.

Conclusion

The perspective of cognitive metaphor is a very useful tool for translators. Cognitive metaphor theory (CMT) has not only theoretical implications, but also practical ones too.

A Course in Cognitive Metaphor and Translation Contents (Chinese) , Contents (English)

高级英汉翻译理论与实践