XYZ Theory and Instructional Methods

Created byMatthew Chong, Rachel Gastrich, Brian Levels, Aurora Velasco, Jennifer Young

Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional MethodsIn recent years there has been an increased focus on the role of education and training, and on the effectiveness and efficiency of various instructional design strategies. Some of the most important breakthroughs in this regard have come from the discipline of Cognitive Science, which deals with the mental processes of learning, memory and problem solving.Cognitive load theory (e.g. Sweller, 1988; 1994) is an instructional theory generated by this field of research. It describes learning structures in terms of an information processing system involving long term memory, which effectively stores all of our knowledge and skills on a more-or-less permanent basis and working memory, which performs the intellectual tasks associated with consciousness. Information may only be stored in long term memory after first being attended to, and processed by, working memory. Working memory, however, is extremely limited in both capacity and duration. These limitations will, under some conditions, impede learning.The fundamental tenet of cognitive load theory is that the quality of instructional design will be raised if greater consideration is given to the role and limitations, of working memory. Since its conception in the early 1980's, cognitive load theory has been used to develop several instructional strategies which have been demonstrated empirically to be superior to those used conventionally.This paper outlines some of the basic principles of cognitive load theory. Examples of the instructional design strategies generated by cognitive load theory are also provided.

Cognitive Load TheoryGA Miller!John Sweller!Working memory

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CognitiveOverloadCognitive Load Theory OverviewWhat is cognitive load theory?Long term memoryWorking memoryInformation is processed by working memory before it can be stored in long term memoryWorking memory is very limited overloading it will impede learning

History of Cognitive Load TheoryG.A. Miller7 +/- 2 digits of information in working memory

John SwellerProblem solving and means-end analysis (MEA)MEA = Excessive cognitive processing = less learning = Cognitive Load Theory

How does it relate to instructional design?Three types of cognitive load:Intrinsic cognitive load the inherent difficulty in new instructionExtraneous cognitive load generated in how information is presented to learnersGermane cognitive load information related to schema being taught

Good instructional design should increase germane cognitive load and decrease extraneous cognitive load

How does it relate to instructional design?Instructional methods based on cognitive load theoryChunkingSplit AttentionWorked examplesBackwards fadingExpertise reversal

ChunkingWhat is it?A technique in which information in long term memory is chunked from multiple elements of information into a single elementCan be easily processed in working memory Why is it used? We use chunking to reduce the information to be memorized into seven plus or minus two categoriesWhy does it work?You can retain more information in the limited space of your short-term memory as well Learn that information more efficientlyExample of ChunkingHorse Orange Chair Student Kiwi

Table Yellow Dog Bed Homework

Teacher Bookcase Fish Blue Banana

Black Class Apple Bird Desk

Mango Grape Green Cat SchoolWrite down as many words as you can from memoryExample of ChunkingHorse Cat Dog Fish Bird

Orange Yellow BlueGreen Black

Table Chair Desk Bookcase Bed

Teacher School Student Homework Class

Apple Banana Kiwi Grape Mango

Write down as many words as you can from memory

Split Attention EffectWhat is it? Split attention occurs whenever a learner needs to attend to more than one source of information, or more than one activity (ex. diagrams, note-taking)How to prevent itIntegrate diagrammatical information (visuals with integrated text)Provide cues for note taking in lectures (It should be noted that)

Why does it work?Minimizing split attention reduces cognitive load and facilitates learning.

Example of Split Attention

Bad Not IntegratedGood IntegratedDiagrams from an Electrical Test Lesson - S. Tindall-Ford, P. Chandler and J. Sweller, Journal of Experimental Psychology. Applied 3 (1997), Example of Split Attentionhttp://its.sdsu.edu/multimedia/cabinet/index.htm

Worked ExamplesWhat is it? A worked example is a step by step demonstration

Why is it used?Worked examples are natural ways to show specifically how to accomplish a taskWorked examples help to lower extraneous cognitive load and intrinsic cognitive load, which can improve learning

Why does it work?Provides a schema for the learner to develop a mental modelLearner builds own mental modelon how to perform a task or how to solve a problemWhy is it used?In some cases, a worked example can look a lot like a job aid - especially for procedural tasks (those you perform the same way each time), worked examples are natural ways to show specifically how to accomplish some taskWorked examples help to lower extraneous cognitive load (the mental burden imposed by the course design and can help the intrinsic cognitive load, which can improve learning.

Why does it work?Provides a schema for the learner to develop a mental modelThe learner works at figuring out what the different examples have in common, and thus builds up his/her own mental model for the skills in question16Example of Worked ExamplesHow To Tie A Tiehttp://www.tie-a-tie.net/fourinhand.htmlUncle Bill R.I.P.Backwards FadingWhat is it?Worked examples that transition gradually into practice problems by leaving out an increasing number of steps at the end as learners gain proficiency

How is it used?Learners should devote as much working memory capacity as possible to build a schema that will enhance new skillsAs they gain expertise, learners gain understanding as they build competencyWorked examples evolve into full problem examples that must be completed by learner

Who is it best for?Novice learners who have built some mental schemaExample of Backwards Fading

19Expertise Reversal EffectWhat is it? Negative effect of instructional methods that aid novices on the learning of expertsWhat causes it? Based off of the redundancy principle of cognitive loadExisting large schema of expertsConflict between the instruction and the existing schema of experts

Some of the methods that you have learned so far such as split attention and worked examples are designed to minimize cognitive load in novices. Yes, these are the people that you will most likely be primarily dealing with, but what happens when you have to train learners of varying levels of expertise. What do I mean by expertise? Essentially, I mean what is in long term memory. As learners gain expertise, they need different types of instruction.

Redundancy effect: Content or expressions that are duplications either of each other or of knowledge already in memory impede learning.

Because experts have a relatively large schema relevant to the instructional goal, they are able to manage their own cognitive learning processes without external instructional support

Worked examples, graphics, or explanations which were helpful for novices become less helpful and after a certain level of expertise become redundant and interfere with learning of experts because of the extraneous cognitive load and conflict between the instruction and the existing schema of the experts.

20Expertise Reversal and Worked ExamplesNovice++++++++knowledge/experience========ExpertWorked Example: If y = x + 6, x = z + 3, and z = 6, find the value of y .x=z+3x=(6)+3, x=9y=x+6y=(9)+6, y=15Backwards Fading: If y=x+4, x=z+2, and z=4, find the value of yx=z+2x=(4)+2, x=6y=x+4What is the value of y?

Backwards Fading (cont.): If y=x+4, x=z+2, and z=4, find the value of yx=z+2x=(4)+2, x=6?What is the value of y?

Problem1: If y=x+6, x=z+3, and z=6, find the value of y .Problem2: If y=x+4, x=z+2, and z=4, find the value of yResearch clearly shows that novices benefit most from instruction with a heavy emphasis on guidance (such as through worked examples)

That same guidance is redundant for more experienced learners thus causing an extraneous cognitive load

As learners slowly become more experienced research shows a transition (backwards fading) is preferable to an abrupt jump between worked examples and solving problems.

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Expertise Reversal and Split Attention

NoviceExpertDiagrams from an Electrical Test Lesson - S. Tindall-Ford, P. Chandler and J. Sweller, Journal of Experimental Psychology. Applied 3 (1997), Split attention and Expertise ReversalGraphics with integrated textual explanations greatly benefit novices

Textual explanations are redundant for experts and thus result in additional unnecessary cognitive load22How to avoid expertise reversalExpertise is highExpertise is mixedAvoid redundancyMore practice problems, less worked examplesDiscovery lessons

Pre-workUse adaptive e-learningSplit training

Expertise ReversalExpertise is highDo not add unnecessary visual, text, or verbal or verbal explanationsAssign practice exercises rather than worked examples or completion examplesUse directive or guided discovery lessons

Expertise is mixed:Use pre-work to bring up novices knowledgeUse adaptive e-learning instruction that caters to the learner.Split training into novice & advanced sessions

23Learning ActivityGroup 1 ChunkingGroup 2 Split AttentionGroup 3 Worked ExamplesGroup 4 Backwards FadingGroup 5 Expertise Reversal