COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND THEORIES

8/7/2019 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND THEORIES

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BASIC THEORIES OF

LEARNING



There are many different theories of

how people learn. What follows is avariety of them, and it is useful toconsider their application to how yourstudents learn and also how you teach in

educational programs. It is interestingto think about your own particular wayof learning and to recognize that

everyone does not learn the way you do.



SENSORY STIMULATION THEORY

Traditional sensory stimulationtheory has as its basic premise that

effective learning occurs when thesenses are stimulated.



Laird quotes research that found

that the vast majority of knowledgeheld by adults (75%) is learnedthrough seeing. Hearing is the next

most effective (about 13%) and theother senses - touch, smell andtaste account for 12% of what we

know.



However, this theory says that if multi-

senses are stimulated, greater learningtakes place. Stimulation through thesenses is achieved through a greater

variety of colors, volume levels, strongstatements, facts presented visually,use of a variety of techniques andmedia.



Reinforcement theory

This theory was developed by thebehaviorist school of psychology,notably by B.F. Skinner earlier thiscentury. Skinner believed that behavioris a function of its consequences. Thelearner will repeat the desired behaviorif positive reinforcement (a pleasant

consequence) follows the behavior.



POSITIVE REINFORCEMENTS OR

REWARDS

Includes verbal reinforcement such as'That's great' or 'You're certainly on

the right track' through to moretangible rewards such as a certificateat the end of the course or promotionto a higher level in an organization.



NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

Strengthens a behavior and refers to asituation when a negative condition is

stopped or avoided as a consequence ofthe behavior.



Punishment, on the other hand, weakens

a behavior because a negative conditionis introduced or experienced as aconsequence of the behavior and

teaches the individual not to repeat thebehavior which was negativelyreinforced.



COGNITIVE- GESTALT APPROACHES

The emphasis here is on theimportance of experience, meaning,problem-solving and the development

of insights.Burns notes that this theory hasdeveloped the concept thatindividuals have different needs andconcerns at different times, and thatthey have subjective interpretationsin different contexts.



HOLISTIC LEARNING THEORY

The basic premise of this theory is thatthe individual personality consists of

many elements ... specifically ... theintellect, emotions, the body impulse (ordesire), intuition and imagination that allrequire activation if learning is to be

more effective.



FACILITATION THEORY( Humanist

Approach )

Carl Rogers and others have developedthe theory of facilitative learning.

Learning will occur by the educatoracting as a facilitator, that is byestablishing an atmosphere in which

learners feel comfortable to considernew ideas and are not threatened byexternal factors



Other characteristics of this theory

include:� a belief that human beings have a

natural eagerness to learn,

� there is some resistance to, andunpleasant consequences of, giving upwhat is currently held to be true,

� the most significant learning involveschanging one's concept of oneself.



Facilitative teachers are:�

less protective of their constructs andbeliefs than other teachers,� more able to listen to learners,

especially to their feelings,�

inclined to pay as much attention totheir relationship with learners as tothe content of the course,

� apt to accept feedback, both positive

and negative and to use it asconstructive insight into themselves andtheir behavior.



Learners:�

are encouraged to take responsibilityfor their own learning,� provide much of the input for the

learning which occurs through their

insights and experiences,� are encouraged to consider that the

most valuable evaluation is self-evaluation and that learning needs to

focus on factors that contribute tosolving significant problems or achievingsignificant results.



EXPERENTIAL LEARNING

Kolb proposed a four-stage learningprocess with a model that is oftenreferred to in describing experiential

learning. The process can begin at anyof the stages and is continuous. Thistheory asserts that withoutreflection we would simply continue torepeat our mistakes.



The experiential learning cycle:



ACTION LEARNING

Action Learning is the approach thatlinks the world of learning with the

world of action through a reflectiveprocess within small cooperativelearning groups known as 'action learningsets.



The 'father' of Action Learning, RegRevans, has said that there can be nolearning without action and no (soberand deliberate) action without learning.

Revans argued that learning can beshown by the following equation, whereL is learning; P is programmed knowledge

(traditional instruction) and Q isquestioning insight.

L = P + Q



ADULT LEARNING

Malcolm Knowles is the theorist whobrought the concept of adult learning tothe fore. He has argued that adulthoodhas arrived when people behave in adultways and believe themselves to beadults. Then they should be treated as

adults. He taught that adult learningwas special in a number of ways.



For example:

� Adults need to be able to seeapplications for new learning.

� Adult learners expect to have a highdegree of influence on how learning will

be evaluated.

� Adults expect their responses to beacted upon when asked for feedback onthe progress of the program.



WHY CONSIDER LEARNING THEORIES?

Teaching and learning activities can bedesigned and implemented to takeprinciples of learning into account. Also,it is interesting to think about individualdifferences among learners and to worktowards including activities that have

variety and interest for all the learnersin educational programs.

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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT AND THEORIES