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Acknowledgements

WewouldliketothankthoseauthorsandpublisherswhokindlygavepermissionforcopyrightmaterialtobeusedintheCollinsCorpus.WewouldalsoliketothankTimesNewspapersLtdforprovidingvaluabledata.

FOUNDINGEDITOR-IN-CHIEF:JohnSinclairFORTHEPUBLISHER:MareeAirlie,RobinScrimgeour,LisaTodd,CeliaWigleyCONTRIBUTORS:PennyHands,KateMohideen,JulieMoore,DamianWilliams

AcknowledgementsThepublisherswouldliketoacknowledgethefollowingfortheirinvaluablecontributiontothethird

edition:

ManagingEditorPennyHands

EditorialConsultantRogerBerry

LingnanUniversity,HongKong

ProjectManager SeniorCorpusResearcherLisaSutherland KateWild

TheGrammarofAcademicEnglish CorpusResearchersUniversityofGlasgowLanguageCentre GeorgeDavidson

DrEstherDaborn KateMohideenAnneliWilliams ElizabethPotterLouisHarrison ElspethSummers

LauraWedgeworth

TheGrammarofBusinessEnglish AmericanEnglishConsultantSimonClarke OrinHargraves

FoundingEditor-in-ChiefJohnSinclair

Wewouldalsoliketothankthefollowingpeoplefortheircontributionstopreviouseditionsofthetext:

MareeAirlie,MonaBaker,HenriBéjoint,AdrianaBolívar,JaneBradbury,DavidBrazil,DominicBree,NicholasBrownlees,TonyBuckby,StephenBullon,AnnetteCapel,MichelaClari,JaneCullen,John

Curtin,RichardFay,GwynethFox,RichardFrancis,IriaGarcia,GottfriedGraustein,JohnHall,M.A.K.Halliday,PatrickHanks,RonHardie,AnthonyHarvey,LornaHeaslip,MichaelHoey,RogerHunt,SueInkster,AndyKennedy,LornaKnight,RameshKrishnamurthy,TimLane,MarcelLemmens,Helen

Liebeck,AlisonMacaulay,ElizabethManning,AgnesMolnar,RosamundMoon,SueOgden,CharlesOwen,GeorginaPearce,GeorginaPert,AnnePradeilles,ChristopherPratt,ChristinaRammell,ClareRamsey,RamiroRestrepo,ChristopherRoyal-Dawson,ToňiSanchez,KatyShaw,SueSmith,MarySnell-Hornby,TomStableford,JohnTodd,BobWalker,LauraWedgeworth,HermanWekker,Douglas

Williamson,JaneWinn,DeborahYuill

AboutCOBUILD

When the first COBUILD dictionary was published in 1987, it revolutionized dictionaries forlearners.ItwasthefirstofanewgenerationoflanguagereferencematerialsthatwerebasedonactualevidenceofhowEnglishwasused,ratherthanlexicographerintuition.

CollinsandtheUniversityofBirmingham,ledbythelinguistJohnSinclair,developedanelectroniccorpus in the 1980s, called the Collins Birmingham University International Language Database(COBUILD).Thiscorpus,whichforseveralyearswasknownastheBankofEnglish®,becamethelargestcollectionofEnglishdataintheworld.COBUILDdictionaryeditorsusethecorpustoanalysethewaythatpeoplereallyusethelanguage.

TheCollinsCorpusnowcontains4.5billionwordstakenfromwebsites,newspapers,magazinesandbooks published around the world, and from spoken material from radio, TV and everydayconversations.Newdataisaddedtothecorpuseverymonth,tohelpCOBUILDeditorsidentifynewwords,grammaticalstructures,andmeaningsfromthemomenttheyarefirstused.

AllCOBUILDlanguagereferencebooksarebasedontheinformationoureditorsfindintheCollinsCorpus.Becausethecorpusissolarge,oureditorscanlookatlotsofexamplesofhowpeoplereallyusethelanguage.Thedatatellsushowthelanguageisused;thefunctionofdifferentstructures;whichwordsareusedtogether;andhowoftenthesewordsandstructuresareused.

All of the examples inCOBUILD languagematerials are examples of realEnglish, taken from thecorpus.Theexampleshavebeencarefullychosentodemonstratetypicalgrammaticalpatterns,typicalvocabularyandtypicalcontexts.

COBUILDEnglishGrammarisnoexception:CollinseditorsandresearchershavebeenabletousethiswealthofinformationtoestablishauniqueandfulldescriptionofEnglishgrammar,andtotrackthedevelopmentofcertaingrammaticalstructuresovertime.

Thecorpus liesat theheartofCOBUILD,andyoucanbeconfident thatCOBUILDwill showyouwhatyouneedtoknowtobeabletocommunicateeasilyandaccuratelyinEnglish.

IfyouwouldliketolearnmoreaboutCOBUILDandtheCollinsCorpus,gotowww.collinselt.comandclickon'COBUILDReference'.

Contents

CoverTitlePageCopyrightAcknowledgementsAboutCobuildIntroductionHowtousethisGrammarGlossaryofgrammaticalterms

Chapter1 ReferringtopeopleandthingsNouns

•Countablenouns•Uncountablenouns•Singularnouns•Pluralnouns•Collectivenouns•Propernouns•Nounsthatarerarelyusedalone•Adjectivesusedasnouns•Nounsreferringtomalesorfemales•-ingnouns•Compoundnouns

Pronouns•Personalpronouns•Possessivepronouns•Reflexivepronouns•Genericpronouns•Demonstrativepronouns•Indefinitepronouns•Reciprocalpronouns•Relativepronouns•Interrogativepronouns

Determiners•Definitedeterminers:the•Definitedeterminers:this,that,theseandthose•Possessivedeterminers:my,your,their,etc.•Thepossessiveform:apostrophes(’s)•Indefinitedeterminers:all,some,manyetc.•Indefinitedeterminers:aandan•Otherindefinitedeterminers

Chapter2 GivinginformationaboutpeopleandthingsAdjectives

•Qualitativeadjectives•Classifyingadjectives•Colouradjectives•Showingstrongfeelings•Postdeterminers•Adjectivesthatareonlyusedinfrontofanoun•Adjectivesthatalwaysfollowalinkingverb•Positionofadjectivesinnounphrases•-ingadjectives•-edadjectives•Compoundadjectives

ComparativesSuperlativesSayingthingsaresimilarTalkingaboutdifferentamountsofaqualitySayingthingsaredifferentNounmodifiersTalkingaboutamountsofthingsNumbers

•Cardinalnumbers•Ordinalnumbers•Fractions•Measurements•Age

ApproximateamountsandmeasurementsExpandingthenounphrase

•withprepositionalphrases•withadjectives•Nounsfollowedbyto-infinitive,-edparticiple,or-ingparticiple

Chapter3 TypesofverbIntransitiveverbsTransitiveverbsReflexiveverbsDelexicalverbs:verbswithlittlemeaningVerbsthatcanbeusedbothwithandwithoutanobjectVerbsthatcantakeanobjectoraprepositionalphraseChangingyourfocusbychangingthesubjectReciprocalverbsVerbsthatcanhavetwoobjectsPhrasalverbsCompoundverbsLinkingverbs

•Adjectivesafterlinkingverbs•Nounsafterlinkingverbs•Otherverbswithfollowingadjectives

DescribingtheobjectofaverbUsingaprepositionalphraseafteralinkingverbUsingtwomainverbstogether

Chapter4 Expressingtime:tensesandtimeadverbialsThepresent

•Thepresentsimple•Thepresentprogressive•Timeadverbialswithreferencetothepresent

Thepast•Thepastsimple•Thepastprogressive•Thepresentperfect•Thepastperfect•Timeadverbialswithreferencetothepast

Expressingfuturetime•Indicatingthefutureusingwill•Otherwaysoftalkingaboutthefuture•Timeadverbialswithreferencetothefuture

OtherusesofverbformsUsingtimeadverbialstoindicatepast,present,orfutureYet,still,already,etc.TimeadverbialsandprepositionalphrasesNon-specifictimesExpressingfrequencyandduration

Chapter5 Modals,negatives,andwaysofformingsentencesMakingstatements:thedeclarativeformAskingquestions:theinterrogativeform

•Yes/no-questions•Indirectquestions•Questiontags•Wh-questions

TheimperativeOtherusesofthedeclarative,theinterrogative,andtheimperativeFormingnegativestatements

BroadnegativesUsingmodals

•Specialfeaturesofmodals•Usesofmodals•Expressionsusedinsteadofmodals•Semi-modals

Chapter6 ExpressingmannerandplaceAdverbs

•Typesofadverb•Comparativeandsuperlativeadverbs•Adverbsofmanner•Adverbsofdegree•Adverbsofplace•Destinationsanddirections

Prepositions•Positionofprepositionalphrases•Afterverbsindicatingmovement•Showingposition•Showingdirection

•Otherusesofprepositionalphrases•Prepositionsusedwithverbs•Prepositionalphrasesafternounsandadjectives•Extendedmeaningsofprepositions

Otherwaysofgivinginformationaboutplace

Chapter7 ReportingwhatpeoplesayorthinkUsingreportingverbsReportingsomeone’sactualwords:directspeechReportinginyourownwords:reportedspeech

•Reportingstatementsandthoughts•Reportingquestions•Reportingorders,requests,advice,andintentions•Reportinguncertainthings•Timereferenceinreportedspeech

UsingreportingverbstoperformanactionAvoidingmentionofthepersonspeakingorthinkingReferringtothespeakerandhearerOtherwaysofindicatingwhatissaidOtherwaysofusingreportedclauses

Chapter8 CombiningmessagesClausesandconjunctions

•Timeclauses•Conditionalclauses•Purposeclauses•Reasonclauses•Resultclauses•Concessiveclauses•Placeclauses•Clausesofmanner•Relativeclauses

Nominalthat-clausesNon-finiteclausesLinkingwords,phrases,andclausestogether

Chapter9 ChangingthefocusinasentenceThepassiveSplitsentencesTakingthefocusoffthesubject:usingimpersonalitIntroducingsomethingnew:thereassubjectFocusingusingadverbialsEmphasizingPuttingsomethingfirstIntroducingyourstatementFocusingonthespeaker’sattitudeExclamationsAddressingpeople

Chapter10 MakingatextholdtogetherReferringbackReferringforwardShowingconnectionsbetweensentences:sentenceconnectorsLinkingpartsofaconversationtogetherLeavingwordsout

ReferencesectionThegrammarofbusinessEnglishThegrammarofacademicEnglishIndexAboutthePublisher

Introduction

Thisgrammar issuitable foranyonewho is interested in theEnglish languageandhowitworks ineverydaycurrentcontexts.Ithasbeenwrittenmainlyforadvanced-levelstudentsandtheirteachers,butanyseriouslearnerwillfinditavaluablereferencetool.

Theinformationinthisbookistakenfromalongandcarefulstudyofpresent-dayEnglishinvolvingtheanalysisoftheCollinsCorpus–acorpusofmanymillionsofwordsofspeechandwriting.

AfunctionalapproachMostpeoplewhostudyandusealanguageareinterestedinhowtheycandothingswiththelanguage–howtheycanmakemeanings,getattention,influencepeople,andlearnabouttheworld.Theyareinterestedinthegrammaticalstructureofthelanguageasawayofgettingthingsdone.

Agrammarthatputstogetherthepatternsofthelanguageandthethingsyoucandowiththemiscalledafunctionalgrammar.

Thisisafunctionalgrammar;thatistosay,itisbasedontheimportantrelationbetweenstructureandfunction.

Eachchapterisbuiltaroundamajorfunctionoflanguage,suchasdescribingpeopleandthings,andreportingwhatsomeonesaid.EachofthesefunctionsisregularlyexpressedinEnglishbyparticularstructures. For example, describing people and things is usually expressed by adjectives, andreportingwhat people say or think typically involves a reporting verb such as say, followed by aclausebeginningwiththatoraclausewithquotationmarks(‘’)aroundit.

Thisgrammarfollowsupeachmajorstatement(oftencalledaruleinothergrammars)withadetaileddescriptionoftheusessurroundingit–includinganyexceptions.Thescopeoftheoriginalfunctionmay thenbe extended.For example, thebasic, central functionof reportingverbs (chapter7) is tostatewhatsomeonehassaid.

Hesaidhewouldbebacksoon.

Itcaneasilybeextendedtoincludewhatsomeonehaswritten.

Hismotherwrotethathehadfinallyarrivedhome.

Thenitcanbewidenedtoincludethoughtsandfeelings;thesedonotneedtobeexpressedinwords,butthereportingstructureisveryconvenient.

Theboysthoughthewasdead.

Fromthiswecanseethereportingclauseasamoregeneralwayofintroducinganotherclause.

ExamplesAlltheexamplesinthisbookaretakenfromtheCollinsCorpus.

As ever, the corpus lies at the heart of each grammar point described, helping compilers tomakeconfident and accurate decisions about different structures andusage.Examples themselves remainclosetothecorpus,withminorchangesmadesothattheyaremoreaccessibletothelearner.Theyarecarefullychosensoastoillustratetypicalpatternsandcollocationsinreal-lifesituations.

GroupsofwordsthatbehaveinthesamewayAswellasprovidingawealthofillustrativeexamples,thisbookgivesfurtherinformationaboutthegrammarofalargenumberofspecificwords.Theactualwordsandphrasesthatareregularlyusedineachstructurearegiveninaseriesoflists.Inthisway,thelearnercangetagoodideaofhowlargeorsmallagrammaticalclassis,andhowmanywordsacertainruleappliesto.

Wherever there isgood reason todo so, thewords andphrases aregrouped together in a list in ameaningfularrangement.So,forexample,at1.21,separategroupsaresetoutinasinglelist,includinganimals,fish,wordsendingin-craft,andforeignwordsendingin-s.Theseallsharethesamefeature,i.e. that they can be either singular or plural nounswithout any change in form –moose, salmon,aircraft,corps.Fromapurelygrammaticalpointofview,theycouldallgoinasinglealphabeticallist;howeverfromateachingandlearningpointofview,itishelpfultohavethemfurtherclassifiedaccordingtotheirmeaning.

‘Becreative’CertainareasofEnglishgrammarareveryflexibleandproductive.Somearewellknown,suchasthefact that almost anynoun inEnglishcanmodifyanothernoun.For example, thenoun steam canbeused in, among others, the following combinations: steam bath, steam room, steam engine, steamiron,steampower,andsteamtrain.

With this in mind, several ‘Be creative’ features are included to encourage learners to use theirimagination,andtobemoreconfidentaboutexpressingthemselves.Insuchcases,ratherthangivingadefiniterule,weprefertogiveguidancesothattheusercanmakeindividualchoiceswithnoseriousrisk of error. By describing the language in this way, we give plenty of scope for creativity andinnovation.

AccessibilityWhen using a grammar, it can be difficult to find the information that youwant. This is often thebiggestsingleproblemforusersofgrammars,andagoodreasonwhygrammarsareoftenunpopularwithlearners.Thisgrammarmakesaspecialefforttosupporttheuser.

Wehaveaimed touse themostup-to-dateandcommonlyusedgrammatical terminology throughout.Technical termshavebeenusedonlywhere there isnoobviousalternative.Aglossaryof terms isprovidedandtheyarealsoalllistedintheindex.

There is a contents list at the beginning of the book, and there is an individual contents list at thebeginning of each chapter. Using these or the index, the user will be able to find the section orparagraphwhereafunctionisassociatedwithastructure.

Throughoutthebookthereareparagraphheadingsthatshowthetopicofalmosteveryparagraph,andtherearefrequentadditionalheadingsforeachsectionofachapter.Atthetopofeachpage,thereisanotherheadingtoguidetheuser.

NewdevelopmentsinlanguageThe continued development of the corpus enables us to keep up with the ever-changing nature oflanguage.AtCOBUILD,wecontinuallytrackandresearchthedevelopmentofgrammaticalfeatures,suchas:(i) theuseoftheprogressivewithso-calledstativeverbs(e.g.I’mlovingeveryminuteofit)(ii) theuseofmuchinaffirmativeunmodifiedstatements(e.g.Therewasmuchdebate)(iii) thespreadofgenericpronouns(e.g.Yougetsomepeoplewhoareverydifficult)(iv) theuseoflikeinreportingstructures(e.g.AndIwaslike,‘wow!’)(v) theuseofall-purposequestiontagsinsomevarietiesofspokeninformalEnglish(e.g.innit)

Theresultsareoftenfascinatingandsurprising,andenableustoensurethateachneweditionoftheGrammargivesyouaclearportrayalofrealEnglishasitiswrittenandspokentoday.

ThegrammarofbusinessandacademicEnglishAnextensionofourfunctionalapproachhasbeentofocusontwomaincontextsinwhichEnglishisusedasalinguafrancathroughouttheworld–businessandacademicEnglish.

Asaresult,twosupplementarysectionsidentifytheprincipalareasofgrammarthatlearnersneedtomasteriftheywishtocommunicateeffectivelyinbusinessandacademiccontexts.

Thesectionon thegrammarofbusinessEnglish looksat typicalstructuresused insuchcontextsassharinginformation,negotiating,andgivingpresentations.TheacademicEnglishsectioncoverssuchareasas explaining results, reviewing research, and reporting findings.Extensivecross-referencingallowstheusertoreferbacktothemaintext,wherestructuresarediscussedingreaterdetail.

Wehope that youwill enjoy learning aboutEnglish grammar froma functional perspective – fromexploring the wealth of real-world examples of current language, to understanding how certainstructuresworkinbusinessandacademiccontexts.Wehope, too, thatasaresult,youwillgain theconfidencetouseEnglishcreativelyandeffectivelyinawiderangeofeverydaysituations.

GettingthemostoutofCOBUILDEnglishGrammarWouldyouliketodiscovermoreaboutthewealthofinformationCOBUILDEnglishGrammarhastooffer, and explore the subject of grammar further? If so, go towww.collinselt.com/cobuildenglishgrammar,where youwill find a range of blogposts,written byexperts in the field, thatencourage focused thinkinganddiscussionwithyourpeersonavarietyof

topics,forexample:

questioningtraditionallyacceptedgrammar'rules'establishingthedifferencebetweennonstandardusageanderrorsthinkingaboutwhysomepeopleavoidusingtheword 'tense' totalkaboutperfectandprogressiveforms.

Tohelpyouexamineeachtopicinturningreaterdetail,eachblogposthasalinktoacorrespondingworksheet.You'llfindalltheseandmoreonourblogatwww.collinselt.com/cobuildenglishgrammar.

HowtousethisGrammar

TheCOBUILDEnglishGrammarisdesignedtobeusedbothforquickreferenceandforin-depthstudy.

Organizationofthemaintext Themain textof theGrammar isdivided into tenchapters.The first twochaptersdealwith thenounphrase, chapters3,4,and5with the

verbphrase.Chapter6dealswithadverbsandprepositions,chapter7withreporting,chapter8with joiningwords,phrasesandclauses,andchapters9and10withcontinuoustext.

Each chapter consists of a series of main topics and each topic is divided into sections. Paragraphs in the chapter are numbered, so thatchapter1runsfrom1.1to1.251,chapter2from2.1to2.302andsoon.

Thisnumberingsystemmakesiteasyfortheusertorefertodifferentbutrelatedpoints.Therearecross-referencesthroughoutthetext,eitherpointingtothemainplacewhereatopicisdealtwithortoanotherparagraphwheremoreinformationisgiven.

Most paragraphs also have a heading, saying in a fewwordswhat it dealswith, especiallywhich grammatical structure is being explained.Some paragraph headings do not show specifically what the paragraph deals with, but indicate information of a different kind. Theseparagraphshavetheheadings‘Becareful’,‘BeCreative’,and‘UsageNote’.

‘BeCareful’highlightspointswherepeopleoftenhaveproblemswithaparticulargrammatical featureofEnglish, forexamplebecause it isafeaturewhereEnglishisdifferentfrommanyotherlanguages.

‘BeCreative’ indicates that the rule that has beenmentioned can be applied in English to a very large number ofwords. For example, it isnearlyalwayspossibletomakethe-ingparticipleofaverbintoanadjectivethat isusedinfrontofanoun.Bytakingnoteof thesefeatures,youcanuse therules thathavebeenpresented inacreativeandoriginalway,givingyougreater freedomtoexpressyourself inEnglish. ‘BeCreative’featuresareexplainedingreaterdetailintheIntroduction.

‘Usage Note’ gives information about the use of individual words or small groups of words. This information is important but cannot begeneralized into a grammatical rule. The Usage Notes help you to understand points that are important for the understanding of particularwords,ratherthanpointsthatrelatetolargenumbersofwords.

TheU.S.flagsymbolhighlightsparagraphscontaininginformationabouttypicalAmericanEnglishusage.

ThespeechbubblesymbolidentifiesparagraphsdescribingstructuresthataremostcommonlyfoundinspokenEnglish.

Most of the grammatical explanations are followed by examples showing how the structure is used.These examples are all taken from theCollinsCorpus,andshowhowthestructuresareusednaturallyinspeechorwriting.Theexamplesthereforegiveimportantinformationaboutthetypicaluseofastructure,thewordsitisfrequentlyusedwith,andthecontextsinwhichitislikelytooccur.

Throughoutthebook,grammaticalexplanationsarefollowedbylistsofthewordsthattypicallyillustratethatgrammaticalpoint.Forexample,inChapter3, the point ismade thatmanyverbs can be either transitive or intransitivewith the samemeaning.This is followedby a list ofverbsthatarefrequentlyusedinthisway.

Thelistsgobeyondtheactualexamplesofusethataregiven,tootherwordsthatbehaveinsimilarways.Theyshowwhetherthepointbeingmadecanbeapplied toasmallnumberora largenumberofwords. If thegroup issmall,allmembersof itaregiven. If it is large, then themostfrequentlyusedwordsaregiven.

TheselistscanbeusedtohelpyouincreaseyourvocabularyandtocheckthatyouareusingnewlylearnedEnglishwordscorrectly.

AdditionalcontentsInadditiontothemaintext,variousothersectionsareincludedtohelpyoutogetthemostoutofthisGrammar.Theseadditionalsectionsaredescribedbelow.

GlossaryofgrammaticaltermsTheGlossary explains themeaning of grammatical terms. It covers the terms that are used in thisgrammar,andalsoincludestermsthatareusedinothergrammars,withacross-referencetothetermusedinthisbook,whereappropriate.Forexample,thisgrammartalksaboutthepresentprogressive,whereassomeothergrammarscallitthepresentcontinuous.BothofthesetermsarementionedintheGlossary,withtheexplanationbeinggivenatpresentprogressive.

ReferencesectionThis section at the back of the book provides an easy-to-use reference guide that shows how thefollowinggroupsofwordsareformed:

pluralsofnounsthecomparativeandsuperlativeofadjectives‘-ly’adverbsformedfromadjectivesthecomparativeandsuperlativeofadverbstensesotherverbformspassivesprincipalpartsofirregularverbs

TheReferencesectionalsoincludesothertopics.Forexample,itstartswithapronunciationguide,toremind you of the sounds of English. There are also lists of numbers, and an explanation of hownumbersareexpressedaloud.

ThegrammarofbusinessandacademicEnglishThesesectionsprovidekeyguidanceintheprincipalareasofgrammarthatlearnersneedtomasterforeffectivecommunicationinbusinessandacademiccontexts.

IndexTheIndexisacomprehensivelistofeverythingdealtwithintheGrammar.Itcovers:

thegrammaticalandfunctionaltopicsdealtwithintheGrammar;individualwordswhichareusedasexamplesofaparticulargrammaticalpoint;grammaticalterms,boththoseusedinthisbookandthosecommonlyusedinotherbooks.

Glossaryofgrammaticalterms

abstractnounanounused todescribeaquality, idea,orexperience rather thansomethingphysicalorconcrete;e.g.joy,size,language.Comparewithconcretenoun.

activeusedfordescribingverbphrasessuchasgives,andhasmade,wherethesubjectisthepersonorthingdoingtheactionorresponsiblefortheaction.Comparewithpassive.

adjectivalclauseanothernameforrelativeclause.

adjective a word used to tell you more about a thing, such as its appearance, colour, size, or otherqualities;e.g.…aprettybluedress.

adverbawordthatgivesmoreinformationaboutwhen,how,where,orinwhatcircumstancessomethinghappens; e.g. quickly, now. There are several different kinds of adverb; adverbs of degree,manner,place,time,duration,andfrequency.Therearealsofocusingadverbs.

adverbialawordorcombinationofwordsaddedtoaclausetogivemoreinformationabouttime,place,ormanner.Seealsosentenceadverbialandsentenceconnector.

adverbofdegreeanadverbindicatingtheamountorextentofafeelingorquality;e.g.extremely.

adverb/adverbialofdurationanadverboradverbial indicatinghowlongsomethinglasts;e.g.briefly,foralongtime.

adverb/adverbial of frequency an adverb or adverbial indicating how often something happens; e.g.often,onceaweek.

adverbofmanneranadverbindicatingthewayinwhichsomethinghappensorisdone;e.g.carefully.

adverbofplaceanadverbthatgivesmoreinformationaboutpositionordirection;e.g.Movecloser.

adverbparticleanadverbusedaspartofaphrasalverb;e.g.hideout,situp,turnround.

affirmativenotcontaininganegativeword.Alsocalledpositive.

agentanothernameforperformer.

agreement therelationshipbetweenasubjectand itsverb,orbetweenanumberordeterminerand itsnoun;e.g.Ilook/shelooks…onebell/threebells.Alsocalledconcord.

apostrophe s an ending (’s) added to a noun to mark possession; e.g. …Harriet’s daughter… theprofessor’shusband…theManagingDirector’ssecretary.

articleseedefinitearticle,indefinitearticle.

aspecttheuseofverbformstoshowwhetheranactioniscontinuing,repeated,orfinished.

attributiveusedfordescribingthepositionofadjectiveswhentheyareusedinfrontofanoun.Comparewithpredicative.

auxiliaryverb one of the verbsbe,have, anddowhen they are usedwith amain verb tomake verbforms,negatives,questions,andsoon.Alsocalledauxiliary.Modalsarealsoauxiliaryverbs.

bareinfinitiveanothernameforinfinitivewithoutto.

baseform theformofaverbthathasnolettersaddedtotheendandisnotapastform;e.g.walk,go,have,be.Thebaseformistheformyoulookupinadictionary.

broadnegativeoneofasmallgroupofadverbsincludingbarelyandseldomwhichareusedtomakeastatementalmostnegative;e.g.Ibarelyknewher.

cardinalnumberanumberusedforcounting;e.g.one,seven,nineteen.

classifyingadjectiveanadjectiveused to identifysomethingasbeingofaparticular type;e.g. Indian,wooden,mental.Theydonothavecomparativesorsuperlatives.Comparewithqualitativeadjective.

clauseagroupofwordscontainingaverb.Seealsomainclauseandsubordinateclause.

clause of manner a subordinate clause that describes the way in which something is done, usuallyintroducedwithasorlike;e.g.Shetalkslikehermotherusedto.

collectivenounanounthatreferstoagroupofpeopleorthings;e.g.committee,team.

colouradjectiveanadjectivereferringtoacolour;e.g.red,blue,scarlet.

commonnounanounusedtorefertoaperson,thing,orsubstance;e.g.sailor,computer,glass.Comparewithpropernoun.

comparative an adjective or adverb with -er on the end ormore in front of it; e.g. friendlier, moreimportant,morecarefully.

complement a noun phrase or adjective that comes after a linking verb such as be, and gives moreinformationaboutthesubjectorobjectoftheclause;e.g.Sheisateacher,Sheistired,Theymadeherchairperson.

complex sentence a sentence consisting of two or more main clauses linked by a subordinatingconjunction;e.g.Wewentinsidewhenitstartedtorain.

compoundacombinationoftwoormorewordsfunctioningasaunit.Forexample,self-centredandfree-stylearecompoundadjectives,busstopandstateofaffairsarecompoundnouns,anddry-cleanandroller-skatearecompoundverbs.

compound sentence a sentence consisting of two or more main clauses linked by a coordinatingconjunction;e.g.Theypickedherupandtookherintothehouse.

concessiveclause a subordinateclause,usually introducedbyalthoughorwhile, that contrastswithamainclause;e.g.AlthoughIlikeher,Ifindherhardtotalkto.

concordanothernameforagreement.

concretenounanoun that refers tosomethingwecan touchorsee;e.g. table,dress, flower.Comparewithabstractnoun.

conditionalclauseasubordinateclauseusuallystartingwith if.Theeventdescribedinthemainclausedependsontheconditiondescribedinthesubordinateclause;e.g.Ifitrains,we’llgotothecinema…Theywouldberichiftheyhadtakenmyadvice.

conjunctionawordlinkingtogethertwoclauses,phrases,orwords.Therearetwotypesofconjunction–coordinatingconjunctions,whichlinkpartsofasentenceofthesamegrammaticaltype(and,but,or),andsubordinatingconjunctions,whichbeginsubordinateclauses(although,when).

continuousanothernameforprogressive.

contractionashortenedforminwhichanauxiliaryverbandnot,orasubjectandanauxiliaryverb,arejoinedtogetherandfunctionasoneword;e.g.aren’t,she’s.

coordinateclauseaclause that isconnected toanotherclausewithacoordinatingconjunctionsuchasandorbut;e.g.Hefellandbrokehisleg.

coordinatingconjunctionawordsuchasand,but,ororwhichjoins together twoclauses,phrases,orwordsofthesamegrammaticaltype.

copulaanamesometimesusedtorefertotheverbbe.Inthisgrammar,thetermlinkingverbisused.

countablenounanounthatcanbesingularorplural;e.g.dog/dogs,lemon/lemons,foot/feet.Alsocalledcountnoun.

declarativeaclause in thedeclarative formhas thesubject followedby theverb.Moststatementsaremadeinthedeclarativeform.Alsocalledindicative.

definingnon-finiteclauseaparticipleclausethatisplacedafteranounphrasetoidentifythepersonorthingyouaretalkingabout;e.g.Thegirlwearingtheredhat.

definingrelativeclausearelativeclausethatidentifiesthepersonorthingthatisbeingtalkedabout;e.g.Iwrotedowneverythingthatshesaid.

definitearticlethedeterminer‘the’.

delexicalverbaverbthathasverylittlemeaninginitselfandisusedwithanobjectthatcarriesthemainmeaningofthestructure.Give,have,andtakearecommonlyusedasdelexicalverbs;e.g.Shegaveasmallcry…I’vehadabath.

demonstrativeoneofthewordsthis,that,these,andthoseusedinfrontofanoun;e.g.…thiswoman…thattree.Theyarealsousedaspronouns;e.g.Thatlooksnice…Thisisfun.

dependentclauseanothernameforsubordinateclause.

definitedetermineroneofagroupsofdeterminersincludingthe,thatandyourwhichyouusewhenthepersonyouarespeakingtounderstandswhichpersonorthingyouaretalkingabout;e.g.theoldman,myideas.

determineroneofagroupofwordsincludingthe,a,some,andmywhichareusedatthebeginningofanounphrase.

directobject anounphrase referring toapersonor thingaffectedbyanaction, ina sentencewithanactiveverb;e.g.Shewrotehername….Ishutthewindows.

directspeech speechreported in thewordsactuallyspokenbysomeone,withoutanychanges in tense,person,andsoon.

ditransitiveverbaverbsuchasgive,take,orsellwhichcanhavebothanindirectandadirectobject;e.g.Shegavemeakiss.

dynamicverbaverbsuchasrun,giveorslicewhichdescribesanaction.Comparewithstativeverb.

-edadjectiveanadjectivethatendsin-ed,andusuallyhasthesameformasthe-edparticipleofaverb,orisformedbyadding-edtoanoun;e.g.aworriedlook…skilledworkers.Adjectivesthatdonotendin-edbuthavethesameformsasirregular-edparticiplesarealsocalled-edadjectives;e.g.abrokenbone.

-edparticipleaverbformsuchaswalkedorplayed,whichisusedtomakeperfectformsandpassives,or in some cases an adjective. Irregular participles such as given and broken are also called -edparticiplesbecausetheybehavelikeregular-edparticiples.Alsocalledpastparticiple.

ellipsiswhenyouleaveoutwordsbecausetheyareobviousfromthecontext.

emphasizingadjectiveanadjectivesuchascomplete,utterortotalwhichstresseshowstronglyyoufeelaboutsomething;e.g.Ifeelacompletefool.

ergativeverb averb that canbeeither transitiveor intransitive in the samemeaning.Touse theverbintransitively,youusetheobjectofthetransitiveverbasthesubjectoftheintransitiveverb;e.g.Hehadboiledakettle…Thekettlehadboiled.

exclamationawordorsentencespokensuddenlyandloudlyinordertoexpresssurprise,anger,andsoon;e.g.Ohgosh!

finiteafiniteverbisinflectedaccordingtopersonortenseratherthanbeinganinfinitiveoraparticiple.

firstpersonseeperson.

focusing adverb a sentence adverb that indicates themost relevant thing involved; e.g. only, mainly,especially.

futuretheuseofwillorshallwiththebaseformoftheverbtorefertofutureevents;e.g.Shewillcometomorrow.

futureprogressivetheuseofwillbeorshallbeandan-ingparticipletorefertofutureevents;e.g.Shewillbegoingsoon.Alsocalledfuturecontinuous.

futureperfect theuseofwillhaveorshallhaveandan -ed participle to refer to future events; e.g. Ishallhavefinishedtomorrow.

futureperfectprogressive the useofwill or shallwithhavebeen and an -ing participle to refer tofuture events; e.g. I will have been walking for three hours by then. Also called future perfectcontinuous.

genderagrammaticaltermreferringtothedifferencebetweenmasculineandfemininewordssuchasheandshe.

genericpronounoneofagroupofpronounsincludingyouandtheywhichareusedtorefertopeopleingeneral.

gerundanothernamefor-ingnoun.

gradable a gradable adjective can be used with a word such as very to say that the person or thingreferredtohasmoreorlessofaquality;e.g.veryboring,lesshelpful.

idiomagroupoftwoormorewordswithameaningthatcannotbeunderstoodbytakingthemeaningofeachindividualword;e.g.tokickthebucket,torunwild.

if-clauseaconditionalclause;oraclauseusedtoreportayes/no-question.

imperativeaclauseintheimperativehasthebaseformoftheverbwithoutasubject,e.g.Comehere…Taketwotabletseveryfourhours…Enjoyyourself.

impersonalititisanimpersonalsubjectwhenitisusedtointroduceafact,orwhenitisusedinasplitsentence;e.g.It’sraining…Itwasyouwhoasked.

indefinitearticlethedeterminersaandan.

indefinitedeterminer one of a group of determiners includinga,many and several which you use to

refertosomeoneorsomethingofaparticulartype,withoutsayingwhichpersonorthingyoumean;e.g.anoldman,severalsuggestions.

indefiniteplaceadverboneofagroupofadverbsincludinganywhereandsomewherewhichareusedtoindicatepositionorlocationinageneralorvagueway.

indefinitepronounoneofagroupofpronounsincludingsomeoneandanythingwhichareusedtorefertoapersonorthinginageneralway.

indicativeanothernamefordeclarative.

indirectobject a second object usedwith a transitive verb to indicatewho orwhat benefits from anaction,orgetssomethingasaresultofit;e.g.Shegavemearose.

indirectquestionawayofaskingaquestionthatmakesitsoundmorepolite;e.g.Canyoutellmewherethebankis?insteadofWhereisthebank?

indirectspeechanothernameforreportedspeech.

infinitivethebaseformofaverb.Itisoftenusedwithtoinfrontofit;e.g.(to)take,(to)see,(to)bring.

infinitivewithouttotheinfinitiveformwithouttoinfrontofit,usedwithmodalsandcertainotherverbs;e.g.Youmustgo…Letmethink.

inflectionthevariationintheformofawordtoshowdifferencesintense,number,case,anddegree.

-ingadjective an adjective that has the same form as the -ing participle of a verb; e.g.… a smilingface…awinningstreak.

-ingparticiple a verb formending in -ing that is used tomakeverb forms, and as an adjective.Alsocalledthepresentparticiple.

-ingnounanounthathasthesameformasthe-ingparticipleofaverb;e.g.Swimmingisgoodforyou.

interjectionanothernameforexclamation.

interrogativeadverboneoftheadverbshow,when,where,andwhywhentheyareusedtoaskquestions.

interrogativeaclauseintheinterrogativeformhaspartoralloftheverbphraseinfrontofthesubject.Mostquestionsareaskedintheinterrogativeform.

interrogativepronounoneofthepronounswho,whose,whom,what,andwhichwhentheyareusedtoaskquestions.

intransitiveverbaverbthatisusedtotalkaboutanactionoreventthatonlyinvolvesthesubjectandsodoesnothaveanobject;e.g.Shearrived…Iwasyawning.

inversion changing theword order in a sentence, especially changing the order of the subject and the

verb.

irregular not following the normal rules for inflection. An irregular verb has a past form and/or -edparticiplethatisformedinadifferentwayfromtheregularending.

lexicalverbanothernameformainverb.

linkingverb averb that links the subject andcomplementof a clause; e.g.be,become, seem,appear.Alsosometimescalledcopula.

mainclauseaclausethatisnotdependenton,orisnotpartof,anotherclause.

mainverbanyverbthatisnotanauxiliaryverb.Alsocalledlexicalverb.

mass noun (in this grammar) a noun that is usually an uncountable noun, but that can be used as acountable noun when it refers to quantities or types of something; e.g. … two sugars… coughmedicines.

measurementnounanounthatreferstoaunitofsize,volume,weight,speed,temperature,etc.;e.g.mile,litre,degree.

modalanauxiliaryverbthatisusedwithamainverbtoindicateaparticularattitude,suchaspossibility,obligation,prediction,ordeduction;e.g.can,could,may,might.Alsocalledmodalauxiliaryormodalverb.

modifier aword or group ofwords that come in front of a noun; e.g.…abeautiful sunny day……apsychologyconference.

negative used for describing a sentence that uses a word like not, never, or no one to indicate theabsenceoroppositeofsomething,ortosaythatsomethingisnotthecase;e.g.Idon’tknowyou…I’llneverforget.Theoppositeisaffirmative.

negativewordawordsuchasneverandnotwhichexpressesanegativemeaning.

nominal relative clause a subordinate clause that functions as a noun and often begins withwhat orwhatever;e.g.Whathesaidwastrue.

nominalthat-clauseasubordinateclausethatfunctionsasanounandbeginswiththat;e.g.Heshowedthatitwastrue.

non-definingrelativeclausearelativeclausethatgivesmoreinformationaboutsomeoneorsomething,butthatisnotneededtoidentifythem;e.g.That’sMary,whowasatuniversitywithme.Comparewithdefiningrelativeclause.

non-finitethenon-finiteformsofaverbaretheinfinitiveandparticipleforms;e.g.totake,taking,taken.

nounawordthatreferstopeople,things,andabstractideassuchasfeelingsandqualities;e.g.woman,Harry,guilt.

nounphraseagroupofwordsthatactsasthesubject,complement,orobjectofaclause,orastheobjectofapreposition.

nounmodifieranounusedinfrontofanothernoun,asifitwereanadjective;e.g.…acardoor…asteelworks.

number the way in which differences between singular and plural are shown; e.g. flower/flowers,that/those.Seealsocardinalnumberandordinalnumber.

object a noun phrase that refers to a person or thing, other than the subject, which is involved in oraffected by the action of a verb. See also direct object and indirect object. Prepositions are alsofollowedbyobjects.

objectcomplementawordthatisusedtodescribetheobjectofaclauseandthatoccurswithverbssuchasmakeandfind;e.g.Itmademetired…Ifoundherasleep.

ordinalnumberanumber that isusedto indicatewheresomethingcomesinanorderorsequence;e.g.first,fifth,tenth,hundredth.

participleaverbformusedformakingdifferenttenses.See-edparticipleand-ingparticiple formoredetails.

partitiveawordthatgivesinformationabouttheamountofaparticularthing;e.g.pint,loaf,portion.

passiveverbformssuchaswasgiven,weretaken,hadbeenmade,where thesubject is thepersonorthingthatisaffectedbytheaction.Comparewithactive.

pastformtheformofaverb,oftenendingin-ed,thatisusedforthepastsimple.

pastparticipleanothernamefor-edparticiple.

pastperfecttheuseofhadwithan-edparticipletorefertopastevents;e.g.Shehadfinished.

pastperfectprogressivetheuseofhadbeenwithan-ingparticipletorefertopastevents;e.g.Hehadbeenwaitingforhours.Alsocalledpastperfectcontinuous.

pastprogressivetheuseofwasorwerewithan-ingparticiple,usuallytorefertopastevents;e.g.Theywereworryingaboutityesterday.Alsocalledpastcontinuous.

pastsimpletheuseofthepastformofaverbtorefertopastevents;e.g.Theywaited…Itfellover.

past tense a tense used to describe actions or events that took place in the past. See tense formoredetails.

perfectformaverbformwithhaveandan-edparticiple;e.g.Ihavemethim…Wehadwon.

performativeverbaverbthatstatesexplicitlywhatactionthespeakerisperformingwhenheorsheusesit;e.g.apologize,resign,christen.

performerthepersonorthingthatisresponsiblefortheactionexpressedbytheverb;e.g.Markphoned…Ourdinnerwaseatenbythedog.

personatermusedtorefertothethreeclassesofpeoplewhoareinvolvedinsomethingthatissaid.Theyare thefirstperson(thepersonspeakingorwriting), thesecondperson(thepersonbeingaddressed),andthethirdperson(thepeopleorthingsthatarebeingtalkedabout).

personalpronounoneofagroupofpronounsincludingI,you,andmewhichareusedtoreferbacktothepeopleorthingsyouaretalkingabout.

phrasalverbacombinationofaverbandanadverband/orapreposition,whichhaveasinglemeaning;e.g.backdown,handover,lookafter,lookforwardto.

phraseasetofwordsthatissmallerthanaclause,andthatisbasedaroundaparticularwordclass:forexample, a verbphrase is based around amainverb, and can also contain auxiliary verbs.See alsonounphrase,verbphrase andprepositionalphrase.Phrase is also sometimes used to refer to anygroupofwords.

pluraltheformusedtorefertomorethanonepersonorthing;e.g.dogs,women.

pluralnounanounthatisonlyusedinthepluralform;e.g.trousers,scissors,vermin.

possessiveastructureusedtoshowpossession;e.g.your,Jerry’s,mine.

possessivedetermineradeterminersuchasmy,your,andtheir.Alsocalledpossessiveadjective.

possessivepronounoneofthewordsmine,yours,hers,his,ours,andtheirs.

postdeterminerasmallgroupofadjectivesusedafteradeterminerandinfrontofotheradjectives;e.g.certain,remaining.

predeterminerawordthatcomesinfrontofadeterminer;e.g.alltheboys…doublethetrouble…suchamess.

predicativeusedfordescribingthepositionofadjectiveswhentheyareusedafteralinkingverbsuchas‘be’.Comparewithattributive.

prepositionawordsuchasby,withorfrom,whichisusuallyfollowedbyanounphraseoran-ingform.

prepositionalphraseastructureconsistingofaprepositionanditsobject;e.g.onthetable,bythesea.

presentparticipleanothernamefor-ingparticiple.

present progressive the use of the present simple of ‘be’ with an -ing participle to refer to presentevents;e.g.Thingsareimproving.Alsocalledpresentcontinuous.

presentperfect theuseofthepresentsimpleofhavewithan-edparticipletorefertopasteventsthatexistinthepresent;e.g.Shehaslovedhimfortenyears.

presentperfectprogressivetheuseofhavebeenandhasbeenwithan-ingparticipletorefer topasteventsthatexistinthepresent;e.g.Wehavebeensittinghereforhours.Alsocalledpresentperfectcontinuous.

presentsimpletheuseofthebaseformorthesformofaverb,usuallytorefertopresentevents;e.g.Ilikebananas…Mysisterhatesthem.

presenttensea tenseused todescribeevents takingplace in thepresent,orsituations thatexist in thepresent.

progressive a verb form that contains a form of the verb ‘be’ and an -ing participle; e.g. She waslaughing…Theyhadbeenplayingbadminton.Alsocalledcontinuous.

pronounawordusedinsteadofanoun,whenyoudonotwanttonamesomeoneorsomethingdirectly;e.g.it,you,none.

proper noun a noun that refers to a particular person, place, or institution; e.g. Nigel, Edinburgh,Christmas.Comparewithcommonnoun.

purposeclauseasubordinateclause,usuallyintroducedbyinorderto,orso that;e.g. Icamehere inordertoaskyououttodinner.

qualifier any word, phrase, or clause that comes after a noun phrase, and gives extra information toexpanditsmeaning;e.g.…abookwithabluecover…theshoponthecorner.

qualitative adjective an adjective that is used to indicate a quality, and is gradable; e.g. funny,intelligent,small.Comparewithclassifyingadjective.

quantityexpression a phrase ending inof that allows you to refer to a quantity of somethingwithoutbeingpreciseabouttheexactamount;e.g.someof,alotof,alittlebitof.

questionastructurethattypicallyhastheverbinfrontofthesubjectandthatisusedtoasksomeoneaboutsomething;e.g.Haveyouanymoney?Alsocalledinterrogative.

questiontagastructureorwordthatisusedattheendofastatementinordertoformaquestion.

reasonclauseasubordinateclause,usuallyintroducedbybecause,since,oras;e.g.Sinceyou’rehere,we’llstart.

reciprocalpronounthepronounseachotherandoneanother,usedtoshowthattwoormorepeopledoorfeelthesamething;e.g.Theylovedeachother.

reciprocalverbaverbthatdescribesanactionthatinvolvespeopleaffectingeachotherinthesamewaywiththesameaction;e.g.Theymetinthestreet…Hemetheryesterday.

reflexivepronounapronounendingin-self,suchasmyselforthemselves,whichisusedastheobjectofaverbwhenthepersonaffectedbyanactionisthesameasthepersondoingit.

reflexiveverbaverbthatistypicallyusedwithareflexivepronoun;e.g.enjoyyourself;prideyourselfon.

relativeclauseasubordinateclausethatgivesmoreinformationaboutsomeoneorsomethingmentionedinthemainclause.Seealsodefiningrelativeclauseandnon-definingrelativeclause.

relativepronounawh-wordsuchaswhoorwhich,usedto introducearelativeclause;e.g.…thegirlwhowascarryingthebag.

reportedclausethepartofareportingstructurethatdescribeswhatsomeonehassaid;e.g.ShesaidthatIcouldn’tseeher.

reportedquestionaquestionthatisreportedusingareportingstructureratherthantheexactwordsusedbythespeaker.

reportedspeechspeechthatisreportedusingareportingstructureratherthantheexactwordsusedbythespeaker.Alsocalledindirectspeech.

reportingclauseaclause thatcontainsa reportingverb,which isused to introducewhatsomeonehassaid;e.g.TheyaskedifIcouldcome.

reportingverbaverbthatdescribeswhatpeoplesayorthink;e.g.suggest,say,wonder.

reportingstructureastructurethatreportswhatsomeonehassaidbyusingareportedclauseratherthanrepeatingtheirexactwords;e.g.Shetoldmeshe’dbelate.

resultclause a subordinate clause introducedby so thatwhichgives the result of something; e.g.Thehousewasseverelydamaged,sothatitisnowuninhabitable.

rhetoricalquestionaquestionthatyouuseinordertomakeacommentratherthantoobtaininformation;e.g.Oh,isn’titsilly?

secondpersonseeperson.

semi-modaltheverbsdare,need,andusedtowhichbehaveratherlikemodals.

sentenceagroupofwordsthatexpressastatement,question,orcommand.Asentenceusuallyhasaverbandasubject,andmayconsistofoneclause,ortwoormoreclauses.Asentenceinwritinghasacapitalletteratthebeginningandafull-stop,questionmark,orexclamationmarkattheend.

sentence adverbial an adverbial that applies to the whole clause, rather than to part of it; e.g.Wepossiblyhavetowaitandsee.Seealsosentenceconnector.

sentenceconnector a sentence adverbial used to introduce a comment or reinforcewhat is said; e.g.moreover,besides.

sformthebaseformofaverbwithsontheend,usedinthepresentsimple.

simplesentenceasentencethatcontainsonlyoneclause.

singular the form used to refer to or talk about one person or thing; e.g. dog, woman. Comparewithplural.

singularnounanountypicallyusedinthesingularform;e.g.sun,business.

splitinfinitivetheplacingofawordbetweentoandthebaseformofaverb;e.g.…toboldlygowherenomanhasgonebefore.

split sentence a sentence in which emphasis is given to either the subject or the object by using astructurebeginningwithit,what,orall;e.g.It’sahammerweneed…Whatweneedisahammer.

stativeverbaverbthatdescribesastate;e.g.be,live,know.Comparewithdynamicverb.

subjectanounphrasethatusuallycomesbeforeaverb,andagreeswiththeverbinpersonandnumber.Inactivesentences,thesubjectusuallyreferstothepersonorthingwhodoestheactionexpressedbytheverb;e.g.Weweregoingshopping.

subjunctiveaverbformthatisusedinsomelanguagestoexpressattitudessuchaswishing,hoping,anddoubting.ThesubjunctiveisnotverycommoninEnglish,andisusedmainlyinconditionalclausessuchasIfIwereyou….

submodifying adverb an adverb that is used in front of an adjective or another adverb in order tostrengthenorweakenitsmeaning;e.g.…veryinteresting…quitequickly.

subordinateclauseaclausethatbeginswithasubordinatingconjunctionsuchasbecauseorwhileandwhichmustbeusedwithamainclause.

subordinatingconjunctionaconjunctionthatbeginsasubordinateclause.

substitutionthespecialuseofpronounsandotherwordstoreplacepartorallofaclause;e.g.‘Areyougoingtotheparty?’–‘Ihopeso’.

superlativeanadjectiveoradverbwith-estontheendormostinfrontofit;e.g.thinnest,quickest,mostwisely.

tensetheverbformthatshowswhetheryouarereferringtothepastorthepresent.

that-clauseaclausestartingwith‘that’whichisusedmainlywhenreportingwhatsomeonehassaid;e.g.Shesaidthatshe’dwashupforme.Thatcanbeomittedwhentheclauseisusedafterareportingverb.

thirdpersonseeperson.

timeadverbialanadverbialthatgivesmoreinformationaboutwhensomethinghappens;e.g.Isawheryesterday.

timeclauseasubordinateclausethatindicatesthetimeofanevent;e.g.I’llphoneyouwhenIgetback.

titleawordusedbeforeaperson’snametoshowtheirpositionorstatus;e.g.Mrs,Lord,Queen.

to-infinitivethebaseformofaverbprecededbyto;e.g.togo,tohave,tojump.

transitiveverbaverbusedtotalkaboutanactionoreventthatinvolvesmorethanonepersonorthing,andsoisfollowedbyanobject;e.g.She’swastinghermoney.

uncountablenounanounthatreferstoageneralkindofthingratherthantoanindividualitem,andsohasonlyoneform;e.g.money,furniture,intelligence.Alsocalleduncountnoun.

verbawordusedwithasubjecttosaywhatsomeoneorsomethingdoes,orwhathappenstothem;e.g.sing,spill,die.

verbphraseamainverb,oramainverbprecededbyoneormoreauxiliaryverbs,whichcombineswithasubjecttosaywhatsomeoneorsomethingdoes,orwhathappenstothem;e.g.I’llshowthem…She’sbeensick.

vocativeawordusedwhenspeakingtosomeone,justasifitweretheirname;e.g.darling,madam.

wh-clauseaclausestartingwithawh-word.

whether-clauseaclauseusedtoreportayes/no-question;e.g.Iaskedherwhethershe’dseenhim.

wh-questionaquestionthatexpectsananswergivingaparticularperson,place,thing,amount,andsoon,ratherthanjustyesorno.

wh-wordoneofagroupofwordsstartingwithwh-,suchaswhat,whenorwho,whichareusedinwh-questions.Howisalsocalledawh-wordbecauseitbehavesliketheotherwh-words.

yes/no-questionaquestionthatcanbeansweredsimplywitheitheryesorno;e.g.Wouldyoulikesomemoretea?

Chapter1Referring to people and things: nouns, pronouns, anddeterminers

1.1–12 Introductiontothenounphrase

1.13–92 Identifyingpeopleandthings:nouns

1.15–22 Thingsthatcanbecounted:countablenouns1.23–33 Thingsnotusuallycounted:uncountablenouns1.34–40 Whenthereisonlyoneofsomething:singularnouns1.41–46 Referringtomorethanonething:pluralnouns1.47–51 Referringtogroups:collectivenouns1.52–58 Referringtopeopleandthingsbyname:propernouns1.59–65 Nounsthatarerarelyusedalone1.66–72 Adjectivesusedasnouns:thepoor,theimpossible1.73–76 Nounsreferringtomalesorfemales1.77–82 Referringtoactivitiesandprocesses:-ingnouns1.83–92 Compoundnouns:carpark,mother-in-law,breakdown

1.93–161 Talkingaboutpeopleandthingswithoutnamingthem:pronouns

1.95–106 Talkingaboutpeopleandthings:personalpronouns1.107–109 Talkingaboutpossession:possessivepronouns1.110–118 Referringbacktothesubject:reflexivepronouns1.119–123 Peopleingeneral:genericpronouns1.124–127 Referringtoaparticularpersonorthing:this,that,theseandthose1.128–141 Referringtopeopleandthingsinanon-specificway:someone,anyone,everyone,etc.1.142–145 Showingthatpeopledothesamething:eachotherandoneanother1.146–150 Joiningclausestogether:relativepronouns1.151–153 Askingquestions:interrogativepronouns1.154–161 Otherpronouns

1.162–251 Definiteandindefinitedeterminers

1.163–183 Usingthedefinitedeterminerthe1.184–193 Definitedeterminers:usingthis,that,these,andthose1.194–210 Possessivedeterminers:my,your,their,etc.1.211–222 Thepossessiveform:apostrophes(’s)1.223–235 Indefinitedeterminers:all,some,many,etc.1.236–251 Otherindefinitedeterminers

1 Referring to people and things: nouns, pronouns, anddeterminers

Introductiontothenounphrase1.1 Atitssimplest,languageisusedtotalkaboutpeopleandthings.Peopledothisbyusingwordsina

varietyofways,forexampletomakestatements,toaskquestions,andtogiveorders.Thewordschosen are arranged into groups, either around a noun or around a verb. They are callednounphrasesandverbphrases.Nounphrasestelluswhichpeopleorthingsarebeingtalkedabout.Verbphrasestelluswhatisbeingsaidaboutthem,forexamplewhattheyaredoing.Chapters1and2ofthisgrammardealwithnounphrases.Forinformationaboutverbphrases,seeChapter3.

position

1.2 Anounphrasecanbethesubjectorobjectofaverb,itcanfollowalinkingverb,oritcanbetheobjectofapreposition.Babiescrywhentheyarehungry.Icouldn’tfeelangeragainsthim.Theywereteachers.Letusworktogetherinpeace.

commonnounsandpropernouns

1.3 Youuseanounphrasetotalkaboutsomeoneorsomethingbynamingthem.Youdothisbyusingageneralname,calledanounorcommonnoun,orbyusingaspecificname,calledapropernoun.Propernounsaremainlyusedforpeople,places,andevents.Marylikesstrawberries.IwenttoDrexelUniversityandthenIwenttoPittsburghtoworkforapsychiatrist.WeflewtoGenevawithBritishAirways.Seeparagraphs1.52to1.58formoreinformationaboutpropernouns.

determinerswithcommonnouns

1.4 Ifyouuseacommonnoun,youaresayingthatthepersonorthingyouaretalkingaboutcanbeput

inasetwithothersthataresimilarinsomeway.

Ifyoujustwanttosaythatthepersonorthingisinthatset,youuseanindefinitedeterminerwiththecommonnoun.Imetagirlwhowasastudentthere.Haveyougotanycommenttomakeaboutthat?Therearesomediseasesthatareclearlyinherited.Ifyouwanttoshowwhichmemberofasetyouaretalkingabout,youuseadefinitedeterminerwithacommonnoun.Iputmyarmroundhershoulders.…thedestructionoftheircity.Shecameintoseemethismorning.Seeparagraphs1.162 to1.251 formore informationaboutdeterminers,andparagraphs1.13 to1.92formoreinformationaboutnouns.

personalanddemonstrativepronouns

1.5 Youmaydecidenottonamethepersonorthingandtouseapronounratherthanapropernounorcommonnoun.Youusuallydothisbecausethepersonorthinghasalreadybeennamed,soyourefertothembyusingapersonalpronounorademonstrativepronoun.Maxwillbelieveus,won’the?‘CouldIspeaktoSue,please?’–‘I’msorry,shedoesn’tworkherenow.’Somepeoplehaveservantstocookforthem.Thisledtowidespreadcriticism.See paragraphs 1.95 to 1.106 for more information about personal pronouns, and paragraphs1.124to1.127formoreinformationaboutdemonstrativepronouns.

indefinitepronouns

1.6 Youmaydecidenottonamethepersonorthingatall,forexamplebecauseyoudonotwantto,youthinkit isnotimportant,youdonotknow,oryouwanttobevagueormysteriouswhiletellingastory.Insuchcasesyouuseanindefinitepronoun,whichdoesnotrefertoanyparticularpersonorthing.Ihadtosaysomething.Inthiscountrynobodytrustsanyone.Amomentlater,hisheartseemedtostopashesensedthesuddenmovementofsomeonebehindhim.Seeparagraphs1.128to1.141formoreinformationaboutindefinitepronouns.

addingextrainformation

1.7 Ifyouwant togivemore informationabout thepersonor thingyouare talkingabout, rather thanjustgivingtheirgeneralorspecificname,youcanuseamodifiersuchasanadjective,oryoucanaddextrainformationintheformofaphraseoraclause,forexample.

modifiers

1.8 Mostadjectivesareusedasmodifiers.Nounsarealsooftenusedasmodifiers.…abigcity.…blueink.Heopenedthecardoor.…theoilindustry.Seeparagraphs2.2to2.168formoreinformationaboutadjectives,andparagraphs2.169to2.174formoreinformationaboutnounmodifiers.

addinginformationafterthenoun

1.9 Youcanaddaprepositionalphrase,arelativeclause,anadverbofplaceortime,orato-infinitiveafterthenoun.…agirlinadarkgreydress.…themanwhoemployedme.…theroomupstairs.…thedesiretokill.Adjectives and participles are also sometimes used after the noun, usually in combinationwithotherwords.…theMinisterresponsiblefornationalsecurity.…thethreecardslyingonthetable.Seeparagraphs2.272to2.302formoredetailsaboutinformationthatisaddedafterthenoun.

1.10 Inparticular,prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithofareverycommon,becausetheycanexpressmanydifferentkindsofrelationshipbetweenthetwonounphrases.…strongfeelingsofjealousy.…apictureofahouse.…therebuildingoftheoldhospital.…thedaughterofthevillagecobbler.…problemsofvaryingcomplexity.…thearrivalofthepolice.Formoreinformationabouttheuseofofinthenounphraseseeparagraphs2.277to2.283.

linkingnounphrasesandlinkingwordswithinthem

1.11 Ifyouwanttoreferseparatelytomorethanonepersonorthing,oryouwanttodescribetheminmorethanoneway,youlinknounphrasesusingtheconjunctionsand,or,orbut.Sometimesyouuseacommainsteadofand,orjustputonewordnexttoanother.

…atableandchair.…hisobligationswithregardtoAmanda,RobertandMatthew.…somefruitorcheeseafterwards.…herlongblackskirt.Seeparagraphs8.171 to 8.201 formore information about the use of conjunctions to link nounphrasesandwordswithinnounphrases.

numbersandquantityexpressions

1.12 Ifyouwanttosayhowmanythingsyouaretalkingabout,orhowmuchofsomethingthereis,youusenumbersandquantityexpressions.LastyearIworkedsevendaysaweekfourteenhoursaday.Shedrinkslotsofcoffee.Numbersaredealtwithinparagraphs2.208to2.239,andquantityexpressionsaredealtwithin2.175to2.193.

Identifyingpeopleandthings:nouns1.13 Anounisusedtoidentifyapersonorthing.Inthischaptersixmaintypesofnounaredescribed.

Theyareclassifiedaccordingtowhethertheyhaveapluralform,whethertheyneedadeterminerinfrontof them,andwhether theyoccurwithasingularverborapluralverbwhentheyare thesubjectoftheverb.Thesixtypesare:

classificaton example comments paragraphcountablenouns abirdbirds havepluralneeddeterminer 1.15to1.22uncountablenouns happinessequipment nopluralusuallynodeterminer 1.23to1.33singularnouns themoonaday noplural

needdeterminer1.34to1.40

pluralnouns clothesscissors nosingular 1.41to1.46collectivenouns thepublicthestaff eithersingularorpluralverb 1.47to1.51propernouns MaryLondonTheUnitedNations startwithcapitalletter 1.52to1.58

Manynounshaveanumberofdifferentmeanings,andsocanbe,forexample,acountablenounforonemeaning,anuncountablenounforanother,andasingularnounforanother.Thereareafewothergroupsofnounswithspecial features.Thesearedealtwith inparagraphs1.59to1.92.

capitalletters

1.14 Mostnounsdonotbeginwithacapitalletter,unlesstheyareusedtostartasentence.However,thefollowingtypesofnounarealwaysspelledwithacapitalletter:propernounsornames

…mysisterElizabeth.IlovereadingShakespeare.

I’llbeintheofficeonMonday.Ithinkhe’sgonetoLondon.Formore informationonpropernouns, seeparagraphs1.52 to 1.58. Proper nouns that are timeexpressionsaredealtwithinChapter4,andthosethatareplacenamesinChapter6.nounsthatidentifypeopleofaparticularnationality,orlanguages

CanyouthinkofsometypicalproblemsexperiencedbyGermanslearningEnglish?nounsthatarethenameofaparticularproduct

HedrivesaPorsche.PutabitofSellotapeacrossit.

Thingsthatcanbecounted:countablenouns1.15 Manynounshavetwoforms,thesingularform,whichisusedtorefertoonepersonorthing,and

thepluralform,whichisusedtorefertomorethanonepersonorthing.Thesenounsrefertopeopleorthingsthatcanbecounted.Youcanputnumbersinfrontofthem.…book…books.…day…days.…threebrothers.…tenminutes.ThesenounsmakeupthelargestgroupofnounsinEnglish.Theyarecalledcountablenouns.

noun–verbagreement

1.16 Whenyouuse thesingular formofacountablenounas thesubjectofaverb,youuseasingularverb.Whenyouusethepluralformofacountablenounasthesubject,youuseapluralverb.Adoglikestoeatfarmoremeatthanahumanbeing.Biggerdogscostmore.

useofdeterminers

1.17 Countablenounshaveadeterminerinfrontofthemwhentheyareusedinthesingular.Hegotintothecarandstartedthemotor.Theyleftthehousetogoforawalkafterlunch.Whenyouusethepluralformofacountablenountotalkaboutsomethingingeneral,youdonotuseadeterminer.Theyallliveinbighouses.Mostclassroomshavecomputers.However,ifyouarespecifyingaparticularinstanceofsomething,youneedtouseadeterminer.Thehousesinourstreetareallidentical.Ourcomputerscangiveyoualltherelevantdetails.

listofcountablenouns

1.18 Hereisalistofsomecommoncountablenouns:

accidentaccountactoraddressadultanimalanswerapartmentarticleartistbabybagballbankbattlebeachbedbellbillbirdboatbookbottleboxboybridgebrotherbusbushcampcaptaincarcardcasecastlecatchairchapterchestchildcigarettecityclassclubcoatcollegecomputercorner

countrycrowdcupdaughterdaydeskdoctordogdoordreamdressdriverearedgeeffecteggelectionengineeyefacefactoryfarmfatherfieldfilmfingerfootfriendgamegardengategirlgroupgunhallhandhandlehatheadhearthillhorsehospitalhotelhourhousehusbandideaislandissuejobjourneyjudgekey

kingkitchenladylakelibrarylinelistmachinemagazinemanmealmeetingmembermessagemethodminutemistakemodelmonthmotormouthnationnecknewspaperofficepageparkpartypathpictureplanplaneplantproblemproductprogrammeprojectringriverroadroomschemeschoolshipshirtshockshopsistersmilesonspotstarstationstore

streamstreet

studenttabletaskteachertentthoughttourtownvalleyvillagewalkwallweekwindowwomanyardyear

Notethatmanyofthesenounshavesomemeaningsinwhichtheyareuncountablenouns,buttheyarecountablenounsintheircommonestmeanings.

singularandpluralforms

1.19 Formostcountablenounsthepluralformhas-sattheend,whichdistinguishesitfromthesingularform.…bed…beds.…car…cars.Somecountablenounshaveotherdifferencesbetweenthesingularandpluralforms.…bus…buses.…lady…ladies.…calf…calves.…man…men.…mouse…mice.Forfullinformationaboutthepluralformsofcountablenouns,seetheReferencesection.

sameformforsingularandplural

1.20 Somecountablenounshavethesameformforbothsingularandplural.…asheep.…ninesheep.Manyofthesenounsrefertoanimalsorfish;othersaremorevariedinmeaning:

bisondeerelkgreenflygrousemoosereindeersheep~codfishgoldfishhalibutmulletsalmonshellfishtroutwhitebait~aircrafthovercraftspacecraft~crossroadsdicefruitgallowsgrapefruitinsigniamewsoffspringseriesspecies~bourgeoischassiscorpspatoisprécisrendezvous

singularformwithpluralmeaning

1.21 The names ofmany animals and birds have two forms, one singular and one plural. However,whenyouarereferringtotheminthecontextofhuntingorwhenyouaresayingthattherearelargenumbersof them,it isquitecommontousetheformwithout-s,eventhoughyouarereferringtoseveralanimalsorbirds.Wewentupnorthtohuntdeer.Notethatthepluralformoftheverbisusedwhenseveralanimalsorbirdsarethesubjectofthesentence,evenifyouusetheformwithout-s.

Zebraareamoredifficultprey.Similarly,whenyouarereferringtoalargenumberoftreesorplantsgrowingtogether,youcanusethesingularformoftheirname.Whenyouarereferringtoasmallnumberortoindividualtreesorplants,youusuallyusetheformwith-s.…therowsofwillowandcypresswhichlinedthecreek.…thepoplarsandwillowsalongthePeshawarRoad.

BECREATIVE

1.22 Althoughsomenamesofanimals,birds,trees,andplantsarecommonlyusedinthesingularformwithpluralmeaning,infactallsuchnamescanbeusedinthisway.

Thingsnotusuallycounted:uncountablenouns1.23 Somenounsrefertogeneralthingssuchasqualities,substances,processes,andtopicsratherthan

toindividualitemsorevents.Thesenounshaveonlyoneform,arenotusedwithnumbers,andarenotusuallyusedwiththedeterminersthe,a,oran.…aboyorgirlwithintelligence.Makesureeveryonehasenoughfoodanddrink.…newtechniquesinindustryandagriculture.Italkedwithpeopleaboutreligion,death,marriage,money,andhappiness.Thesenounsarecalleduncountablenouns.

noun–verbagreement

1.24 Whenyouuseanuncountablenounasthesubjectofaverb,youuseasingularformoftheverb.Lovemakesyoudostrangethings.Theybelievedthatpovertywasathreattoworldpeace.Electricityispotentiallydangerous.

listofuncountablenouns

1.25 Hereisalistofsomecommonuncountablenouns:

absenceaccessageagricultureangeratmospherebeautybehaviourcancercapacitychildhood

chinacomfortconcernconfidencecouragedeathdemocracydepressiondesigndutyeartheducationelectricityenergyenvironmentequipmentevilexistenceexperiencefailurefaithfashionfearfinancefirefleshfoodfreedomfungroundgrowthhappinesshealthhelphistoryiceindependenceindustryinsuranceintelligencejoyjusticelabourlonelinessloveluckmagicmarriagemercymusicnaturepaperpatiencepeace

philosophypleasurepolicypovertypowerprideprotectionpurityrainrealityreliefreligionrespectricesafetysaltsandsecuritysilencesleepstrengthsnowspitestatusstuffteachingtechnologytimetradetrainingtransporttraveltrusttruthviolencewastewaterwealthweatherwelfarewindworkworthyouth

BECAREFUL

1.26 There are some words that are uncountable nouns in English, but that refer to things that areconsideredcountableinotherlanguages.Hereisalistofthemostcommonuncountablenounsofthistype:

advicebaggagefurniturehairhomeworkinformationknowledgeluggagemachinerymoneynewsprogressresearchspaghettitraffic

quantifying:somerice,abowlofrice

1.27 Althoughuncountablenounsrefertothingsthatcannotbecountedandarenotusedwithnumbers,youoftenwanttotalkaboutanamountofsomethingthatisexpressedbyanuncountablenoun.Sometimes,youcandothisbyputtinganindefinitedeterminersuchasall,enough,little,orsomeinfrontofthenoun.Doyouhaveenoughmoney?There’ssomechocolatecakeoverthere.For more information on indefinite determiners that can be used with uncountable nouns, seeparagraph1.225.Youcanalsoputaquantityexpressioninfrontofthenoun.Forexample,whenyourefertowateryoucansaydropsofwater,acupofwater,fourgallonsofwater,andsoon.Theuseofquantityexpressionswithuncountablenounsisexplainedinparagraphs2.194to2.207.

massnouns

1.28 Whenyouaresurethatyourreaderorhearerwillunderstandthataquantityofsomethingisbeingreferredto,youdonotneedtouseaquantityexpression.Forexample,inarestaurantyoucanaskfor threecupsofcoffee,butyoucanalsoaskfor threecoffeesbecausethepersonyouaretalkingtowillknowthatyoumeanthreecupsofcoffee.Inthisway,theuncountablenouncoffeehasbecomecountable.Nounsusedinthiswayarecalledmassnouns.

1.29 Massnounsareoftenusedtorefertoquantitiesofaparticularkindoffoodordrink.Wespenttwohourstalkingovercoffeeandbiscuitsinherstudy.Westoppedforacoffeeatasmallcafé.

1.30 Similarly,someuncountablenounscanbemassnounswhentheyrefertotypesofsomething.Forexample,cheeseisusuallyanuncountablenounbutyoucantalkaboutalargerangeofcheeses.

…plentifulcheapbeer.…profitsfromlow-alcoholbeers.Wewerenotallowedtobuywineorspiritsatlunchtime.Wesellawidevarietyofwinesandliqueurs.Massnounsreferring todifferent typesofasubstancearemainlyused in technicalcontexts.Forexample steel is nearly always an uncountable noun, but in contexts where it is important todistinguishbetweendifferentkindsofsteelitcanbeamassnoun.…importsofEuropeansteel.…theuseofsmallamountsofnitrogeninmakingcertainsteels.

listofmassnouns

1.31 Thefollowingisalistoffrequentlyusedmassnouns:

adhesivebeerbrandybreadcakecheeseclaretclothcoalcoffeecognaccokecottoncurrydeodorantdetergentdisinfectantdyefabricfertilizerfuelfurginglueinkinsecticideironjamjellyjuicelagerliqueurlotionmaterialmeat

medicinemetalmilkoilointmentorepaintperfumepesticideplasticpoisonpreservativeribbonsaladsaucesherrysoapsoilsoupsteelsugarteavodkawhiskywinewoodwoolyarnyoghurt

nounsthatareuncountableandcountable

1.32 There are also some other nouns that can be uncountable nouns when they refer to a thing ingeneral,andcountablenounswhentheyrefertoaparticularinstanceofit.Some nouns are commonly both uncountable nouns and countable nouns. For example, victoryreferstotheideaofwinningingeneralbutavictoryreferstoaparticularoccasionwhensomeonewins.Heworkedlongandhardandfinallyledhisteamtovictory.…hisvictoryintheAustralianGrandPrix.Manyparentswerealarmedtofindthemselvesinopenconflictwiththechurch.Hundredsofpeoplehavediedinethnicconflicts.Someuncountablenounsarerarelyornevercountablenouns;thatis,theydonotoccurinapluralform,orwithanumber.…acollectionoffinefurniture.WefoundAlanweepingwithreliefandjoy.Hesavedmoneybyrefusingtohaveatelephone.

uncountablenounsendingin-s

1.33 Somenounsthatendin-sandlookasiftheyarepluralareinfactuncountablenouns.Thismeansthatwhentheyarethesubjectofaverb,theverbisinthesingular.Thesenounsrefermainlytosubjectsofstudy,activities,games,anddiseases.Physicsisfun.Politicsplaysalargepartinvillagelife.Economicsistheoldestofthesocialsciences.Dartsisaverycompetitivesport.Measlesisinmostcasesarelativelyharmlessdisease.Herearethreelistsofuncountablenounsendingin-s.Thesenounsrefertosubjectsofstudyandactivities:

acousticsaerobicsaerodynamicsaeronauticsathleticsclassicseconomicselectronicsgeneticsgymnasticslinguisticslogisticsmathematicsmechanicsobstetricsphysicspoliticsstatisticsthermodynamics

Note that some of these nouns are occasionally used as plural nouns, especially when you aretalkingaboutaparticularperson’sworkoractivities.Hispoliticsareclearlyright-wing.Thesenounsrefertogames:

billiardsbowlscardsdartsdraughtsskittlestiddlywinks

Thesenounsrefertodiseases:

diabetesmeaslesmumpsrabiesricketsshingles

Whenthereisonlyoneofsomething:singularnouns1.34 Therearecertainthingsintheworldthatareunique.Thereareotherthingsthatyoualmostalways

want to talk about one at a time. This means that there are some nouns, or more often somemeaningsofnouns,forwhichonlyasingularformisused.Whenanounisusedwithsuchameaning,itiscalledasingularnoun.Singularnounsarealwaysusedwithadeterminer,becausetheybehavelikethesingularformofacountablenoun.

noun-verbagreement

1.35 Whenyouuseasingularnounasthesubjectofaverb,youuseasingularformoftheverb.Thesunwasshining.Theatmosphereisveryrelaxed.

thingsthatareunique

1.36 Some singular nouns refer to one specific thing and therefore are usedwith the. Some of thesenouns,infact,refertosomethingofwhichthereisonlyoneintheworld.Therewerehugecracksintheground.Themoonhadnotyetreachedmywindow.Burningtanksthrewgreatspiralsofsmokeintotheair.He’salwaysthinkingaboutthepastandworryingaboutthefuture.

usingthecontext

1.37 Othersingularnounscanbeusedtorefertoonethingonlywhenitisobviousfromthecontextwhatyouarereferringto.Forexample,ifyouareinLeedsandsayIworkattheuniversity,youwillalmostcertainlymeanLeedsUniversity.However,inthefollowingexamplesitisnotclearexactlywhoorwhatthesingularnounrefersto,becausethereisnotenoughcontext.Inmanycountriesthemarketissmallnumerically.Theircompanylooksgoodonlybecausethecompetitionlooksbad.

You’veallmissedthepoint.Unlessitismadeclearwhichgoodsorproductsarebeingtalkedabout,itisnotpossibleforthereaderorlistenertobesurewhichgroupofpotentialbuyersthemarket refers to.Similarlyit isnotpossibletoknowexactlywhichcompanyorgroupofcompaniesthecompetitionrefersto.Inthelastexample,thespeakerispresumablygoingtostatewhatheorshethinksthepointis.

usedinverb+objectidioms

1.38 Therearesomeactivitiesthatyoudonotusuallydomorethanonceatatime.Thenounsthatrefertothemareusuallytheobjectofaverb,andareusedwiththedeterminera.In thisstructure theverbhasvery littlemeaningand thenouncarriesmostof themeaningof thewholestructure.Formore informationabout theseverb+object idioms,seeparagraphs3.32 to3.45.Iwentandhadawash.Brunogaveitatry.Some singular nouns are used so regularly with a particular verb that they have become fixedphrasesandareidiomatic.I’dlikeverymuchforyoutohaveavoiceinthedecision.Isn’tittimewemadeamove?

singularnounstructures

1.39 Therearetwospecialkindsofstructureinwhichasingularnounisused.Asingularnounissometimesusedwiththedetermineraafteralinkingverb.Seeparagraphs3.126to3.181formoreinformationaboutlinkingverbs.Decision-makingisanart.Thequickestwaywasbyusingthecar.Itwasariskbuthedecidedithadtobetaken.TheywerebeginningtofindGriffiths’visitsratherastrain.Asingular noun is sometimes usedwith the determiner the, followedby a prepositional phrasebeginningwithof.Comedyistheartofmakingpeoplelaugh.Oldmachineswillbereplacedbyneweronestoreducetheriskofbreakdown.Hecollapsedunderthestrainofaheavyworkload.Thisgroupincludesnounsusedmetaphorically;seeparagraph1.64formoredetails.Somesingularnounsarealwaysusedtorefertooneparticularqualityorthing,butarerarelyusedalone;thatis,theyneedtobespecifiedinsomewaybytheuseofsupportingmaterial.Theycanbeusedwithanumberofdifferentdeterminers.Therewasanoteofsatisfactioninhisvoice.Bessiecoveredthelastfiftyyardsatatremendouspace.Simonallowedhispacetoslacken.Shewassimplyincapableofbehavinginarationalandconsideredmanner.

…theirmannerofrearingtheiryoung.Nounsthatarerarelyusedalonewithoutsupportingmaterialarediscussedindetailinparagraphs1.59to1.65.

USAGENOTE

1.40 Somenounsareusedinthesingularwithaparticularmeaningonlyinanidiomaticphrase.Theyhavetheappearanceofsingularnouns,buttheyarenotusedasfreelyassingularnouns.Whathappensdownthereisnoneofmybusiness.It’sapityIcan’tgettohim.

Referringtomorethanonething:pluralnouns1.41 Thereare some things that are considered tobeplural rather than singular, so somenounshave

onlyaplural form.Forexample,youbuygoods, butnotagood. These nouns are calledpluralnouns.Othernounshaveonlyapluralformwhentheyareusedwithaparticularmeaning.Forexample,anofficialmeetingbetweenAmericanandRussianleadersisusuallyreferredtoastalksratherthanasatalk.Inthesemeanings,thesenounsarealsocalledpluralnouns.UnionleadersmetthecompanyforwagetalksonOctober9.Itisinadvisabletosellgoodsonasaleorreturnbasis.Takecareofyourclothes.Theweatherconditionswerethesame.Allproceedsaregoingtocharity.Employeescanhavemealsonthepremises.Notethatsomepluralnounsdonotendin-s:forexampleclergy,police,poultry,andvermin.

noun–verbagreement

1.42 Whenyouuseapluralnounasthesubjectofaverb,youuseapluralformoftheverb.Expensesforattendingmeetingsaresometimesclaimed.Thefoundationswereshaking.Refreshmentswereonsaleinthecafé.Attemptsweremadewhereresourceswereavailable.

usewithmodifiers

1.43 Youdonotusuallyusenumbers in frontofpluralnouns.Youcan,however,usesome indefinitedeterminerssuchassomeormany.Formoreinformationabouttheindefinitedeterminersthatcanbeusedwithpluralnouns,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph1.223.Somepluralnounsusuallyhaveadefinitedeterminerinfrontofthem,becausetheyarespecific;someneverhaveadetermineratall,becausetheyareverygeneral;andsomearerarelyusedalonewithout extra information in the form of a phrase or a clause, for example, because they need

supportingmaterial.

The lists in the following twoparagraphscontainsomecommonpluralnouns thatare frequentlyusedinoneoftheseways.Manyofthemhaveothermeaningsinwhichtheyarecountablenouns.

withorwithoutdeterminers

1.44 Somepluralnounsaremostcommonlyusedwiththe.Thingsaremuchworsewhentherainscome.Theauthoritiesareconcernedthatthecocainemaybepartofaninternationaldrugracket.ThecoachtourofGranCanariawasawonderfullyrelaxingwaytoseethesights.Hereisalistofpluralnounsthataremostcommonlyusedwiththe:

authoritiesfoundationsfruitsheavensmainsoddspicturesracesrainssightswaterswilds

Somepluralnounsaremostcommonlyusedwithapossessivedeterminersuchasmyorhis.Itoffendedherfeelings.MytravelsuptheDalmationcoastbeganinDubrovnik.Thisonlyaddedtohistroubles.Hereisalistofpluralnounsthataremostcommonlyusedwithapossessivedeterminer:

activitiesattentionsfeelingslikesmovementsreactionstermstravelstroubleswants

Somepluralnounsaremostcommonlyusedwithoutadeterminer.

Therewereoneortwocaseswherepeoplereturnedgoods.Thereisonlyoneapplicant,whichsimplifiesmatters.Theytreateduslikevermin.Hereisalistofpluralnounsthataremostcommonlyusedwithoutadeterminer:

airsappearanceseventsexpensesfiguresgoodsmattersrefreshmentsrichessolidstalksvermin

Somepluralnounscanbeusedbothwithorwithoutdeterminers.Thehousewasraidedbypolice.Wecalledthepolice.Aluxuryhotelwastobeusedasheadquarters.Thecityhasbeenhisheadquartersforfiveyears.Wedidn’twantittodampenspiritswhichwererequiredtoremainpositive.Thelastfewmilesreallyliftedourspirits.Hereisalistofpluralnounsthatcanbeusedwithorwithoutadeterminer:

armsbasicsbrainsclergycostsdirectionsessentialsgreensgroundshandcuffsheadquartersinterestslooksmeansmoralspapersparticularspeoplepolicepoultry

premisesproceedsratesresourcesspecificsspiritssuppliestalksthankstrackstroopsvalues

modifiersandotherformsofextrainformation

1.45 Some plural nouns are rarely used alone without a modifier, or some other form of extrainformation,becausetheyneedsupportingmaterial.Hedoesn’ttoleratebadmanners.Ourcountry’scoastaldefencesneedimproving.…thehiddenpressuresofdirectgovernmentfunding.Here is a list of plural nouns that are rarelyused alonewithout amodifier or someother extrainformation:

affairsconditionsdefencesdemandsdetailseffectsforceshopeslinesmannersmaterialsmatterspressuresproportionsquartersrelationsremainssandsservicesthoughtswasteswayswordsworkswritings

typicalmeanings:clothesandtools

1.46 Twospecialgroupsofnounsareusuallyplural:nounsreferringtoclothesandsomeotherthingsthatpeoplewear,andnounsreferringtotoolsandsomeotherthingsthatpeopleuse.Thisisbecausesomeclothesandtools,suchastrousersandscissors,aremadeupoftwosimilarparts.Sheworebrowntrousersandagreensweater.Hetookoffhisglasses.…usingthepliersfromthetoolbox.Whenyouwanttorefertotheseitemsingeneral,ortoanunspecifiednumberofthem,youusethepluralformwithnodeterminer.Neverpokescissorsintoalightbulbsocket.Themanwaswatchingthetrainthroughbinoculars.Hereisalistofsomepluralnounsthatrefertoclothesandotherthingsthatpeoplewear:

bracesbriefscordsdungareesglassesjeansjodhpursknickersleggingsoverallspantiespantspyjamasshortsslacksspecsspectaclessunglassestightstrouserstrunksunderpants

Hereisalistofpluralnounsthatrefertotoolsandotherthingsthatpeopleuse:

binocularsclipperscompassesdividersnutcrackerspincers

pliersscalesscissorssecateursshearstongstweezers

Whenyouwanttorefertoasinglepieceofclothingorasingletool,youusesomeorapairofinfrontofthenoun.Yourefertomorethanoneitembyusinganumberoraquantityexpressionwithpairsof.Igotsomescissorsoutofthekitchendrawer.Iwentouttobuyapairofscissors.Hewaswearingapairofoldgreytrousers.Lizahasthreepairsofjeans.Youcanalsouseapairofwhenyouaretalkingaboutthingssuchasgloves,shoes,andsocksthattypicallyoccurintwos.…apairofnewgloves.Apossessivedeterminersuchasmycanbeusedinsteadofa.…hisfavouritepairofshoes.Whenyouuseapairofwith a noun in the plural form, the verb is singular if it is in the sameclause.Iftheverbisinafollowingrelativeclause,itisusuallyplural.Itislikelythatanewpairofshoesbringsmorehappinesstoachildthananewcarbringstoagrown-up.Ialwayswearapairoflongpantsunderneath,orapairofpyjamasisjustasgood.Heputonapairofbrownshoes,whichwerewaitingthereforhim.Heworeapairofearphones,whichwerepluggedintoaradio.Youuseapluralpronounafterapairof.Shewenttothewardrobe,choseapairofshoes,putthemonandleanedbackinthechair.HebroughtoutapairofdarkglassesandhandedthemtoWalker.

Referringtogroups:collectivenouns1.47 Some nouns in English refer to a group of people or things. These nouns are called collective

nouns.Theyhaveonlyoneform,butmanycollectivenounshaveothermeaningsinwhichtheyarecountablenounswithtwoforms.

singularorpluralverb

1.48 Whenyouuseacollectivenoun,youcanuseeitherasingularverborapluralverbafterit.Youchooseasingularverbifyouthinkofthegroupasasingleunit,andapluralverbifyouthinkofthegroupasanumberofindividuals.

Ourlittlegroupiscompleteagain.Asecondgrouparethoseparentswhofeelthatweweretooharsh.Ourfamilyisn’tpooranymore.Myfamilyareallperfectlynormal.Theenemywasmovingslowlytotheeast.Theenemywerevisiblycracking.Hisargumentswereconfinedtobookswhichthepublicwasunlikelytoread.Thepublicweredeceivedbythenewspapers.

InAmericanEnglish,itismoreusualtouseasingularverbunlessthesentencecontainsanelementthatclearlyreferstomorethanonepersonorthing.Thenamesofmanyorganizationsarecollectivenouns,andcanbeusedwithasingularorapluralverb.TheBBCissendinghimtoTuscanyforthesummer.TheBBCareplanningtousethenewsatellitenextmonth.Englandwasleading18-0athalf-time.EnglandareseekingalternativesfortheirBteam.

AmericanEnglishusesasingularverbforthese.GEreportsitssecond-quarterfinancialresultsonJuly16.NewEnglandisgoingtosignhimtoalong-termcontract.Ifyouwanttoreferbacktoacollectivenoun,youchooseasingularpronounordeterminerifthepreviousverbissingular,andapluralpronounordeterminerifthepreviousverbisplural.Thegovernmenthassaiditwouldwishtodothisonlyiftherewasnoalternative.Thegovernmenthavemadeuptheirmindsthatthey’regoingtowin.

USAGENOTE

1.49 Notethatthewordsbacteria,data,andmediaarenowoftenusedascollectivenouns,thatiswitheitherasingularorapluralverbandnochangeinform.Somecarefulspeakersthinktheyshouldonlybeusedwithapluralverbbecausetheyhavetheraresingularformsbacterium,datum,andmediumandarethereforecountablenouns.MedievalArabic data show that the length of the day has been increasingmore slowly thanexpected.Ourlatestdatashowsmorefirmsarehopingtoexpandinthenearfuture.

BECAREFUL

1.50 Although you can use a plural verb after a collective noun, these nouns do not behave like thepluralformsofcountablenouns.Forexample,youcannotusenumbersinfrontofthem.YoucannotsayThreeenemywerekilled.YouhavetosayThreeoftheenemywerekilled.

listofcollectivenouns

1.51 Hereisalistofcommoncollectivenouns:

aristocracyarmyaudiencebacteriabroodcastcommitteecommunitycompanycouncilcrewdataenemyfamilyflockganggovernmentgroupherdjurymedianavynobilityoppositionpanelpressproletariatpublicstaffteam

Some collective nouns are also partitives (nouns that are used to talk about a quantity ofsomething).Forexample,youtalkaboutaflockofsheepandaherdofcattle.Seeparagraph2.198formoreinformationaboutthese.

Referringtopeopleandthingsbyname:propernouns1.52 Whenyoutalkaboutaparticularperson,youcanusetheirname.Namesareusuallycalledproper

nouns.People’snamesarespelledwithacapitalletter,anddonothaveadeterminerinfrontofthem.…MichaelHall.…Jenny.…Smith.Waysofusingpeople’snameswhenyouarespeakingtothemdirectlyareexplainedinparagraphs9.95to9.99.

1.53 Sometimesaperson’snameisusedtorefertosomethingtheycreate.Youcanrefertoapainting,sculpture,orbookbyaparticularpersonbyusing theperson’sname likeacountablenoun.Youstillspellitwithacapitalletter.

InthosedaysyoucouldbuyaPicassofor£300.IwaslookingattheirMonetsandMatisses.I’mreadinganAgathaChristieatthemoment.Youcanrefertomusiccomposedorperformedbyaparticularpersonbyusingtheperson’snamelikeanuncountablenoun.IremembereditwhilewewerelisteningtotheMozart.…insteadofplayingChopinandStravinskyallthetime.

relationshipnouns

1.54 Nouns that refer to relationshipsbetween thepeople ina family,suchasmother,dad,aunt,andgrandpa,canalsobeused likenames toaddresspeopleor refer to them.Theyare thenspelledwithacapitalletter.I’msureMumwillbepleased.

titles

1.55 Wordsthatshowsomeone’ssocialstatusorjobarecalledtitles.Theyarespelledwithacapitalletter.Youuseatitleinfrontofaperson’sname,usuallytheirsurnameortheirfullname,whenyouaretalkingabouttheminafairlyformalwayorareshowingrespecttothem.…DoctorBarker.…LordCurzon.…CaptainJackLangtry.…MrsFord.Hereisalistofthemostcommontitlesthatareusedbeforenames:

AdmiralArchbishopBaronBaronessBishopBrotherCaptainCardinalColonelCongressmanConstableCorporalDameDoctorEmperorFatherGeneralGovernor

ImamInspectorJusticeKingLadyLieutenantLordMajorMissMrMrsMsNursePoliceConstablePopePresidentPrincePrincessPrivateProfessorQueenRabbiRepresentativeSaintSenatorSergeantSirSister

Afewtitles,suchasKing,Queen,Prince,Princess,Sir,andLady,canbefollowed justby theperson’sfirstname.…QueenElizabeth.…PrinceCharles’eldestson.SirMichaelhasmadeitveryclearindeed.Waysofusingtitleswhenyouarespeakingtopeopledirectlyareexplainedinparagraphs9.97and9.98.

titlesusedwithoutnames

1.56 Determiners,othermodifiers,andphraseswithofaresometimesusedwithtitles,andtheperson’snameisomitted.…HerMajestytheQueenandtheDukeofEdinburgh.…theArchbishopofCanterbury.…thePresidentoftheUnitedStates.…theBishopofBirmingham.

titlesusedascountablenouns

1.57 Mostwordsthataretitlescanalsobecountablenouns,usuallywithoutacapitalletter.…lawyers,scholars,poets,presidentsandsoon.…aforeignprince.Maybehe’llbeaPrimeMinisteroneday.

otherpropernouns

1.58 The names of organizations, institutions, ships, magazines, books, plays, paintings, and otheruniquethingsarealsopropernounsandarespelledwithcapitalletters.…BritishBroadcastingCorporation…BirminghamUniversity.Theyaresometimesusedwiththeoranotherdeterminer.…theUnitedNations…theLabourParty…theUniversityofBirmingham…theQueenMary…theGuardian…theWallStreetJournal…theBritishBroadcastingCorporation.The determiner is not spelled with a capital letter, except in the names of books, plays, andpaintings.…TheGrapesofWrath…AMidsummerNight’sDream.Sometimeexpressionsarepropernouns,andaredealtwithinChapter4.

Nounsthatarerarelyusedalone1.59 Therearesomenounsthatarerarelyusedalone.Theyneedextramaterialsuchasanadjectiveora

followingphrase,because themeaningof thenounwouldnotbeclearwithout it.Someof thesenounshavemanymeanings;othershaveverylittlemeaningontheirown.Forexample,youcannotusuallyrefertosomeoneastheheadwithoutsayingwhichorganizationthey are head of. Similarly, you cannot say that there was a note in someone’s voice withoutdescribingitas,forexample,atriumphantnoteoranoteoftriumph.These nouns are used on their own only if it is obvious from the context what is meant. Forexample,ifyouhavejustmentionedamountainandyousaythetop,itisclearthatyoumeanthetopofthatmountain.

usedwithmodifiers

1.60 Amodifier is an adjectiveor a noun that is added to a noun in order to givemore informationaboutit.…herwideexperienceofpoliticalaffairs.Idetectedanapologeticnoteintheagent’svoice.HedidnothaveBritishcitizenship.Checkthewaterlevel.Formoreinformationonmodifiers,seeChapter2.

extrainformationafterthenoun

1.61 Extrainformationafterthenounisusuallyintheformofaphrasebeginningwithof.…atthetopofthehill.Therehesawforhimselftheextentofthedanger.Eversincetheriseofindustrialism,educationhasconcentratedonproducingworkers.…ahighlevelofinterest.Formoreinformation,seeparagraphs2.272to2.302.

alwaysusedwithmodifiers

1.62 Somenounsarealwaysusedwithamodifier.Forexample,youwouldnotsaythatsomeoneisaneaterbecauseallpeopleeat,butyoumaywanttosaythatheorsheisameateateroramessyeater.Similarly,ifyouuserange,youhavetorefertoaparticularpricerangeoragerange.Ifyouuseweartomeanclothing,youhavetosaywhatsortofclothing,forexamplesportswearoreveningwear.Timwasasloweater.…theotherendoftheagerange.Thecompanyhasplanstoexpanditscasualwear.

alwaysusedwithpossessives

1.63 Somenounsarealmostalwaysusedwithapossessive, that isapossessivedeterminer, ’s,oraprepositionalphrasebeginningwithof,becauseyouhavetoshowwhoorwhatthethingyouaretalkingaboutrelatestoorbelongsto.Thecompanyhasgrownrapidlysinceitsformationtenyearsago.Advancewarningoftheapproachofenemieswasofthegreatestimportance.…theportraitofamaninhisprime.

metaphoricaluses

1.64 Nounsthatarebeingusedmetaphorically(=whenonethingisusedtodescribeanotherthing)oftenhaveamodifierorsomeotherformofextrainformation,oftenintheformofaphrasebeginningwithof,toshowwhatisreallybeingreferredto.…themazeofpolitics.Hehasbeenpreparedtosacrificethiscompanyonthealtarofhisownpoliticalambitions.Hehasworkedoutaschemeforaneconomiclifelinebypurchasingland.Lloyd’sofLondonistheheartoftheworld’sinsuranceindustry.…thoseonthelowerrungsoftheprofessionalladder.

listofnounsthatarerarelyusedalone

1.65 Manynounshavesomemeaningsthatneedamodifierorsomeotherformofextrainformation,andothermeaningsthatdonot.Hereisalistofthesenouns:

affairapproachareabackbandbasebottomboundarybranchcasecentrecircumstancescitizenshipclassconditioncrisisculturedepthdevelopmentdiscoveryeateredgeeditionelementendenterpriseepidemicexperienceextentfeelingfieldformationfringegroundgrowthheadheightimpressioninceptionkindlengthlevellimitlinemattermovementnaturenote

periodpointpositionpowerprimerangerateregimerelicrepertoireriserolescalesidesortstagestatusstructurestuffstylesystemtexturetheorythoughttimetonetoptransfertypeversionviewwavewaywearwingworld

Adjectivesusedasnouns:thepoor,theimpossible1.66 Whenyouwant to talkaboutgroupsofpeoplewhoshare thesamecharacteristicorquality,you

canusethe+adjective.Forexample,insteadofsayingpoorpeople,youcansaythepoor.…thehelpthat’sgiventotheblind.Noeffortismadetocaterfortheneedsoftheelderly.…thetaskofrescuingtheinjured.…menandwomenwhowouldjointhesadranksoftheunemployed.Workingwiththeyoungisstimulatingandfullofsurprises.…providingcareforthesick,theaged,theworklessandthepoor.Notethatyouneveradd-stotheadjective,eventhoughitalwaysreferstomorethanoneperson.

BECREATIVE

1.67 Althoughsomeadjectivesarecommonlyusedinthisway,infactitispossibletousealmostanyadjectiveinthisway.

noun–verbagreement

1.68 Whentheadjectivebeingusedasanounisthesubjectofaverb,youuseapluralformoftheverb.Therichhavebenefitedmuchmorethanthepoor.

beingmorespecific

1.69 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutamorespecificgroupofpeople,youputasubmodifyingadverb (=anadverbthatyouputinfrontofanadjectivetogivemoreinformationaboutit)oranotheradjectiveinfrontoftheheadword.Formoreinformationaboutsubmodifyingadverbs,seeparagraphs2.140to2.168.Inthisanecdote,Rayshowshisaffectionfortheveryoldandtheveryyoung.…thehighlyeducated.…theurbanpoor.Ifyoumentiontwogroups,yousometimesomitthe.…astudythatcomparedthedietsofrichandpoorinseveralnations.…tohelpbreakdownthebarriersbetweenyoungandold.Withafewwordssuchasunemployedanddead,youcansayhowmanypeopleyouarereferringtobyputtinganumberinfrontofthem.Weestimatethereareaboutthreehundreddead.

qualities

1.70 Whenyouwanttorefertothequalityofsomethingratherthantothethingitself,youcanusetheappropriateadjectivewiththe.Don’tyouthinkthatyou’rewantingtheimpossible?Heisstillexploringthelimitsofthepossible.…amixofthetraditionalandthemodern.

colours

1.71 Allcolouradjectivescanalsobeusedasnouns.…patchesofblue.…brilliantpaintingsinredsandgreensandblues.Clothingofaparticularcolourcanbereferredtosimplybyusingthecolouradjective.Themenworegrey.…thefatladyinblack.

USAGENOTE

1.72 Nationalityadjectivesthatendin-ch,-sh,-se,or-sscanbeusedinasimilarway,unlessthereisaseparatenounforthepeople.Forexample,FrenchpeoplearereferredtoastheFrenchbutPolishpeoplearereferredtoasPolesorthePoles.FormanyyearstheJapanesehavedominatedthemarketforChineseporcelain.BritonsarethebiggestconsumersofchocolateaftertheSwissandtheIrish.

Nounsreferringtomalesorfemales1.73 Englishnounsarenotmasculine,feminine,orneuterinthewaythatnounsinsomeotherlanguages

are.Forexample,mostnamesofjobs,suchasteacher,doctor,andwriter,areusedforbothmenandwomen.Butsomenounsreferonlytomalesandothersonlytofemales.For example, some nouns indicating people’s family relationships, such as father, brother, andson,andsomenounsindicatingpeople’sjobs,suchaswaiterandpoliceman,areusedonlytorefertomales.In the samewaymother, sister, daughter,waitress, actress, and sportswoman are used only torefertofemales.

-essand-woman

1.74 Wordsthatrefertowomenoftenendin-ess,forexampleactress,waitress,andhostess.Anotherendingis-woman,asinpolicewomanandsportswoman.…hiswifeSusannah,aformerairstewardess.Apolicewomandraggedmeoutofthecrowd.StephBurtonwasnamedsportswomanoftheyear.

-manand-person

1.75 Wordsendingin-manareeitherusedtoreferonlytomenortobothmenandwomen.Forexample,apostmanisaman,butaspokesmancanbeamanorawoman.Somepeoplenowusewordsendingin-person,suchaschairpersonandspokesperson,insteadofwordsendingin-man,inordertoavoidappearingtoreferspecificallytoaman.

USAGENOTE

1.76 Most names of animals are used to refer to both male and female animals, for example cat,elephant,horse,monkey,andsheep.Insomecasestherearedifferentwordsthatreferspecificallytomaleanimalsorfemaleanimals,forexampleamalehorseisastallionandafemalehorseisamare.Inothercasesthegeneralnamefortheanimalisalsothespecificwordformalesorfemales:dogalsorefersmorespecificallytomaledogs,duckalsorefersmorespecificallytofemaleducks.

Many of these specific words are rarely used, or used mainly by people who have a specialinterestinanimals,suchasfarmersorvets.Hereisalistofsomecommonspecificwordsformaleandfemaleanimals:

stallionmare~bullcow~cockhen~dogbitch~drakeduck~foxvixen~gandergoose~lionlioness~ramewe~buckhindstagdoe~tigertigress~boarsow

Referringtoactivitiesandprocesses:-ingnouns1.77 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutanaction,activity,orprocessinageneralway,youcanuseanoun

thathasthesameformasthe-ingparticipleofaverb.Thesenounsarecalleddifferentthingsindifferentgrammars:gerunds,verbalnouns,or-ingforms.Inthisgrammartheyarereferredtoas-ingnouns.Itissometimesdifficulttodistinguishan-ingnounfroman-ingparticiple,and it isusuallynot

necessarytodoso.However,therearetimeswhenitisclearlyanoun,forexamplewhenitisthesubjectofaverb,theobjectofaverb,ortheobjectofapreposition.Swimmingisagreatsport.Theemphasiswasonteachingratherthanlearning.Theclosingofsomanymillsleftthousandsunemployed.Somepeoplehaveneverdoneanypublicspeaking.The spelling of -ing nouns is explained in theReferencesection. The use of -ing adjectives isexplainedinparagraphs2.63to2.76.

uncountablenouns

1.78 Because-ingnounsrefertoactivitiesinageneralway,theyareusuallyuncountablenouns; thatis,theyhaveonlyoneform,cannotbeusedwithnumbers,anddonotusuallyhaveadeterminerinfrontofthem.Formoreinformationonuncountablenouns,seeparagraphs1.23to1.33.

1.79 Youoftenusean-ingnounbecauseitistheonlynounformavailableforcertainverbs,suchaseat,hear,go,come,andbless.Otherverbshaverelatednounsthatarenot-ingnouns:forexampleseeandsight,arriveandarrival,departanddeparture.Eatingisanimportantpartofacruiseholiday.…lossofhearinginoneear.Only6percentofchildrenreceiveanyfurthertrainingwhentheyleaveschool.

usedwithadjectives

1.80 Ifyouwanttodescribetheactionexpressedbythenoun,youuseoneormoreadjectivesornounsinfrontofit.Heservedajailsentenceforrecklessdriving.Thepoliceneedbettertrainingindealingwiththementallyill.Hecalledforanationalcampaignagainstunder-agedrinking.

1.81 A few -ing nouns,mostlywords for sporting or leisure activities, aremuchmore common thantheirrelatedverbs.Insomecasesthereisnoverb,althoughitisalwayspossibletoinventone.Forexample, you aremore likely to sayWewent caravanning round France thanWe caravannedroundFrance.Hereisalistofthecommonestofthesenouns:

anglingboatingbowlingcanoeingcaravanningelectioneeringhang-glidingmountaineering

paraglidingshopliftingshoppingsightseeingskateboardingsnorkellingsnowboardingsurfingweightliftingwindow-shoppingwindsurfingyachting

Although thesewords arenot always associatedwith averb,mostof themcanbeused as -ingparticiples.Ispenttheafternoonwindow-shoppingwithGrandma.

countablenouns

1.82 Some-ingnounsthatarerelatedtoverbsarecountablenouns.Theygenerallyrefertotheresultofan action or process, or to an individual instance of it. Sometimes theirmeaning is not closelyrelatedtothatoftheverb.Hereisalistofthecommonestofthesenouns:

beginningbeingbuildingdrawingfeelingfindinghearingmeaningmeetingofferingpaintingsayingsettingshowingsittingsufferingturningwarning

Formoreinformationoncountablenouns,seeparagraphs1.15to1.22.

Compoundnouns:carpark,mother-in-law,breakdown

1.83 Asinglenoun is oftennot enough to refer clearly to apersonor thing.When this is the case, acompoundnouncanbeused.Acompoundnounisafixedexpressionthatismadefrommorethanoneword,andthatbehavesasanoun.SomepeoplewriteoutanewaddressbookeveryJanuary.Howwouldoneactuallychooseasmallpersonalcomputer?Wheredidyouhidethecanopener?…aprivateswimmingpool.Onceitisclearwhatyouarereferringto,itissometimespossibletousejustthesecondwordofatwo-wordcompoundnoun.Forexample,aftermentioningaswimmingpool,youcanjustrefertothepool.Mostcompoundnounsconsistoftwowords,butsomeconsistofthreeormorewords.…avaseoflilyofthevalley.

twowords,onewordorahyphen?

1.84 Somecompoundnounsarewrittenwithhyphensinsteadofspacesbetweenthewords.I’mlookingforwardtoalie-intomorrow.He’sverygoodatproblem-solving.Judy’sbrother-in-lawlivedwithhisfamily.Somecompoundnouns,especiallyveryfrequentones,arewrittenasoneword.…patternedwallpaper.Theycopiedquestionsfromtheblackboard.In somecases,youcanchoosewhether towrite a compoundnounwithorwithout ahyphen,orwithorwithoutaspace.Forexample,bothair-conditionerandairconditionerarepossible,andbothpostboxandpostboxarepossible.Afewcompoundnounsthatconsistofmorethantwowordsarewrittenpartlywithhyphensandpartlywithspaces,forexampleback-seatdriverandbring-and-buysale.…childrenfromone-parentfamilies.…aParent-TeacherAssociation.

listsofcompoundnouns

1.85 Compound nouns may be countable, uncountable, singular, or plural. Here is a list of somecommoncountablecompoundnouns:

addressbookairconditionerairraidalarmclockassemblylinebaby-sitterback-seatdriver

bankaccountbirdofpreybooktokenblooddonorbride-to-bebring-and-buysalebrother-in-lawburglaralarmbusstopcanopenercarparkcompactdisccontactlenscreditcarddiningroomdrawingpindrivinglicenceestateagentfairytalefather-in-lawfilmstarfireenginefork-lifttruckfryingpanguidedmissilehealthcentreheartattackhighschoolhumanbeingletterboxlilyofthevalleymother-in-lawmusicalinstrumentnervousbreakdownnewsbulletinoldhandone-parentfamilypackageholidayParent-TeacherAssociationparkingmeterpen-friendpersonalcomputerpolarbearpolicestationpostofficerollingpinsister-in-lawsleepingbagswimmingpoolT-shirtteabagtelephonenumbertraveller’scheque

washingmachine

X-rayyouthhostelzebracrossing

1.86 Hereisalistofsomecommonuncountablecompoundnouns:

airconditioningair-trafficcontrolbarbedwirebirthcontrolbloodpressurebubblebathcapitalpunishmentcentralheatingchewinggumcommonsensecottonwooldataprocessingdo-it-yourselfdry-cleaningfamilyplanningfancydressfastfoodfirstaidfoodpoisoningfurthereducationgeneralknowledgehayfeverheartfailurehighereducationhirepurchaseincometaxjunkfoodlawandorderlostpropertymailordermineralwaternailvarnishnaturalhistoryoldagepocketmoneyremotecontrolsciencefictionshowbusinessshowjumpingsignlanguagesocialsecuritysocialworksodawaterstainlesssteel

tabletennistalcumpowdertoiletpapertracingpaperunemploymentbenefitvalueaddedtaxwashingpowderwashing-upliquidwater-skiingwritingpaper

1.87 Hereisalistofsomecommonsingularcompoundnouns:

ageofconsentarmsracebraindraincontinentaldividecostoflivingdeathpenaltydiplomaticcorpsdresscirclefirebrigadegeneralpublicgenerationgapgreenhouseeffecthardcorehumanracelabourforcelabourmarketlongjumpmothertongueopenairprivatesectorpublicsectorrankandfilesolarsystemsoundbarrierspaceagewelfarestatewomen’smovement

1.88 Hereisalistofsomecommonpluralcompoundnouns:

armedforcesbakedbeanscivilrightscurrentaffairsFrenchfriesgrassroots

highheelshumanrightsindustrialrelationsinvertedcommaslicensinglawsluxurygoodsmodernlanguagesnaturalresourcesracerelationsroadworkssocialservicessocialstudiesswimmingtrunksvocalcordswintersportsyellowpages

compositionofcompoundnouns

1.89 Mostcompoundnounsconsistoftwonouns,oranadjectiveandanoun.Ilistenedwithanticipationtotheradionewsbulletin.…abigdiningroom.Oldageisatimeforreflectionandslowingdown.However,somecompoundnounsarerelatedtophrasalverbs.Thesearesometimeswrittenwithahyphen,andsometimesasoneword.Theyarerarelywrittenasseparatewords.ThePresidentwasdirectlyinvolvedintheWatergatecover-up.Ithinkthere’sbeenamix-up.…abreakdownofdiplomaticrelations.Thesingerismakingacomeback.Hereisalistoffrequentnounsbasedonphrasalverbs.Theyareshowninthislistintheforminwhichtheyaremostfrequentlywritten,eitherwithahyphenorasoneword.

backupbailoutblackoutbreakawaybreakdownbreak-inbreakoutbreak-upbuild-upbuyoutcheck-incheckoutcheck-upcomebackcountdown

cover-upcrackdowncutbacksdrawbackfeedbackfollow-upgiveawayhandoutkick-offlead-uplookoutmake-upmeltdownmix-uppasser-byrun-inrunner-uprun-offrun-upsell-outsetbackset-upshow-offslowdowntakeawaytake-offturnoverwarm-up

Formoreinformationaboutphrasalverbs,seeparagraphs3.83to3.116.

USAGENOTE

1.90 Insomecases,themeaningofacompoundnounisnotobviousfromthewordsitconsistsof.Forexample,someone’smothertongueisnotthetongueoftheirmotherbutthelanguagetheylearnasachild,andanoldhand isnotahandthat isoldbutapersonwhoisexperiencedatdoingaparticularjob.

Inothercases,thecompoundnounconsistsofwordsthatdonotoccurontheirown,forexamplehanky-panky,hodge-podge,andargy-bargy.Thesenounsareusuallyusedininformalconversationratherthanformalwriting.Mostofwhathesaidwasaloadofhocus-pocus.Sheisusuallyinvolvedinsomesortofjiggery-pokery.

pluralforms

1.91 Thepluralformsofcompoundnounsvaryaccordingtothetypeofwordsthattheyconsistof.Ifthefinalwordofacompoundnounisacountablenoun,thepluralformofthecountablenounisusedwhenthecompoundnounisplural.

Airraidsweretakingplaceeverynight.…healthcentres,banks,postoffices,andpolicestations.Loudvoicescouldbeheardthroughletterboxes.…therefusalofdockerstousefork-lifttrucks.Forfullinformationaboutthepluralformsofcountablenouns,seetheReferencesection.Compoundnounsthataredirectlyrelatedtophrasalverbsusuallyhaveapluralformendingin-s.Nobodyseemsdisturbedaboutcover-upswhentheyareessentialtotheconductofawar.Naturally,Ithinkpeoplewhodrivesmarter,fastercarsthanmineareshow-offs.Afewcompoundnounsarelessdirectlyrelatedtophrasalverbs,andconsistofacountablenounandanadverb.Inthesecases,thepluralformofthecountablenounisusedbeforetheadverbwhenthecompoundnounisplural.Forexample,thepluralofrunner-upisrunners-up,andthepluralofsumming-up issummings-up.Passers-byhelpedthevictim,whowasunconscious.Compoundnounsthatconsistoftwonounslinkedbytheprepositionsoforin,oranounfollowedbyto-be,haveapluralforminwhichthefirstnouninthecompoundisplural.Ilikebirdsofpreyandhawksparticularly.Shewastreatedwithcontemptbyhersisters-in-law.Mostmothers-to-beintheirfortiesoptforthistest.Somecompoundnounshavebeenborrowed fromother languages,mainlyFrenchandLatin,andthereforedonothavenormalEnglishpluralforms.Agentsprovocateursweresenttocausetrouble.Thenouveauxrichesofyoungerstatesarebuildingpalatialmansionsforthemselves.

1.92 Compound nouns are fixed expressions. However, nouns can always be used in front of othernounsinordertorefertosomethinginamorespecificway.Fortheuseofnounsasmodifiers,seeparagraphs2.169to2.174.

Talkingaboutpeopleandthingswithoutnamingthem:pronouns1.93 Whenyouuselanguage,bothinspeechandwriting,youconstantlyrefertothingsyouhavealready

mentionedorareabouttomention.Youcandothisbyrepeatingthenounphrase,butunlessthereisaspecialreasontodoso,youaremorelikelytouseapronouninstead.Pronounsmakestatementslessrepetitive.Johntookthebookandopenedit.Deborahrecognizedtheknifeashers.Shiltonwaspleasedwithhimself.Thisisaverybusyplace.However,ifyouhavementionedtwoormoredifferentthings,youusuallyhavetorepeatthenounphrasetomakeitclearwhichthingyouarenowtalkingabout.

Leafletsandscrapsofpaperswerescatteredalloverthefloor.Istartedtopickuptheleaflets.Icouldseealorryandacar.Thelorrystopped.Forotherwaysof talkingabout things thathavealreadybeenmentioned,seeparagraphs10.2 to10.39.

typesofpronoun

1.94 Thereareseveraldifferenttypesofpronoun:personalpronouns.Seeparagraphs1.95to1.106.possessivepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.107to1.110.reflexivepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.111to1.118.genericpronouns.Seeparagraphs1.119to1.123.demonstrativepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.124to1.127.indefinitepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.128to1.141.reciprocalpronouns.Seeparagraphs1.142to1.145.relativepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.146to1.150.interrogativepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.151to1.153.

Thereareafewotherwordsthatcanbeusedaspronouns.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs1.154to1.161.

Talkingaboutpeopleandthings:personalpronouns1.95 Youusepersonalpronouns to refer to yourself, the people you are talking to, or the people or

thingsyouaretalkingabout.Therearetwosetsofpersonalpronouns:subjectpronounsandobjectpronouns.

subjectpronouns

1.96 Subjectpronounsrefertothesubjectofaclause.Hereisatableofsubjectpronouns:

singular plural1stperson I we2ndperson you3rdperson he

sheit

they

I

1.97 YourefertoyourselfbyusingthepronounI.Iisalwayswrittenwithacapitalletter.Idon’tknowwhattodo.

IthinkImadethewrongdecision.MayIaskwhyStephen’shere?

you

1.98 Yourefertothepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingtoasyou.Notethatthesamewordisusedforthesingularandtheplural.Youmayhavetowaitabit.Wouldyoucomeandhaveadrink?Howdidyougeton?Youisalsousedtorefertopeopleingeneral,ratherthantothepersonyouaretalkingorwritingto.Formoreinformationonthis,seeparagraph1.120.Ifyouwanttomakeitclearthatyouareaddressingmorethanoneperson,youcancreateapluralformbyusingyoufollowedbyadeterminer,anumberoranoun.Formslikethiscanalsobeusedinobjectposition.MygranddadwantsyoubothtocomeroundnextSaturday.Asyouallknow,thisisachallenge.Hereisalistofthemostcommonpluralformsofyou.

youallyouguysyoulotyoutwoyouthreeyouboth

You guys and you lot are more frequent in informal English. You lot is not commonly used inAmericanEnglish.Iloveworkingwithyouguys.Youguysaregreat!Soyoulotwillhavetolookafteryourselves.Notethatpeopleoftenuseyoulotwhentheyarebeingverydirectwithagroupofpeople,asinthelastexampleabove.

Some varieties and dialects of English have developed particular forms of plural you. InAmericanEnglish,particularlySouthernAmericanEnglish,y’allissometimesused,especiallyinspeech.Whatdidy’alleatforbreakfast?Iwanttothanky’all.InsomedialectsofBritishandAmericanEnglish,yousandyouseareusedaspluralforms:Iknowwhatsomeofyousmightbethinking.Anotherpluralformisyoupeople.However,thiscansoundrude,andshouldonlybeusedifyou

wanttoshowthatyouareangryorannoyedwiththepeopleyouaretalkingto.‘Whycan’tyoupeopleleavemealone?’hesays.‘Ican’tworkwithyoupeople,’Zoesaid.Somepluralformsofyou–youguys,youlot,youtwo,youthreeandy’all–canalsobeusedasvocatives.Formoreinformationonvocatives,seeparagraphs9.95to9.99.Youallandyoubothcannotbeusedasvocatives.‘Listen,youguys,’shesaid.‘I’lltellyoueverythingyouwant.’Comeon,youtwo.Let’sgohome.Bye,y’all!Formoreinformationonyouasanobjectpronoun,seeparagraphs1.104to1.106.

heandshe

1.99 Yourefertoamanoraboyashe,andtoawomanoragirlasshe.Myfatheris78,andhe’sveryhealthyandindependent.BillyKnightwasaboxer,wasn’the?Marycamein.Shewasagood-lookingwoman.‘IsSuethere?’–‘I’msorry,shedoesn’tworkherenow.’

it

1.100 You use it to refer to anything that is not male or female; for example, an object, a place, anorganization,orsomethingabstract.HaveyouseenToyStory?It’sagoodfilmforkids.‘HaveyoubeentoLondon?’–‘Yes,itwasverycrowded.’Howmuchwouldthecompanybeworthifitweresold?Itisnotanideathathasmuchpublicsupport.It is often used to refer to an animal when its gender is not known or not considered to beimportant.Somepeoplealsorefertobabiesinthisway.Theypunchedthecrocodileuntilitletgoofher.Ifthesharkisstillarounditwillnotescape.HowWinifredlovedthebaby!AndhowStephaniehatedit!Youalsouseitingeneralstatements,forexampletorefertoasituation,thetime,thedate,ortheweather.Itisveryquiethere.Itishalfpastthree.ItisJanuary19th.Itisrainyandcold.Formoreinformationontheuseofitingeneralstatements,seeparagraphs9.31to9.45.Note that it is also anobject pronoun. Formore information on this, see paragraphs 1.104 to1.106.

USAGENOTE

1.101 Althoughitisusedasapronountorefertosomethingthatisnotmaleorfemale,sheissometimesusedtorefertoships,cars,andcountries.Somepeopledonotlikethisusage.Whentherepairshadbeendoneshewasafineandbeautifulship.

we

1.102 Youusewetorefertoagroupofpeoplethatincludesyourself.Thegroupcanbe:youandthepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingto

Whereshallwemeet,Sally?youandthepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingtoandoneormoreothersnotthereatthetime

Wearen’texactlygossips,youandIandWatson.youandoneormoreotherpeople,butnotincludingthepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingto

Idothewashing;hedoesthecooking;wesharethewashing-up.anygroupthatyoufeelyourselftobepartof,suchasaschool,yourlocalcommunity,oreven

mankindasawhole.Formoreinformationonthis,seeparagraph1.122.

they

1.103 Youuse they to refer toagroupof things,or toagroupofpeoplenot includingyourselfor thepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingto.Allthegirlsthinkhe’sgreat,don’tthey?Newspapersreachmeonthedayaftertheyarepublished.Wintersherevaryastheydoelsewhere.Theyisalsooftenusedtorefertopeopleingeneral.Formoreinformationonthis,seeparagraph1.123.

objectpronouns

1.104 Objectpronounsrefertothesamesetsofpeopleorthingsasthecorrespondingsubjectpronouns.Hereisatableofobjectpronouns:

singular plural1stperson me us2ndperson you3rdperson him

herit

them

positioninclause

1.105 Objectpronounsareusedastheobjectofaclause.

Thenursewashedmewithcoldwater.Helikesyou;hesaidso.Themanwentuptothecatandstartedstrokingit.Theycanbetheindirectobjectofaclause.Sendusacardsowe’llknowwhereyouare.Amangavehimacar.Youhavetoofferthemsomekindofincentive.Theycanalsobetheobjectofapreposition.Shemusthavefeltintimidatedbyme.Madeleine,Iwanttotalktoyouimmediately.Wewereallsittinginacaféwithhim.

1.106 Objectpronounscanalsobeusedafter linkingverbs.Forexample,youcansay Itwasme, It’sher.However,informalorwrittenEnglish,peoplesometimesuseasubjectpronounafteralinkingverb.Forexample,ItwasI,Itisshe.Formoreinformationonlinkingverbs,seeparagraphs3.126to3.181.

Talkingaboutpossession:possessivepronouns1.107 Whenyouaretalkingaboutpeopleorthings,youoftenwanttosayhowtheyareconnectedwith

eachother.Thereareseveraldifferentwaysinwhichyoucandothis,butyouusuallydoitbyusingapossessivepronountoshowthatsomethingbelongstosomeoneorisassociatedwiththem.Hereisatableshowingpossessivepronouns:

singular plural1stperson mine ours2ndperson yours3rdperson his

herstheirs

Notethatitscannotbeusedasapossessivepronoun.

typicaluse

1.108 Youusepossessivepronounswhenyouaretalkingaboutthesametypeofthingthathasjustbeenmentionedbutwanttoshowthatitbelongstosomeoneelse.Forexample,inthesentenceJaneshowedthemherpassport,thenRichardshowedthemhis,hisreferstoapassportandshowsthatitbelongstoRichard.Possessivepronounsareoftenused tocontrast two thingsof thesame type thatbelong toorareassociatedwithdifferentpeople.Forexample,Sarah’shouseismuchbiggerthanours.HerparentswereinMalaya,andsoweremine.Hesmiledatherandlaidhishandonhers.Isthatcoffeeyoursormine?Mymarkswerehigherthanhis.Fredputhisprofitsinthebank,whileJuliaspenthersonacar.

That’sthedifferencebetweenhisideasandours.Itwashisfault,nottheirs.

usedwithof

1.109 Possessivepronounsareusedwithoftoaddinformationtoanounphrase.Thisstructuresuggeststhatyouaretalkingaboutoneofagroupofthings.Forexample,ifyousayafriendofmineyouaretalkingaboutoneofanumberoffriendswhereasifyousaymyfriendyouaretalkingaboutonefriendinparticular.Hewasanoldfriendofmine.Astudentofyourshasjustbeentoseeme.DavidLodge?I’vejustreadanovelofhis.Itwashintedtohimbysomefriendsofhers.Theroomwasnotafavouriteoftheirs.

1.110 For other ways of showing that something belongs to someone or is connected with them, seeparagraphs1.211to1.221.

Referringbacktothesubject:reflexivepronouns1.111 Whenyouwanttoshowthattheobjectortheindirectobjectofaverbisthesamepersonorthing

asthesubjectoftheverb,youuseareflexivepronoun.Some verbs are very frequently usedwith reflexive pronouns. For information about these, seeparagraphs3.26to3.31.Hereisatableofreflexivepronouns:

singular plural1stperson myself ourselves2ndperson yourself yourselves3rdperson himselfherselfitself themselves

BECAREFUL

1.112 Unlikepersonalpronounsandpossessivepronouns,therearetwoformsofthereflexivepronounused for the second person. You use yourself when you are talking to one person. You useyourselveswhenyouaretalkingtomorethanoneperson,orreferringtoagroupthatincludesthepersonyouaretalkingto.

usedasobject

1.113 Youuseareflexivepronountomakeitclearthattheobjectofaverbisthesamepersonorthingasthesubjectoftheverb,ortoemphasizethis.Forexample,JohnkilledhimselfmeansthatJohndidthekilling,andhewasalsothepersonwhowaskilled.Heforcedhimselftoremainabsolutelystill.

Shestretchedherselfoutonthesofa.I’msurehistoryrepeatsitself.Weallshookhandsandintroducedourselves.Theboysformedthemselvesintoaline.Hereisthequestionyouhavetoaskyourselves.Youalsousereflexivepronounstoshoworemphasizethattheindirectobjectofaverbisthesamepersonorthingasthesubjectoftheverb.Forexample,inthesentenceAnnpouredherselfadrink,Anndidthepouringandshewasalsothepersonwhothedrinkwasfor.Here’sthemoney,youcangoandbuyyourselfawatch.

BECAREFUL

1.114 Reflexivepronounsarenotusuallyusedwithactionsthatpeoplenormallydotothemselves,suchaswashing,dressing,orshaving.SoyoudonotusuallysayHeshaveshimselfeverymorning.Youcan,however, sometimesuse reflexivepronounswith theseactions foremphasis,or to talkaboutasurprisingevent,suchasachilddoingsomethingthattheywerenotpreviouslyabletodo.

usedasobjectsofprepositions

1.115 Ifthesubjectofaclauseandtheobjectofaprepositionrefertothesameperson,andtheclausedoesnothaveadirectobject,youuseareflexivepronounafterthepreposition.Iwasthoroughlyashamedofmyself.Barbarastaredatherselfinthemirror.Wethinkofourselvesasmembersofthelocalcommunity.Theycan’tcookforthemselves.However, if the clause does have a direct object, you usually use a personal pronoun after thepreposition.Iwilltakeithomewithme.Theyputthebookbetweenthemonthekitchentable.Ishiveredanddrewtherugaroundme.MrsBixbywentout,slammingthedoorbehindher.Notethatiftheclausehasadirectobjectanditisnotobviousthatthesubjectoftheclauseandtheobjectoftheprepositionrefertothesameperson,youuseareflexivepronoun.Forexample,TheManagingDirectorgavethebiggestpayrisetohimself.

usedforemphasisorcontrast

1.116 Especially inspeech,peoplesometimesusereflexivepronounsrather thanpersonalpronounsastheobjectofapreposition,inordertoemphasizethem.…peoplelikemyselfwhoarepoliticallyactive.…thefollowingconversationbetweenmyselfandafifteen-year-oldgirl.ThecirclespreadtoincludehimselfandFerdinand.PeoplelikeyourselfstillfindnewthingstosayaboutShakespeare.

Thereisalwayssomeoneworseoffthanyourself.WiththeexceptionofafewAlgeriansandourselves,everyonespokeSpanish.

1.117 Youcanusereflexivepronounsinadditiontonounsorpersonalpronouns.Youusuallydothisinordertomakeitclearortoemphasizewhoorwhatyouarereferringto.

ImyselfsometimessaythingsIdon’tmean.Sallyherselfcameback.Youalsouseareflexivepronountocompareorcontrastonepersonorthingwithanother.Hisfriendlookedasmiserableashefelthimself.ItisnotDesMoinesImiss,butIowaitself.Thereflexivepronounfollowsthenounorpronounthatitrelatesto.ItishotinLondon;butImyselfcanworkbetterwhenit’shot.Thetownitselfwassosmallthatitdidn’thaveapriest.Thelaneranrightuptothewooditself.Itcanalsobeplacedattheendoftheclause.Iamnotaparticularlypunctualpersonmyself.You’llprobablyunderstandbetterwhenyouareagrandparentyourself.ItisrareforGovernmentstotaketheinitiativethemselves.

1.118 You use a reflexive pronoun to emphasize that someone did something without any help orinterferencefromanyoneelse.Inthisuse,thereflexivepronounisnormallyplacedattheendoftheclause.Shehadprintedthecardherself.I’lltakeitdowntothepolicestationmyself.Didyoumaketheseyourself?

Peopleingeneral:genericpronouns1.119 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutpeopleingeneral,youcanuseagenericpronoun.

Hereisalistofpronounsthatcanbeusedasgenericpronouns:Subject: you one we theyObject: you one us themPossessive: yours - ours theirsReflexive: yourself oneself ourselves themselves

you,yoursandyourself

1.120 Youissometimesusedtomakestatementsaboutpeopleingeneral,oraboutapersoninasituationthatyouareimagining.Youisusedinthiswayinbothsubjectandobjectposition.Thepossessiveformyoursandthereflexiveformyourselfcanalsobeusedasgenericpronouns.Tobeagooddoctoryouneedtohavegoodcommunicationskills.Champagnecangiveyouaheadache.Onceyou’veboughtaphysicalbook,youownit:youcanlendittopeople,donateit,and,well,it’syours.Whenyoulivealoneyouhavetoforceyourselftogooutmore.IninformalEnglish,youcanuseyougetoryouhavetomakeageneralstatementaboutsomethingthatexistsintheworld.

Yougetsomeoldpeoplewhoareverydifficult.Anytimeyouhaveovereightinchesofsnow,drivingbecomesproblematic.

oneandoneself

1.121 In formalwriting,one is sometimes used instead of you.One can be used in subject or objectposition.Thereflexiveformoneselfisalsoused,butthereisnopossessivepronounformofone.GoingroundItaly,oneisstruckbythenumberofoperahousesthereare.Thisscenemakesonerealizehowdeeplythiscommunityhasbeenafflicted.Ifoneputsoneselfupforpublicoffice,thenitisinappropriatethatoneshouldbehavebadly.

we,us,oursandourselves

1.122 Youcanrefertoageneralgroupthatincludesyourselfasweor,inobjectposition,us.Thisgroupcanbeallofmankind,oritcanbeasmallergroupsuchasanationoracommunity.Thepossessiveformoursandthereflexiveformourselvescanalsobeusedinthisway.Weallneedmoney.Thissurveygivesusinsightintoourattitudesandbehaviourasanation.Nootherlanguagehaseveradvancedasfar,asfast,asours.Weneedachangeofgovernment;justriddingourselvesoftheprimeministerisn’tenough.

they,them,theirsandthemselves

1.123 Youcanusetheytorefertopeopleingeneral.Isn’tthatwhattheycalllove?Theycanalsorefertoagroupofpeoplewhoseidentitydoesnotneedtobestated.Forexample,inthesentenceThey’vegivenJohnanotherpayriseitisclearthattheyreferstoJohn’semployers.‘Don’tworry’,IsaidtoMother,‘theyaremovingyoufromthiswardsoon.’Youcanalsousetheyinsubjectposition,ortheminobjectposition,torefertoanindividualwhenyou do not know, or do not want to specify, whether the individual is male or female. Thepossessiveformtheirsandthereflexiveformthemselvescanalsobeusedinthisway.Thisuseisverycommonafter:the indefinite pronouns anyone, anybody, someone and somebody. These are explained in

paragraphs1.128to1.141.singularnounssuchasperson,parentandteacher,whichdonotspecifywhetherthepersonis

maleorfemaleIfanyonewantstobeachildminder,theymustattendacourse.IfIthinksomeoneishavingproblems,Iwillspendhourstalkingtothem.Aperson’sbodyfatdetermineshowlongtheycanwithstandcoldwater.Note that theplural formof theverb is alwaysusedafter they, evenwhen it refers toonlyoneperson.

Youcanalsousethey,them,theirsandthemselvestoreferto:the indefinite pronouns everyone, everybody, no one and nobody. These are explained in

paragraphs1.128to1.141.nounphraseswiththedeterminerseach,everyandany

In these cases, although the pronouns or noun phrases are grammatically singular, they refer togroupsofpeople.IneveravoidmyobligationsandIexpecteveryoneelsetomeettheirs.Eachparentwassentanindividualletterinformingthemofthesituation.Wewanteveryplayertopushthemselvestogetintotheteam.Anotherway is touseheorshe insteadof they,himorher insteadof them,himselforherselfinsteadof themselves andhis or hers insteadof theirs. This is often used in formal orwrittenEnglish.WouldayoungpersonbeabletogetajobinEurope?Thatwoulddependonwhichcountryheorshewantedtogoto.Thestudentshouldfeelthattheessaybelongstohimorher.Somepeopleuseheandhim ingeneralstatementsorafter indefinitepronouns,butmanypeopleobjecttothisusebecauseitsuggeststhatthepersonbeingreferredtoismale.

Referringtoaparticularpersonorthing:this,that,theseandthose1.124 Whenthis,that,these,andthoseareusedaspronouns,theyarecalleddemonstrativepronouns.

Theyareusedasthesubjectortheobjectofaclause,ortheobjectofapreposition.Demonstrative pronouns are rarely used as the indirect object of a clause, because the indirectobjectisusuallyaperson,anddemonstrativepronounsnormallyrefertothings.

thisandthat

1.125 Thisandthatareusuallyusedaspronounsonlywhentheyrefertothings.Youusetheminsteadofasingularcountablenounoranuncountablenoun.Thisreferstosomethingthatisclosetoyouinplaceortime,andthatreferstosomethingthatismoredistantinplaceortime.Thisisalistoftherules.Thisisthemostimportantpartofthejob.Thebiggestproblemwastheaccent.Thatwasdifficultforme.Thatlooksinteresting.

1.126 Thisandthatareusedaspronounstorefertoapersonwhenyouareidentifyingsomeoneoraskingwhotheyare.Who’sthis?Hestoppedandlookedataphotographthatstoodonthedressingtable.Isthisyourwife?WasthatPatrickonthephone?Whenyouareintroducingpeople,youcansayThisisMaryorThisisMrandMrsBaker.Notethatyouusethisevenwhenyouareintroducingmorethanoneperson.

theseandthose

1.127 Theseandthosecanbeusedaspronounsinsteadofapluralcountablenoun.Theyaremostoftenusedtorefer tothings,althoughtheycanbeusedtorefer topeople.These refers toanumberofpeopleandthingsthatareclosetoyouinplaceortime,andthosereferstoanumberofpeopleandthingsthataremoredistantinplaceortime.‘Ibroughtyouthese.’Adamheldoutabagofgrapes.VitamintabletsusuallycontainvitaminsA,C,andD.Theseareavailablefromanychildhealthclinic.Thesearenoordinarystudents.Itmaybeimpossibleforthemtopayessentialbills,suchasthoseforheating.Thoseareeasyquestionstoanswer.Therearealotofpeoplewhoareseekingemployment,andagreatnumberofthosearemarriedwomen.This, that, these, and those can also be definite determiners. For more information, seeparagraphs1.184to1.193.SeealsoReferringbackandReferringforwardinChapter10.

Referring to people and things in a non-specific way: someone,anyone,everyone,etc.1.128 Whenyouwanttorefertopeopleorthingsbutyoudonotknowexactlywhoorwhattheyare,or

their identity is not important, you can use an indefinitepronoun such as someone, anyone, oreveryone.Anindefinitepronounshowsonlywhetheryouaretalkingaboutpeopleoraboutthings,ratherthanreferringtoaspecificpersonorthing.Iwasthereforoveranhourbeforeanybodycame.Jackwaswaitingforsomething.Hereisalistofindefinitepronouns:

anybodyanyoneanythingeverybodyeveryoneeverythingnobodynoonenothingsomebodysomeonesomething

Note that all indefinite pronouns arewritten as oneword exceptnoone. It is always twowords inAmericanEnglish,butinBritishEnglishitcanalsobespelledwithahyphen:no-one.

usedonlywithsingularverbs

1.129 Youalwaysusesingularverbswithindefinitepronouns.Isanyonehere?Everybodyrecognizestheimportanceofeducation.Everythingwasready.Nothingiscertaininthisworld.

referringtothings

1.130 You use the indefinite pronouns ending in -thing to talk about objects, ideas, situations, oractivities.CanIdoanything?Janesaidnothingforamoment.

referringtopeople

1.131 Youusetheindefinitepronounsendingin-oneand-bodytorefertopeople.IthadtobesomeonelikeDan.Whydoeseverybodybelieveinthelawofgravity?Notethatindefinitepronounsendingin-bodyaremorefrequentininformalEnglish.

usedwithpersonalpronounsandpossessivedeterminers

1.132 Althoughyouusesingularverbswithindefinitepronouns,ifyouwanttoreferbacktoanindefinitepronoun,youusethepluralpronounsthey,them,orthemselves,orthepossessivedeterminertheir.Askanyone.They’lltellyou.There’snowayoftellingsomebodywhythey’vefailed.Noonelikedbeingyoungthenastheydonow.Everybody’senjoyingthemselves.Everyoneputtheirpensdown.Seeparagraph1.123formoreinformationabouttheyusedtorefertooneperson.

USAGENOTE

1.133 Inmore formalEnglish, some people prefer to usehe,him,his,or himself to refer back to anindefinite pronoun, but many people dislike this use because it suggests that the person beingreferredtoismale.Ifsomeoneconsistentlyeatsalotoffattyfoods,itisnotsurprisingifheendsupwithcloggedarteries.Everybodyhashisdream.Forotherwaysof usingpronounswhenyoudonotwant to specifywhether the personyou aretalkingaboutismaleorfemale,seeparagraph1.123.

’s

1.134 Youadd’s(apostrophes)toanindefinitepronountorefertothingsthatbelongtoorareassociatedwithpeople.Shewasgivenaroominsomeone’sstudio.Thatwasnobody’sbusiness.Iwoulddefendanyone’srights.Everythinghasbeenarrangedtoeverybody’ssatisfaction.

BECAREFUL

1.135 Youdonotusuallyadd’stoindefinitepronounsreferringtothings.So,forexample,youwouldbemorelikelytosaythevalueofsomethingthansomething’svalue.

addinginformation

1.136 When youwant to givemore information about the person or thing referred to by an indefinitepronoun,youcanuseaphraseoraclauseafterit.Anyoneovertheageof18canapply.Hewouldprefertohavesomebodywhohadabackgroundinthehumanities.

1.137 Youcanalsouseadjectivestoaddinformation.Notethatadjectivesareplacedaftertheindefinitepronounratherthaninfrontofit,andthatyoudonotuseadeterminer.Youdonotsayanimportantsomeone,yousaysomeoneimportant.Whatwasneededwassomeonepractical.Theyaredoingeverythingpossibletotakecareofyou.Thereisnothingwrongwithbeingpopular.

usedwithelse

1.138 If youhave alreadymentioned a personor thing, andyouwant to refer to a different personorthing,oranadditionalone,youuseelseafteranindefinitepronoun.Somebodyelsewillhavetogooutthere.Shecouldn’tthinkofanythingelse.Everyoneknowswhateveryoneelseisdoing.Hegotthatjobbecausenobodyelsewantedit.Notethatifyouwanttoshowassociationorpossessionwithanindefinitepronounandelse,youaddthe’stoelse.Problemsalwaysbecamesomeoneelse’sfault.Noonehascontroloveranyoneelse’scareer.

structuresusedwithsome-andevery-

1.139 Just likenouns, indefinitepronounsareusedas thesubject,object,or indirectobjectofclauses.

Theycanalsobeusedastheobjectsofprepositions.Theindefinitepronounsbeginningwithsome-andevery-aremostoftenusedinaffirmativeclauses.Everythingwentaccordingtoplan.Iremembersomebodyputtingapillowundermyhead.‘Nowyou’llseesomething,’hesaid.Igaveeveryoneageneroushelping.Iwanttointroduceyoutosomeonewhoishelpingme.Iseverythingallright?Theyaresometimesusedasthesubjectofanegativeclause.Hecouldtellthatsomethingwasn’tright.Notethattheindefinitepronounsbeginningwithsome-cannotbeusedastheobjectofanegativeclause,unlesstheyarefollowedbyaphraseoraclause.Hewasn’tsomeoneIadmiredasawriter.

structuresusedwithany-

1.140 Indefinitepronounsbeginningwithany-canbeusedastheobjectorindirectobjectofaquestionoranegativeclause.Don’tworry–Iwon’ttellanyone.Youstillhaven’ttoldmeanything.Takeagoodlookandtellmeifyouseeanythingdifferent.Ihaven’tgivenanyonetheirpresentsyet.Theyareoftenusedasthesubjectofbothnegativeandaffirmativequestions.Notethattheyarenotusedasthesubjectofanegativestatement.Youdonotsay,forexample,Anybodycan’tcomein.Doesanybodyagreewithme?Won’tanyonehelpme?Ifanythingunusualhappens,couldyoucallmeonthisnumber?Notethatwhenyouaremakinganaffirmativestatement,anyoneandanybodyareusedtorefertopeopleingeneralandnottoonlyoneperson.Anybodywhowantstocancomeinandbuyacarfromme.

structuresusedwithno-

1.141 Indefinitepronounsbeginningwithno-arealwaysusedwith theaffirmativeformofaverb,andtheymaketheclausenegative.Formoreinformationonnegativestatements,seeparagraphs5.49to5.93.Nobodysaidaword.Therewasnothingyoucoulddo,nothingatall.Shewastoseenoone,tospeaktonobody,notevenherownchildren.Notethattheyaresometimesusedinquestions.Whenthisisthecase,theanswertothequestionisusuallyexpectedtobeno.

‘IstherenothingIcando?’–‘Notathing’.‘Istherenobodyelse?’–‘NotthatIknowof ’.

Showingthatpeopledothesamething:eachotherandoneanother1.142 Eachotherandoneanotherarecalledreciprocalpronouns.Theyareusedtosaythatpeopledo

thesamething,feelthesameway,orhavethesamerelationship.Forexample,ifyourbrotherhatesyoursisterandyoursisterhatesyourbrother,youcansayMybrotherandsisterhateeachotherorTheyhateoneanother.Reciprocalpronounsarenotusedasthesubjectofaclause.Youusethemastheobjectorindirectobjectofaverb.Wehelpeachotheralot.YouandIunderstandeachother.Wesupportoneanotherthroughgoodtimesandbad.Theysenteachothergiftsfromtimetotime.Youalsousethemastheobjectofapreposition.TerryandMarkwerejealousofeachother.Thetwolightsweremovingtowardsoneanother.Theydidn’tdaretolookatoneanother.Someverbsareverycommonlyusedwithreciprocalpronouns.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs3.68to3.72.

1.143 Notethatthereisverylittledifferencebetweeneachotherandoneanother.Theyarebothusedtotalkabouttwoormorepeopleorthings,althoughsomepeopleprefertheuseofeachotherwhenthereareonlytwopeopleorthings,andoneanotherwhentherearemorethantwo.

eachassubject

1.144 In formalwrittenEnglish,youcanalsouseeach as thesubjectofaclauseand theother as theobjectofaclauseorpreposition.So,amoreformalwayofsayingTheylookedateachother isEachlookedattheother.Notethateachisalwaysfollowedbyasingularverb.Eachaccusestheotheroflying.Eachisunwillingtolearnfromtheexperienceoftheothers.Eachisalsoadeterminer.Formoreinformationaboutthis,seeparagraph1.243.

’s

1.145 Youadd’s(apostrophes)toeachother,oneanother,andtheothertoformpossessives.Ihopethatyouallenjoyeachother’scompany.Apesspendagreatdealoftimegroomingoneanother’sfur.Themalesfightfiercely,eachtryingtoseizetheother’slongneckinitsbeak.

Joiningclausestogether:relativepronouns

1.146 When a sentence consists of a main clause followed by a relative clause introduced bywho,whom,which,orthat,thesewordsarecalledrelativepronouns.Relativepronounsdotwothingsat thesametime.Likeotherpronouns, theyrefertosomeoneorsomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Atthesametimetheyjoinclausestogether.Formoreinformationaboutrelativeclauses,seeparagraphs8.83to8.116.

whoandwhom

1.147 Whoandwhomalwaysrefertopeople.Whocanbethesubjectofarelativeclause.…mathematicianswhoareconcernedwithverydifficultproblems.Inthepast,whomwasnormallyusedas theobjectofarelativeclause.Nowadays,who ismoreoftenused,althoughsomecarefulspeakersofEnglishthinkthatitismorecorrecttousewhom.…amanwhoImetrecently.He’sthemanwhoIsawlastnight.…twogirlswhomImetinEdinburgh.Who is sometimes used as the object of a preposition when the object is separated from thepreposition.Somecarefulspeakersthinkthatitismorecorrecttousewhom.That’sthemanwhoIgaveitto.…thosewhomwecannottalkto.Whomisalmostalwaysusedwhentheobjectcomesimmediatelyafterthepreposition.…LordScarman,amanforwhomIhaveimmenserespect.

which

1.148 Whichalwaysreferstothings.Itcanbeusedasthesubjectorobjectofarelativeclause,orastheobjectofapreposition.Which isoftenused inBritishEnglish to introduce relativeclauses thatrefertothings.…aregionwhichwasthreatenedbygrowingpoverty.…twohorseswhichheowned.…thehouseinwhichIwasborn.Notethatwhichcannotbeusedastheindirectobjectofaclause.

that

1.149 Thatreferstoeitherpeopleorthings.Itisusedasthesubjectortheobjectofarelativeclauseortheobjectofapreposition.ThatisgenerallypreferredinAmericanEnglishtointroducerelativeclausesthatrefertothingsortocombinationsofpeopleandthings.…thegamesthatpoliticiansplay.He’stheboythatsangthesololastnight.

Itwasthefirstbedthatshehadeversleptin.Thatcannotbeusedastheindirectobjectofaclause.

whose

1.150 Whoseshowswhoorwhatsomethingbelongstoorisconnectedwith.Notethatitcannotbeusedbyitself,butmustcomeinfrontofanoun.…thethousandswhoseliveshavebeendamaged.TherewasachaptherewhosenameI’veforgotten.…predictionswhoseaccuracywillhavetobeconfirmed.…sharks,whosebrainsareminute.Notethatwhoseisnotrestrictedtopeople.

Askingquestions:interrogativepronouns1.151 Onewayofaskingquestionsisbyusinganinterrogativepronoun.

Theinterrogativepronounsarewho,whose,whom,what,andwhich.Theyareusedasthesubjectorobjectof a clause,or as theobjectof apreposition.Whoseandwhich are also determiners.Otherwords,suchaswhere,when,why,andhow,arealsousedtoaskquestions.Interrogativepronounsarenotusedastheindirectobjectofaclause.Whowasatthedoor?‘There’sacaroutside.’–‘Whoseisit?’Whomdoyousupport?Whatareyoudoing?Whichisbest,gasorelectric?Formore information about structures inwhich interrogativepronouns areused, seeparagraphs5.10to5.36.

1.152 Interrogativepronounsrefertotheinformationyouareaskingfor.Who,whose,andwhomareusedwhenyouthinkthattheanswertothequestionwillbeaperson.‘Helosthiswife.’–‘Who?Terry?’Helookedatthecat.Whoseisit?Haveyoueverseenitbefore?‘Towhom,ifImayask,areyouengagedtobemarried?’–‘ToDanielOrton.’Whichandwhatareusedwhenyouthinkthattheanswertothequestionwillbesomethingotherthanaperson.Istherereallyadifference?Whichdoyouprefer?‘Whatdidhewant?’–‘Maurice’saddress.’

reportedquestions

1.153 Interrogativepronounsarealsousedtointroducereportedquestions.Iaskedherwhoshehadbeentalkingto.

HewonderedwhatDaintrywoulddonow.Formoreinformationaboutreportedquestions,seeparagraphs7.32to7.38.

Otherpronouns1.154 Manyotherwordscanbepronouns,providedthatitisclearwhatisbeingtalkedabout,becauseit

isthenunnecessarytorepeatthenoun.For example, most indefinite determiners can also be pronouns. For more information aboutindefinitedeterminers,seeparagraphs1.223to1.250.Hereisalistofindefinitedeterminersthatarealsopronouns:

allanotherany both eacheitherenoughfewfewerlesslittlemanymoremostmuchneitherseveralsome

Likeallnounphrases,theycanbeusedasthesubject,directobject,orindirectobjectofaclause,ortheobjectofapreposition.Bothwereofferedjobsimmediately.Children?Idon’tthinkshehasany.Isawonegirlwhisperingtoanother.

1.155 Althougha,an,every,andnoareindefinitedeterminers,theycannotstandaloneaspronouns.Toreferbacktoanounphrasethatincludesthedetermineraoran,youcanusethepronounone.Similarly,youuseeachtoreferbacktoanounphrasethatincludesevery,andnonetoreferbacktoanounphrasethatincludesno.Notethatanotherandothersarepronouns,butothercannotbeapronoun.

all,both,andeachforemphasis

1.156 All,both, and each can be used in addition to nouns or personal pronouns for emphasis, in a

similarwaytotheuseofreflexivepronounsdescribedinparagraphs1.116to1.118.Thebrothersallagreedthatsomethingmorewasneeded.Helovedthemboth.FordandDuncaneachhadtheirchances.Theycomeafteranauxiliaryverb,amodal,orbe.Theywerebothstillworkingattheiruniversities.Thelettershaveallbeensigned.Theolderchildrencanalldothesamethingstogether.Eachcanalsocomeattheendoftheclause.Threeotherswerefined£200each.

numbers

1.157 Numberscanalsobepronouns.Forexample,theanswertothequestionHowmanychildrendoyouhave?isusuallyThreeratherthanThreechildren.‘Howmanypeoplearethere?’–‘Forty-five.’Oftheotherwomen,twoaredancers.Theyboughteightcompaniesandsoldofffive.Formoreinformationonnumbers,seeparagraphs2.213to2.231.

otherpronouns

1.158 Thenumberone isaspecialcase.Likeothernumbers, it is sometimesused to refer tooneofagroupofthings.Oneisalsousedtoreferbacktoanounphrasewiththedeterminera.CouldIhaveabiggerone,please?Itcanalsobeusedforemphasisafteranotherdeterminer.Therearesystemsofcommunicationrightthroughtheanimalworld;eachoneisdistinctive.Onecanbeusedasapersonalpronoun.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph1.121.

1.159 Notethattheoneandtheonescanbeusedtorefertoanounalone,ratherthantothewholeofthenounphrase.Theyarenearlyalwaysusedwithamodifiersuchasanadjective,orsomeformofinformationafterthenoun,suchasaprepositionalphrase.‘Whichpoem?–‘Theonetheyweretalkingaboutyesterday.’Therearethreebedrooms.Mineistheoneattheback.Hegavethebestseatstotheoneswhoarrivedfirst.

1.160 Youusetheother,theothers,others,oranothertorefertodifferentmembersofagroupofthingsorpeople.Somewritersaregreaterthanothers.Onerunnerwaswayaheadofalltheothers.

1.161 Ifyouwanttosaysomethingaboutamemberofagroupofpeopleorthingsyoucanuseone.Youcanthenrefertotherestofthegroupastheothers.Thebellsarecarefullyinstalledsothatdisconnectingonewillhavenoeffectontheothers.Theyhadthreelittledaughters,oneababy,theotherstwinsoftwelve.Youusetheoneandtheothertorefertoeachofapairofthings.Thesamefactorspushwagesandpricesuptogether,theonereinforcingtheother.Ifyoudonotwishtospecifyexactlywhichofagroupyouaretalkingabout,yourefertooneorotherofthem.Itmaybethatoneorotherofthemhadfearsfortheirhealth.

Definiteandindefinitedeterminers1.162 InEnglish,therearetwomainwaysinwhichyoucanuseanounphrase.Youcanuseittoreferto

someoneorsomething,knowingthatthepersonyouarespeakingtounderstandswhichpersonorthingyouaretalkingabout.Themanbegantoruntowardstheboy.Youngpeopledon’tliketheseoperas.Thankyouverymuchforyourcomments.…avisittotheHousesofParliament.Alternatively, you can use a noun phrase to refer to someone or something of a particular type,withoutsayingwhichpersonorthingyoumean.Therewasamaninthelift.IwishI’dboughtanumbrella.Anydoctorwouldsayshedidn’tknowwhatshewasdoing.Inordertodistinguishbetweenthesetwowaysofusinganounphrase,youuseaspecialclassofwords called determiners. There are two types of determiner, definite determiners andindefinitedeterminers.Youputthematthebeginningofanounphrase.

Usingthedefinitedeterminerthe1.163 Theisthemostcommondefinitedeterminer;itissometimescalledthedefinitearticle.

This, that, these, and those are often calleddemonstratives ordemonstrativeadjectives. Formoreinformationonthese,seeparagraphs1.184to1.193.My,your,his,her,its,ourandtheirarepossessivedeterminers.Theyarealsosometimescalledpossessive adjectives or just possessives. For more information about these, see paragraphs1.194to1.210.Hereisthelistofdefinitedeterminers:

the~this

thatthesethose~myyourhisheritsourtheir

NotethatinEnglishyoucannotusemorethanonedefinitedeterminerbeforeanoun.1.164 Becausetheisthemostcommondefinitedeterminer,youcanputtheinfrontofanycommonnoun.

Shedroppedthecanintothegrass.Thegirlswerenotinthehouse.Intheseexamples, theuseof thecanmeans thatacanhasalreadybeenmentioned; thegrass isdefinitebecauseithasalreadybeenstatedthatsheisoutside,andthepresenceofgrassmayalsohavebeenstatedorispresumed;thegirls,likethecan,musthavebeenmentionedbefore;andthehousemeanstheonewherethegirlswerestayingatthetime.

pronouncingthe

1.165 Thealwayshasthesamespelling,butithasthreedifferentpronunciations:/ðə/whenthefollowingwordbeginswithaconsonantsound

…thedictionary…thefirstact…thebigbox./ði/whenthefollowingwordbeginswithavowelsound

…theexhibition…theeffect…theimpression./ðiː/whenitisemphasized

Youdon’tmeantheErnestHemingway?Seeparagraph1.181formoreinformationaboutemphaticusesofthe.

thewithanoun

1.166 Youcanuseanounphraseconsistingjustoftheandanounwhenyouknowthatthepersonyouaretalkingorwritingtowillunderstandwhichperson,thing,orgroupyouarereferringto.TheexpeditionsailedoutintothePacific.…themostobnoxiousboyintheschool.Hestoppedthecarinfrontofthebakery.

nounsreferringtoonethingonly

1.167 Somenounsareusedwiththebecausetheyrefertoonlyoneperson,thing,orgroup.Someofthese

arespecificnamesorpropernouns,forexampletitlessuchasthePope,uniquethingssuchastheEiffelTower,andplacenamessuchastheAtlantic.…aconcertattendedbytheQueen.WewentoncamelridestothePyramids.Seeparagraphs1.52to1.58formoreinformationaboutpropernouns.Somearesingularnouns, thatistheyrefertosomethingofwhichthereisonlyoneintheworld,suchastheground,orthemoon.Thesunbegantoturnred.InAprilandMaythewindblowssteadily.Seeparagraphs1.34to1.40formoreinformationaboutsingularnouns.

specificplacesandorganizations

1.168 Other nouns are used to talk about just one person, thing, or group in a particular place ororganization,sothatifyouaretalkingaboutthatplaceororganizationortalkingtosomeoneinit,youcanusejusttheandthenoun.Forexample,ifthereisonlyonestationinatown,thepeoplewholiveinthetownwilltalkaboutthestation.Similarly,peoplelivinginBritaintalktoeachotherabouttheeconomy,meaningtheBritish economy, and peopleworking for the same organizationmight talk about the boss, theunion,orthecanteenwithoutneedingtospecifytheorganization.Thechurchhasbeenbrokeninto.There’sawindcomingofftheriver.Wehadtogetridofthedirector.Themayorisaforty-eight-year-oldformerlabourer.WhatisthePresidentdoingaboutallthis?

generalizingaboutpeopleandthings

1.169 Normally,ifyouwanttotalkgenerallyaboutallpeopleorthingsofaparticulartype,youusethepluralformofanounwithoutadeterminer.However, there are some countable nouns that are used in the singular with the to refer tosomethingmoregeneral.For example, you can use the theatre or the stage to talk about all entertainment performed intheatres.Similarly,thescreenreferstofilmsingeneral,andthelawreferstothesystemoflawsinacountry.Forhim,thestagewasjustawayofearningaliving.Hewasashandsomeinreallifeashewasonthescreen.Theydonothesitatetobreakthelaw.Somenounsthatnormallyrefertoanindividualthingorpersoncanbeusedinthesingularwiththetorefergenerallytoasystemorserviceinaparticularplace.Forexample,youcanusethebustotalkaboutabusserviceandthephonetotalkaboutatelephonesystem.

Howlongdoesittakeonthetrain?Werangfortheambulance.Nounsreferringtomusicalinstrumentscanbeusedinthesingularwith thewhenyouaretalkingaboutsomeoneplaying,orbeingabletoplay,aparticularkindofinstrument.Youplaytheoboe,Isee,saidSimon.Iwasplayingthepianowhenhephoned.

usingadjectivesasnouns

1.170 When you want to talk generally about groups of people who share the same characteristic orquality,youoftenchooseanadjectiveprecededbythe.Thisprojectisallaboutgivingemploymenttotheunemployed.Seeparagraphs1.66to1.72formoreinformationaboutusingadjectivesasnouns.

formalgeneralizations

1.171 Nounsreferringtoplantsandanimalscanbeusedinthesingularwiththewhenyouaremakingastatementabouteverymemberofaspecies.Forexample, ifyousayTheswifthas long,narrowwings,youmeanthatallswiftshavelong,narrowwings.Theprimrosecangrowabundantlyonchalkbanks.Australiaisthehomeofthekangaroo.Similarly,anounreferringtoapartofthehumanbodycanbeusedwiththetorefertothatpartofanyone’sbody.Thesearteriessupplytheheartwithblood.…thearteriessupplyingthekidneys.Theissometimesusedwithothernounsinthesingulartomakeastatementaboutallthemembersofagroup.Thearticlefocusesonhowtoprotectthetherapistratherthanonhowtocurethepatient.These uses are fairly formal. They are not common in ordinary speech.Usually, if youwant tomakeastatementaboutallthethingsofaparticularkind,youusethepluralformofanounwithoutadeterminer.Seeparagraph1.227formoreinformationaboutthis.

USAGENOTE

1.172 Manycommontimeexpressionsconsistofjusttheandanoun.Wewastedalotofmoneyinthepast.ThetrainleavesCardiffatfourintheafternoon.…thechangeswhicharetakingplaceatthemoment.SeeChapter4formoreinformationabouttimeexpressions.

referringback

1.173 Ineachoftheparagraphsaboveshowingusesoftheandanoun,itispossibletounderstandwhoorwhat is being referred to because the noun phrase is commonly accepted as referring to oneparticularperson,thing,orgroup.However,youcanuse thewithanynoun, if it isobviouswhoorwhatyouarereferring tofromwhathasalreadybeensaidorwritten.Theusualwayofreferringbacktoanounistouseapronoun,butifthesecondreferencedoesnotcome immediately after the first one, or if it is not immediately obvious which noun is beingreferredto,youshoulduse the,and thenounagain.Forexample, ifyouhavealreadymentionedthat you were in a train, and then continued to tell a story, you can say afterwards The trainsuddenlystopped.

1.174 Youcanalsousetheandanounwhenyouarereferringtosomeoneorsomethingcloselyconnectedwithsomethingyouhavejustmentioned.Forexample,youdonotusuallysayWetriedtogetintotheroom,butthedooroftheroomwaslocked.You sayWe tried toget into the room,but thedoorwas locked, because it is obviouswhichdooryouarereferringto.Shestoppedandlitamatch.Thewindalmostblewouttheflame.

thewithlongernounphrases

1.175 Although therearemanysituationswhereyouuse just the andanoun, thereareotheroccasionswhenyouneedtoaddsomethingelsetothenouninordertomakeitclearwhichperson,thing,orgroupyouarereferringto.

addingadjectives

1.176 Sometimesyoucanshowwhoorwhatyouarereferringtobyputtinganadjectivebetweentheandthenoun.Thisisthemainbedroom.Somebodyoughttohavedoneitlongago,remarkedthefatman.Sometimesyouneedtousemorethanoneadjective.Afterthecrossroadslookoutforthelargewhitebuilding.Formoreinformationaboutadjectives,seeparagraphs2.2to2.168.

adjectives:expanding

1.177 Whenyouuseanadjectivebetweentheandanoun,youdonotalwaysdoitinordertomakeclearwhoorwhatisbeingreferredto.Forexample,youmightwanttoaddfurtherinformationaboutsomeoneorsomethingthatyouhavealreadymentioned.So,ifyoufirstrefertosomeoneasawoman inasentencesuchasAwomancameintotheroom,youmightlaterwanttorefertoherastheunfortunatewomanorthesmilingwoman.

This is a very common use inwritten English, especially in stories, but it is not often used inconversation.Theastonishedwaiterwasnowwatchingfromtheotherendoftheroom.Thepoorwomanhadwitnessedterribleviolence.Thelossofpressurecausedthespeedingcartogointoaskid.

addingclausesorphrases

1.178 Anotherwayofshowingwhoorwhatyouarereferringtoisbyaddingextrainformationaftertheand a noun, for example a prepositional phrase, a relative clause, a to-infinitive, an adverb ofplaceortime,oraphraseintroducedbyaparticiple.Soyoumight refer toparticularpeopleat apartybyusingnounphrases suchas thegirl in theyellowdress,thewomanwhospilledherdrink,orthemansmokingacigar.ThecarsinthedrivewayswereallFerrarisandPorsches.ThebookthatIrecommendnowcostsovertwentypounds.Thethingtoaimforisanofficeofyourown.Whomadethebedintheroomupstairs?Itdependsonthepersonbeinginterviewed.Formoreinformationaboutthistypeofextrainformationthatisaddedtoanoun,seeparagraphs2.272to2.302.

thewithuncountablenouns

1.179 Youdonotnormallyusethewithuncountablenounsbecausetheyrefertosomethinginageneralway.However,theisnecessaryiftheuncountablenounisfollowedbyextrainformationsuchasaclauseoraphrasethatrelatesittoaparticularperson,thing,orgroup.Forexample,youcannotsayIaminterestedineducationofyoungchildren.YouhavetosayIaminterestedintheeducationofyoungchildren.Babiesneedthecomfortoftheirmother’sarms.EventhehonestyofInspectorButlerwasindoubt.I’venoideaaboutthegeographyofScotland.Formoreinformationaboutuncountablenouns,seeparagraphs1.23to1.33.

superlatives

1.180 Theisalsousedwithsuperlativeadjectives.I’mnotthebestcookintheworld.Theywenttothemostexpensiverestaurantintown.Seeparagraphs2.112to2.122formoreinformationaboutsuperlativeadjectives.

emphasizingthe

1.181 Theisoftenusedinfrontofanountoindicatethatsomeoneorsomethingisthebestofitskind.NewZealandisnowtheplacetovisit.Youcanalsousetheinfrontofaperson’snametoshowthatyouarereferringtothemostfamouspersonwiththatname.YouactuallymettheGeorgeHarrison?Whenyouusetheineitheroftheseways,youemphasizeitandpronounceit/ðiː/.

thewithindefinitedeterminers

1.182 Thecanbeusedinfrontofsomeindefinitedeterminers,usuallytogiveanindicationofamountorquantity.Theseindefinitedeterminersare:

fewlittlemanyother

…pleasuresknownonlytothefew.…acoupundertheleadershipoftheselectfew.Hewasoneofthefewwhoknewwheretofindme.Wehavedonethelittlethatisinourpower.Youusethewithothertorefertothesecondoftwothings,whenyouhavejustmentionedoneofthem.Themensatatoneendofthetableandthewomenattheother.Formoreinformationaboutindefinitedeterminers,seeparagraphs1.223to1.250.

thewithnumbers

1.183 Theisusedwithoneandones.I’mgoingtohavethegreenone.TheshopwasdifferentfromtheonesIremembered.…apairofthoseoldglasses,theoneswiththosefunnysquarelenses.Theisalsousedwithothernumbers.Itisamistaketoconfusethetwo.Whyisshesodifferentfromtheothertwo?Seeparagraphs2.208to2.239formoreinformationaboutnumbers.

Definitedeterminers:usingthis,that,these,andthose1.184 Youuse thedefinitedeterminers this, that, these,and those to talkaboutpeopleor things ina

definiteway.

Youusethisandthesetotalkaboutpeopleandthingsthatareclosetoyouinplaceortime.Whenyoutalkaboutpeopleorthingsthataremoredistantinplaceortime,youusethatandthose.Youputthisandthatinfrontofsingularnouns,uncountablenouns,andthesingularpronounone.Youputtheseandthoseinfrontofpluralnounsandthepluralpronounones.This,that,these,andthoseareoftencalleddemonstrativesordemonstrativeadjectives.

thisandthese

1.185 Thisandtheseareusedtotalkaboutpeopleorthingsthatareveryobviousinthesituationthatyouarein.Forexample,ifyouareinsideahouse,youcanrefertoitasthishouse.Ifyouareholdingsomekeysinyourhand,youcanrefertothemasthesekeys.Ifyouareataparty,youcanrefertoitasthisparty.Ihavelivedinthishousemyentirelife.Iamgoingtowalkupthesestepstowardsyou.I’llcomeassoonasthesemenhavefinishedtheirwork.Ilikethisuniversity.Goodevening.Inthisprogrammewearegoing to lookat theway inwhichBritishmusichasdevelopedinrecentyears.Whenitisclearwhoorwhatyouarereferringto,youcanusethisandtheseaspronouns.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs1.124to1.127.

1.186 Thisandthesearealsousedinmanyexpressionsthatrefertocurrentperiodsoftime,forexamplethismonth,thisweek,andthesedays.ThisuseisexplainedinChapter4.

thatandthose

1.187 Youusethatandthosewhenyouaretalkingaboutthingsorpeoplethatyoucanseebutthatarenotclosetoyou.Howmuchisitforthatbigbox?CanIhaveoneofthosebrochures?Canyoumovethosebooksoffthere?

1.188 Whenitisclearwhoorwhatyouaretalkingabout,youcanusethatandthoseaspronouns.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs1.124to1.127.Couldyoujustholdthat?Pleasedon’ttakethose.

USAGENOTE

1.189 Youcanshowthatyouarereferringtothesamepersonorthingyouhavejustmentionedbyusingthis,that,these,orthoseinfrontofanoun.Forexample,ifyouhavejustmentionedagirl,youcanrefertoherasthisgirlorthatgirlthesecondtimeyoumentionher.Normally,youuseapronounto refer to someone or something you have just mentioned, but sometimes you cannot do thisbecauseitmightnotbeclearwhoorwhatthepronounrefersto.

Studentsandstaff suggestbooks for the library,andnormallywe’requitehappy toget thosebooks.Theirhouseisinavalley.Thepeopleinthatvalleyspeakaboutthepeopleinthenextvalleyasforeigners.They had a lot of diamonds, and they asked her if she could possibly get these diamonds toBritain.Theuseofthis,that,those,etc.toreferagaintosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentionedisfullyexplainedinparagraphs10.7to10.10.

1.190 IninformalEnglish,youcanalsousethatandthoseinfrontofanountotalkaboutpeopleorthingsthatarealreadyknowntothepersonyouarespeakingorwritingto.ThatidiotAntoniohasgoneandlockedourcabindoor.Havetheyfoundthosemissingchildrenyet?Doyourememberthatfunnylittleapartment?

1.191 Youcanusethatinfrontofanounwhenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingthathasjusthappened.Iknewthatmeetingwouldbedifficult.Thatisusedasapronountotalkaboutsomethingthathasjusthappened.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs1.124to1.127.

usingthoseinsteadofthe

1.192 InmoreformalEnglish,thosecanbeusedinsteadoftheinfrontofapluralnounwhenthepluralnounisfollowedbyarelativeclause.Inthisuse,therelativeclausespecifiesexactlywhichgroupofpeopleorthingsarebeingreferredto.…thoseworkerswhoareemployedinlargeenterprises.Theparentsarenotafraidtobefirmaboutthosemattersthatseemimportanttothem.

informaluseofthisandthese

1.193 IninformalspokenEnglish,peoplesometimesusethisandtheseinfrontofnounsevenwhentheyarementioningsomeoneorsomethingforthefirsttime.Andthenthiswomancameuptomeandshesaid,IbelieveyouhaveagoddaughtercalledCeliaRavenscroft.Atschoolwehadtoweartheseawfulwhitecottonhats.

Possessivedeterminers:my,your,their,etc.1.194 Youoftenwanttoshowthatathingbelongstosomeoneorthatitisconnectedinsomewaywith

someone.Onewayofdoingthisis touseawordlikemy,your,andtheir,which tellsyouwhosomethingbelongsto.Thesewordsarecalledpossessivedeterminers.Areyourchildrenbilingual?Irememberhisnamenow.

Theywouldbewelcometouseourlibrary.I’dbeenwaitingalongtimetoparkmycar.

tableofpossessivedeterminers

1.195 Therearesevenpossessivedeterminers inEnglish,andeachone isassociatedwithaparticularpersonalpronoun:

singular plural1stperson my our2ndperson your3rdperson his

herits

their

Personalpronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.95to1.106.

BECAREFUL

1.196 Youdonotspellthepossessiveitswithanapostrophe.It’sisshortforitis.

position

1.197 Possessivedeterminers,likeotherdeterminers,comeafteranywordslikeallorsomeof (calledpredeterminers),andbeforeanynumbersoradjectives.…allhisletters.…theirnextmessage.…mylittlefinger.…ourtwolifeboats.Seeparagraph1.251formoreinformationaboutpredeterminers.

BECAREFUL

1.198 InEnglish,youdonotusemorethanonedefinitedeterminerbeforeanoun.Therefore,possessivedeterminersmustbeusedontheirown.YoucannotsayItookoffthemyshoes.YouhavetochoosewhethertosayItookoffmyshoes,orItookofftheshoes.

agreementwithnoun

1.199 Youchoosewhichpossessivedeterminertouseaccordingtotheidentityofthepersonorthingthatownssomething.Forexample, ifyouwant to identify somethingasbelonging toor relating toaparticularwoman,youalwaysuseher.Thefollowingnoundoesnotaffectthechoice.Itookoffmyshoes.Herhusbandremainedstanding.Hehadhishandsinhispockets.Shehadtogiveupherjob.Thegrouphelditsfirstmeetinglastweek.Thecreaturelifteditshead.

…thetwodarkmen,glassesintheirhands,waitingsilently.…thecarcompaniesandtheirworkers.

useofown

1.200 Whenyouwanttodrawattentiontothefactthatsomethingbelongsorrelatestoaparticularpersonorthing,youcanusethewordownafterthepossessivedeterminer.Ihelpedhimtosomemorewaterbutleftmyownglassuntouched.Residentsareallowedtobringtheirownfurniturewiththemiftheywishtodoso.Makeyourowndecisions.Ihearditwithmyownears.Shefeltinchargeofherownaffairs.Ifyouuseanumberoradjectiveinthisstructure,youputthenumberoradjectiveafterown.…theirownthreechildren.Theplayersprovidedtheirownwhiteshorts.

usesofpossessives

1.201 Possessive determiners do not always show that what follows them is actually possessed (orowned)bysomeone.Sometimestheyjustshowthatwhatfollowsisconnectedorassociatedwithsomeoneinsomeway.Theythenturnedtheirattentiontootherthings.…thevitalityofourmusicandourculture.Insummer,hayfeverinterferedwithallheractivities.It’shisbrotherwhohastheworkshop.

1.202 Youcanuseapossessivedeterminerinfrontofanounthatrefers toanaction, inorder toshowwhoorwhatisdoingtheaction.…notlongafterourarrival.…hiscriticismoftheGovernment.…theirfightforsurvival.I’mwaitingforyourexplanation.Mostoftheirclaimswereworthy.Inthelastexample,theirclaimsreferstotheclaimsthattheyhavemade.

1.203 Youcanalsouseapossessivedeterminertosaywhoorwhatisaffectedbyanaction.Myappointmentasthefirstwomanchairmansymbolizeschange.…theredistributionofwealth,ratherthanitscreation.Theyexpressedtheirhorroratherdismissal.In the last example,herdismissal refers to the fact that shewasdismissedby someoneorbyacompany.Inthefirstofthefollowingexamples,hissupportersmeansthepeoplewhosupporthim.…Birchandhissupporters.

Shereturnedtheringtoitsowner.

USAGENOTE

1.204 SometimesinEnglishthedeterminertheisusedwherethereisanobviouspossessivemeaning.Inthesecasesthepossessionisalreadymadeclearbyaprecedingnounorpronoun.Thefollowingparagraphsexplainthesituationsinwhichyouusetheratherthanapossessivedeterminer.

1.205 Whenyourefertoaspecificpartofsomeone’sbody,younormallyuseapossessivedeterminer.Shehassomethingonherfeetandabaginherhand.Nancysuddenlytookmyarm.Thechildrenworenothingontheirfeet.Shethankedhimshylyandpattedhisarm.Iopenedthecupboardandtheyfellonmyhead.Heshookhishead.However,whenyouaredescribinganactionthatsomeonedoestoapartofsomeoneelse’sbody,youoftenusethedefinitearticle(the),especiallywhenthebodypartistheobjectofaprepositionandwhentheobjectoftheverbisapronoun.Forexample,ifyousayShehitmeonthehead,headistheobjectoftheprepositiononandmeistheobjectoftheverbhit.Ipattedhimonthehead.Hetookherbythearmandbegandrawingheraway.Youusethedefinitearticlebecausetheownerofthebodyparthasalreadybeenidentified,andyoudonotneedtorepeatthisinformation.Similarly,iftheobjectoftheverbisareflexivepronounsuchasmyself,yourself,andsoon,youusethedefinitearticle.Thisisbecausethereflexivepronounalreadyreferstoyouortothepersonwho is doing the action, so you do not need to repeat this information by using a possessivedeterminer.Iaccidentallyhitmyselfontheheadwiththebrushhandle.Wecanpatourselvesonthebackforbringingupourchildren.Usesofreflexivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.111to1.118.

1.206 Ifyouwanttodescribesomethingthatyoudotoyourselforthatsomeoneelsedoestothemselves,younormallyuseapossessivedeterminer.Shewasbrushingherhair.‘I’mgoingtobrushmyteeth,’hesaid.Shegrittedherteethandcarriedon.Hewalkedintothekitchenandshookhishead.

BECAREFUL

1.207 Youusuallyusepossessivedeterminerswhenyourefertopeopleoranimals.Youdonotusuallyusethemtorefertothingsthatarenotalive.Itis,forexample,moreusualtosaythedoororthedooroftheroomthanitsdoor.

genericuse

1.208 Possessivedeterminers are sometimesused to talk about things that belong toor are associatedwithpeople ingeneral, in a similarway togeneric pronouns.Formore informationongenericpronouns,seeparagraphs1.119to1.123.Yourcanbeusedwhenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingthatbelongstoorisassociatedwithpeopleingeneral,orwithapersoninasituationthatyouareimagining.Caneatingalow-fatdietweakenyourhair?Goingtothegymisgoodforyourgeneralhealth.Partoftheprocessinvolvesdiscussingyourdecisionwithacareercounsellor.InmoreformalEnglish,one’sissometimesusedinsteadofyour.Asatisfyingjobcanbringstructureandmeaningtoone’slife.Ourcanbeusedtotalkaboutallofmankindorsociety.Beingachildisnoteasyinoursociety.Theircanbeusedtorefertoapersonwhenyoudonotknow,ordonotwanttospecify,whetherthatpersonismaleorfemale.Themostimportantassetapersonhasistheirabilitytowork.Eachwinnerreceivedaplaquewiththeirawardtitle.

otherpossessives

1.209 There are other ways of showing that something is owned by or connected with someone orsomethingelse.Forexample,youcanuse ’s (apostrophes) or a prepositional phrase beginningwithof.Mary’sdaughteriscalledElizabeth.Veryoftenthepersonappointedhasnoknowledgeofthatcompany’sendproduct.…thehouseofarichbankerinParis.Intheopinionoftheteam,whatwouldtheyconsidertobeabsolutelynecessary?

possessivedeterminersusedintitles

1.210 Possessive determiners are also sometimes used in titles such as Your Majesty and HisExcellency.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph1.56.

Thepossessiveform:apostrophes(’s)1.211 You usually show that something belongs to or is associatedwith a specific, named person by

adding’s tothenameoftheperson,andbyplacingthispossessiveforminfrontof thethingthatbelongstothem,orisassociatedwiththem.Forexample,ifJohnownsamotorbike,youcanrefertoitas‘John’smotorbike’.SylviaputherhandonJohn’sarm.…themainfeaturesofMrBrown’seconomicpolicy.

When you use a noun rather than a name to refer to the person, the noun phrase containing thepossessiveformalsocontainsadeterminerintheusualway.…hisgrandmother’shouse.Yourmother’sbesthandbag.Notethatthedeterminerappliestothepossessiveformandnottothenounthatisbeingmodifiedbythepossessive.

spellingandpronunciation

1.212 Thespellingandpronunciationpatternsusedtoformpossessiveschangeaccordingtothespellingandpronunciationofthenameornoun.TheseareexplainedintheReferencesection.

otherusesof’s

1.213 Notethatinadditiontobeingthepossessiveform,thepattern’scanalsobeaddedtowordsasacontractionofisorhas.ThisisexplainedintheReferencesection.

showingcloseconnection

1.214 Apostrophes(’s)ismostoftenaddedtoanounreferringtoapersonorananimal.Iworeapairofmysister’sboots.Philipwatchedhisfriend’sreaction.Billypattedthedog’shead.Itcanalsobeusedtoshowthatsomethingbelongstoorisassociatedwithagroupofpeopleoraninstitution.Sherunstheforeignexchangedeskforthebank’scorporateclients.Theyalsopreparetheuniversity’sbudget.…thepaper’spoliticaleditor,MrFredEmery.TherewasaraidontheDemocraticParty’sheadquarters.Whatisyourgovernment’spolicy?

1.215 Apostrophes(’s)issometimesaddedtoanounreferringtoanobjectwhenspecifyingapartofitoraqualityorfeaturethatithas.Ilikethecar’sdesign.Youcanpredictacomputer’sbehaviourbecauseitfollowsrules.Apostrophes (’s) isusedafternounsandnames referring toplaces to specify something in thatplace.Heistheadministrativeheadofthecountry’sbiggestcity.Thecity’spopulationisindecline.…Britain’smostfamouscompany.

1.216 Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatsomethingbelongsorrelatestoaparticularpersonandnobodyelse,youuseown.Own canbe used after the possessive formof a nameor noun, aswell as after a

possessivedeterminer.

ProfessorWilson’sownanswermaybeunacceptable.WemustdependonDavid’sownassessment.Ifyouarespecifyinganumberofthings,youputthenumberafterown.…theDoctor’sowntworooms.

otherstructures

1.217 Whenyouaretalkingabouttwothingsofthesametypethatbelongtodifferentpeopleyoucanusethepossessiveformofanameornounlikeapossessivepronounsothatyoucanavoidrepeatingthe thing itself. In the first example below, her brother’s is used instead of her brother’sappearance.Herappearanceisverydifferenttoherbrother’s.MyroomisnexttoKaren’s.Itisyourresponsibilityratherthanyourparents’.Thepossessiveformcanalsobeusedonitsowntorefertosomeone’shomeorplaceofwork.He’sroundatDavid’s.Shestoppedoffatthebutcher’sforapieceofsteak.Shehasn’tbeenbacktothedoctor’ssince.Possessivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.107to1.110.

usedinprepositionalphraseswithof

1.218 Thepossessiveformcanbeusedinaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithofafteranounphrase.Youusethisstructurewhenyouaretalkingaboutoneofanumberofthingsthatbelongtosomeoneorareassociatedwiththem,ratherthanaboutsomethingunique.Julia,afriendofJenny’s,wastheretoo.Thatwordwasafavouriteofyourfather’s.

USAGENOTE

1.219 Possessiveformscanalsobeusedtorefertothingsofaparticulartypethatareusuallyassociatedwithsomeone.…awomandressedinaman’sraincoat.…apoliceman’suniform.…women’smagazines.…themen’slavatory.

1.220 Thepossessive formcansometimesbeusedwithnouns that refer toanaction inorder to showwhoorwhatisperformingtheaction.…thebankingservice’srapidgrowth.…Madeleine’sarrivalatFairwaterHouseSchool.

Note that phrasesbeginningwithof areusedmore commonly todo this, and that they aremoreformal than this useof possessive forms.Theuseof prepositional phrases beginningwithof toshowwhoorwhatisperforminganactionisexplainedinparagraph2.282.

1.221 Sometimesyoucanaddapostrophes(’s)toanounreferringtothethingaffectedbytheperformerofanactionandput it infrontof thenounreferring to thatperformer.Forexample,youcantalkaboutthescheme’ssupporters.…Christ’sfollowers.…thecar’sowner.Sometimesanapostrophes(’s)structurecanbeusedtorefertothethingaffectedbyanaction.…Capello’sappointmentasEnglandmanager.Noteagainthatofstructuresaremorecommonlyusedtodothis.

otherwaysofshowingpossession

1.222 Itisalsopossibletoshowpossessionbyusingeitheraprepositionalphrasebeginningwithof,orastructurewithanounmodifierinit.Prepositional phrases beginning with of are explained in paragraphs 2.277 to 2.283. Nounmodifiersareexplainedinparagraphs2.169to2.174.

Indefinitedeterminers:all,some,many,etc.1.223 Indefinitedeterminersareusedinnounphraseswhenyouaretalkingaboutpeopleorthingsina

generalway,withoutidentifyingthem.Hereisalistofindefinitedeterminers:

aallananotheranybotheacheitherenougheveryfewlittlemanymoremostmuchneithernootherseveralsome

A,andan are themost common indefinitedeterminers; they are sometimes called the indefinitearticle.Formoreinformationaboutaandan,seeparagraphs1.228to1.235.Formoreinformationabouttheotherindefinitedeterminers,seeparagraphs1.236to1.250.

withcountablenouns

1.224 A andan are usedwith singular countable nouns, and show that you are talking about just onepersonorthing.Anotherisusedwithsingularcountablenounsandotherwithpluralcountablenouns,butonlyafteroneormoreofthesametypeofpersonorthinghasbeenmentioned.Any can be usedwith singular and plural countable nouns to talk about one ormore people orthings.Youuseenough,few,many,more,most,several,andsomewithpluralcountablenounstoshowthatyouaretalkingaboutanumberofpeopleorthings.Eachofthesedeterminersindicatesadifferentsetorgroupwithinthetotalnumber.Formoreinformationabouttheirmeanings,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph1.236.All,both,each,either,andevery show thatyouare talkingabout the totalnumberofpeopleorthingsinvolved.Bothandeitherspecifythatonlytwopeopleorthingsareinvolved.Bothisusedwithapluralnoun,andeitherwithasingularnoun.All,each,andeveryusuallyshowthattherearemorethantwo.Allisusedwithapluralnoun,andeachandeverywithasingularnoun.Noandneitherrefertothetotalnumberofthingsinvolvedinnegativestatements.Noisusedwithsingularorpluralnouns,andneitheronlywithsingularnouns.NoandneitherarecoveredinthesectiononnegativewordsinChapter5.Formoreinformationaboutcountablenouns,seeparagraphs1.15to1.22.

withuncountablenouns

1.225 Foruncountablenouns,any,enough,little,more,most,much,andsomeareused to talkaboutaquantityofsomething.Noandallindicatethetotalquantityofit.Formoreinformationaboutuncountablenouns,seeparagraphs1.23to1.33.

BECAREFUL

1.226 A,an,another,both,each,either,every,few,many,neither,andseveralarenotusuallyusedwithuncountablenouns.

usingnounswithoutdeterminers

1.227 Whenyou are referring to things or people in an indefiniteway, you can sometimesuse a nounwithoutadeterminer.…raisingmoneyfromindustry,government,andtrusts.Permissionshouldbeaskedbeforevisitorsareinvited.

Uncountablenounsareusuallyusedwithoutadeterminer.Healthandeducationaremattersthatmostvotersfeelstronglyabout.Wealth,likepower,tendstocorrupt.Pluralnounsareusedwithoutadeterminerwhenyouarereferringtoallthepeopleorthingsofaparticularkind.Dogsneedaregularbalanceddiet,notjustmeat.Arethereanyjobsthatmencandothatwomencan’t?Pluralnounscanalsobeusedwithoutadeterminertotalkaboutanunspecifiednumberofthings.Teachersshouldreadstoriestochildren.Catsanddogsgetfleas.Formoreinformationaboutpluralnouns,seeparagraphs1.41to1.46.

Aandan1.228 Aandanarethemostcommonindefinitedeterminers.Theyareusedfortalkingaboutapersonor

thingwhenit isnotclearornotimportantwhichoneisintended.Youputaoran in frontof thesingularformofacountablenoun.He’sboughtthechildrenapuppy.Hewaseatinganapple.Anoldladywascallingtohim.

choosingaoran

1.229 Youuseawhenthefollowingwordbeginswithaconsonantsound.…apiece…agoodteacher…alanguageclass.Thisincludessomewordsthatbeginwithavowelintheirwrittenform,becausethefirstsoundisaysound,/j/.…auniversity…aEuropeanlanguage.Youuseanwhenthefollowingwordbeginswithavowelsound.…anexample…anartexhibition…anearlytrain.This includessomewords thatbeginwith the letterh in theirwrittenform,because theh is notpronounced.…anhonestpolitician…quarterofanhour.Aisusuallypronounced/ə/.Anisusuallypronounced/ən/.

notbeingspecificaboutwhichpersonorthingyouarereferringto

1.230 Peopleoftensaythatyouuseaoranwhenyouarementioningsomethingforthefirsttime,butthisis not a very helpful rule because there are somany situationswhere you use the for the firstmentionofsomething.See,forexample,paragraphs1.166,1.167,and1.168.

Youusuallyusea oranwhen it is not clear or not importantwhich specific personor thing isbeingreferredto.Shepickedupabook.Afterweeksoflooking,weeventuallyboughtahouse.AcolleagueandIgotsomemoneytodoresearchonrats.

addingextrainformation

1.231 Sometimes,aoranissimplyfollowedbyanoun.IgotapostcardfromSusan.TheFBIisconductinganinvestigation.Butifyouwanttoaddextrainformation,youcanaddanadjective,orafollowingclauseorphrase.ImetaSwedishgirlonthetrainfromCopenhagen.I’vebeenreadinganinterestingarticleinTheEconomist.Wehadtowriteastoryaboutourparents’childhood.Ichoseapicturethatremindedmeofmyowncountry.

aoranafterlinkingverbs

1.232 Youcanalsouseaoranafteralinkingverb.Sheisamodelandanartist.Hisfatherwasanalcoholic.Noisewasconsideredanuisance.Hisbrotherwasasensitivechild.Formoreinformationaboutlinkingverbs,seeChapter3.

aandanwithuncountablenouns

1.233 Sometimes, a or an are used with an uncountable noun, especially one that relates to humanemotions or mental activity. This only happens when the uncountable noun is limited by anadjective,oraphraseorclausegivingmoreinformation.A general education is perhapsmore important than an exact knowledge of some particulartheory.Shehadaneagernessforlife.

usingindividualstogeneralize

1.234 Youcanusea oranwith a nounwhen you are using one individual person or thing tomake ageneralstatementaboutallpeopleor thingsof that type.Forexample, ifyousayAgunmustbekeptinasafeplace,youaretalkingaboutanindividualguninordertomakeageneralstatementaboutallguns.Acomputercanonlydowhatyouprogramittodo.

Adoglikestoeatfarmoremeatthanahumanbeing.Anunmarriedmotherwaslookeddownon.Thisisnottheusualwayofreferringtogroups.Normally,ifyouwanttomakeastatementaboutallthepeopleorthingsofaparticularkind,youusethepluralformofanounwithoutadeterminer.Seeparagraph1.227formoreinformationaboutthis.

nounsreferringtoonethingonly

1.235 Aandanaresometimesusedwithsingularnounssuchassun,moon,andskythatrefertojustonething.Younormallyusethewiththesenouns,butyouuseaoranwhenyouaredrawingattentiontosomespecialfeaturebyaddingamodifierorafollowingphraseorclausetothenoun.Thisuseisparticularlycommoninliterature.Wedroveunderagloomysky.Aweaksunshinesonthepromenade.Formoreinformationonsingularnouns,seeparagraphs1.34to1.40.

Otherindefinitedeterminers

some

1.236 Someisusuallyusedtoshowthatthereisaquantityofsomethingoranumberofthingsorpeople,withoutbeingprecise.Itisusedwithuncountablenounsandpluralcountablenouns.Someisusuallyusedinaffirmativestatements.Thereissomeevidencethatthesystemworks.There’ssomechocolatecakeoverthere.Ihadsomegoodideas.Somecanbeusedinquestions,whenyouexpecttheanswertobeyes.Couldyougivemesomeexamples?Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?Some is alsoused tomeanquitea largeamountornumber.Forexample, in I didnotmeet heragainforsomeyears,somemeansalmostthesameasseveralormany.Youwillbeunabletorestartthecarforsometime.IttooksomeyearsforDantorealizethetruth.

1.237 Youcanalsousesomeinfrontofnumbers,inslightlymoreliteraryEnglish,toshowthatyouarenotbeingtotallyaccurate.Iwassomefifteenmilesbyseafromthenearestvillage.…ananimalweighingsomefivetons.

1.238 Whenyouwanttoemphasizethatyoudonotknowtheidentityofapersonorthing,oryouthinktheiridentityisnotimportant,youcanusesomewithasingularcountablenoun,insteadofaoran.Moststaffmemberswillspendafewweeksinsomedevelopingcountry.

Supposingyouhadsomeeccentricwhocameandofferedyouathousandpounds.

any

1.239 Any is used before plural nouns and uncountable nounswhen you are referring to a quantity ofsomethingthatmayormaynotexist.Thepatientsknowtheirrightslikeanyotherconsumers.Checkonlineifyou’reinanydoubt.Youcanstopatanytimeyoulike.Any isalsoused inquestionsaskingwhether somethingexistsornot. It isalsoused innegativestatementstosaythatsomethingdoesnotexist.Doyouhaveanyadviceonthat?Doyouhaveanyvacanciesforbarstaff?Ithasn’tmadeanydifference.NobodyinherhouseknowsanyEnglish.Iranguptoseeiftherewereanyticketsleft.QuestionsandnegativestatementsareexplainedfurtherinChapter5.Notethatyoucanuseanywithsingularcountablenounstotalkaboutsomeoneorsomethingofaparticulartype,whenyoudonotwanttomentionaspecificpersonorthing.Anybigtincontainerwilldo.CarscanberentedatalmostanyUSairport.Any can also be used as apronoun. See paragraphs 1.93 to 1.161 for more information aboutpronouns.Itisalsousedinif-clauses.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeChapter8.

anotherandother

1.240 Another isusedwith singular countablenouns to talkabout anadditionalpersonor thingof thesametypeasyouhavealreadymentioned.CouldIhaveanothercupofcoffee?Heopenedanothershoplastmonth.Itcanalsobeusedbeforenumberstotalkaboutmorethanoneadditionalthing.Margaretstayingwithusforanothertendays.Fiveofficialsweresackedandanotherfourarrested.Otherisusedwithpluralnouns,oroccasionallywithuncountablenouns.Otherpeoplemusthavethoughtlikethis.Theyareeitherasleeporentirelyabsorbedinplayorotheractivity.

selectingfromagroup

1.241 Enough isused tosay that there isasmuchofsomethingas isneeded,orasmany thingsasareneeded.Youcanthereforeuseenoughinfrontofuncountablenounsorpluralnouns.

There’senoughspaceforthechildrentorunaround.Theyweren’tgettingenoughcustomers.Many indicates that there isa largenumberof things,withoutbeingveryprecise.Youusemanywithapluralcountablenoun.Hespokemanydifferentlanguages.Whenyouwanttoemphasizethatthereisonlyasmallnumberofthingsofaparticularkind,youusefewwithapluralcountablenoun.Therearefewdrugsthatactquicklyenoughtobeeffective.Therewerefewdoctorsavailable.Fewisquiteformal.InlessformalEnglish,youcanusenotmanywiththesamemeaning.Therearen’tmanygardenerslikehim.Mostindicatesnearlyallofagrouporamount.Youusemostwithanuncountablenounorapluralcountablenoun.Mostpeoplerecoverbutthediseasecanbefatal.Mostfarmersarestillusingtheoldmethods.Severalusuallyindicatesanimprecisenumberthatisnotverylarge,butismorethantwo.Youuseseveralwithapluralcountablenoun.Severalprojectshadtobepostponed.Ihadseenherseveraltimesbefore.Therewereseveralreasonsforthis.

all,both,andeither

1.242 Allincludeseverypersonorthingofaparticularkind.Youuseallwithanuncountablenounorapluralcountablenoun.Theybelievethatallprisonersshouldbetreatedthesame.Both isusedtosaysomethingabouttwopeopleorthingsofthesamekind.Youusebothwithapluralcountablenoun.Thetwopeopleorthingshaveusuallybeenmentionedorareobviousfromthecontext.Both is sometimesused toemphasize that twopeopleor thingsare involved, ratherthanjustone.Therewereexcellentperformancesfrombothactresses.Denisheldhiscocoainbothhands.Either is also used to talk about two things, but usually indicates that only one of the two isinvolved.Youuseeitherwithasingularcountablenoun.Whenitispartofthesubjectofaclause,theverbisinthesingular.Noargumentcouldmoveeitheroldgentlemanfromthisdecision.Ifeitherparenthasthedisease,thereisamuchhigherchancethatthechildwilldevelopit.Notethateithercanmeanbothoftwothings,especiallywhenitisusedwithendandside.Theystoodoneithersideofthebed.

eachandevery

1.243 Youuseeachandeverywhenyouaretalkingaboutallthemembersofagroupofpeopleorthings.Youuseeachwhenyouare thinkingabout themembersas individuals, andeverywhenyouaremakingageneralstatementaboutallofthem.Eachandeveryarefollowedbyasingularcountablenoun.Eachseatwascoveredwithawhitelacecover.Theywouldrushouttomeeteachvisitor.Thisnewwealthcanbeseenineveryvillage.Everychildwouldhavemilkeveryday.Eachapplicanthasfivechoices.IagreewitheverywordPetersays.Youcanmodifyeverybutnoteach.YoucansaythingssuchasAlmosteverychairisbrokenorNoteverychairisbrokenbutyoucannotsayAlmosteachchairisbrokenorNoteachchairisbroken.Thisisbecauseeachisslightlymorepreciseanddefinitethanevery.Note thateach canbeusedwhen talkingabout twopeopleor things,butevery is onlyused fornumberslargerthantwo.

littleandmuch

1.244 Ifyouwant toemphasize that there isonlyasmallamountof something,youuse little.Youusemuchtoemphasizealargeamount.Littleandmuchareusedwithuncountablenouns.Littleisusedonlyinaffirmativestatements.Itisnotusedinquestionsornegatives.Therewaslittleapplause.We’vemadelittleprogress.Wehaveverylittleinformation.Little is quite formal. In less formal texts,notmuch ismore common. For example, instead ofsayingWe’vemadelittleprogress,youcansayWehaven’tmademuchprogress.Muchisusuallyusedinquestionsandnegatives.Doyouwatchmuchtelevision?HedidnotspeakmuchEnglish.Verymuchisusedonlyinnegativestatements.Forexample,Idon’thaveverymuchsugarmeansIhaveonlyasmallquantityofsugar.Ihaven’tgivenverymuchattentiontothisproblem.Muchisusedinaffirmativestatementswhenitismodifiedbyanadverbsuchastoo,sooras.Itwouldtaketoomuchtime.Provideasmuchinformationasyoucanabouttheproperty.InmoreformalEnglish,muchcanbeusedinaffirmativestatementswithoutanadverb.Thisusageismostcommonwithabstractnouns,particularlythoserelatingtodiscussion,debateandresearch.The subject of company annual accounts is generatingmuch debate among accountants and

analysts.Theteam’sfindingshavecausedmuchexcitementamongmedicalexperts.Aftermuchspeculation,intelligenceagenciesnowbelievethathesurvived.Usually,though,muchisnotusedinaffirmativestatements.Instead,peoplegenerallyusealotofand,inlessformaltexts,lotsof.Forexample,peoplewouldnotusuallysayIhavemuchworktodo;instead,theywouldsayIhavealotofworktodo.Formoreinformationonalotof,see2.176.

certain,numerous,andvarious

1.245 Someotherwordscanbeindefinitedeterminers,suchascertain,numerous,andvarious.Youusecertain,numerousandvariouswithapluralcountablenoun.Certainisusedtorefertosomemembersofagroup,withoutspecifyingwhichones.Wehavecertainideasaboutwhattopicsaresuitable.Numerous,likemany,indicatesalargenumberinanimpreciseway.Ihavereceivednumerousrequestsforinformation.Variousisusedtoemphasizethatyouarereferringtoseveraldifferentthingsorpeople.WelookedatschoolsinvariousEuropeancountries.

more,few,andless

1.246 Therearethreecomparativesthataredeterminers.Moreisusedinfrontofpluralanduncountablenouns,usuallywiththan,torefertoaquantityoramountofsomethingthatisgreaterthananotherquantityoramount.HedoesmorehoursthanIdo.Hisvisitmightdomoreharmthangood.But more is also often used to refer to an additional quantity of something rather than incomparisons.Moreteachersneedtoberecruited.Weneedmoreinformation.Lessisusedtorefertoanamountofsomethingthatissmallerthananotheramount.Fewerisusedto refer to a group of things that is smaller than another group. Less is usually used beforeuncountablenounsandfewerbeforepluralnouns,butininformalEnglishlessisalsousedbeforepluralnouns.Thepoorhavelessaccesstoeducation.…machinerywhichuseslessenergy.Asaresult,hefoundlesstimethanhewouldhavehopedforhishobbies.Therearefewertreeshere.Formoreinformationaboutcomparison,seeparagraphs2.103to2.139.

otherexpressions

1.247 Someotherexpressionsalsobehave like indefinitedeterminers:a few,a little,agoodmany,agreatmany.Thesehaveaslightlydifferentmeaningfromthesingleworddeterminersfew, little,andmany.Ifyouarementioningasmallnumberofthings,butwithoutanyemphasis,youcanuseafewwithpluralcountablenouns.TheywenttoSanDiegoforafewdays.Afewyearsagowesetupafactory.Iusuallydoafewjobsforhiminthehouse.Similarly, ifyouare justmentioningasmallamountofsomethingwithoutanyemphasis,youcanusealittlewithuncountablenouns.Hespreadalittlehoneyonasliceofbread.IhavetospendalittletimeinOxford.Charlesishavingalittletrouble.However,agoodmanyandagreatmanyaremoreemphaticformsofmany.Ihaven’tseenherforagoodmanyyears.Hewroteagreatmanynovels.

modifyingdeterminers:fourmorerooms,toomuchtime

1.248 Some indefinite determiners can be modified by very, too, and far, or sometimes by anotherindefinitedeterminer.Youcanmodifymorewithnumbersorwithotherindefinitedeterminers.Downstairstherearefourmorerooms.Therehadbeennomoreaccidents.Youwillneverhavetodoanymorework.Youcanusetoomanyortoomuchtosaythataquantityismorethaniswantedorneeded,andtoofewortoolittleifitisnotenough.Thereweretoomanycompetitors.TheygavetoomuchpowertotheTreasury.There’stoolittleliteratureinvolved.Youcanuseverybeforefew,little,many,andmuch.Youcanalsosayaverylittleoraverygreatmany.Verymanywomenhavemadetheirmarkonindustry.Veryfewcarshadreversinglights.Ihadverylittlemoneyleft.

usingone

1.249 Youuseone asadeterminerwhenyouhavebeen talkingorwritingaboutagroupofpeopleorthingsandyouwanttosaysomethingaboutaparticularmemberofthegroup.Oneisusedinsteadofaoranandisslightlymoreemphatic.

Wehadonecasethatdraggedonforacoupleofyears.Theycriticisemeallthetime,wroteonewoman.Iknowonehouseholdwherethathappened,actually.Theuseofoneasanumberisexplainedinparagraphs2.214to2.215.

1.250 Manydeterminersarealsopronouns;thatis,theycanbeusedwithoutafollowingnoun.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs1.154to1.161.

predeterminers:allthepeople,quitealongtime

1.251 Normally, a determiner is the firstword in a noun phrase.However, there is a class ofwordscalledpredeterminerswhichcancomeinfrontofadeterminer.Hereisalistofpredeterminers:

allbothdoublehalfmanyquartertwice~quiterathersuchwhat

Thefirstgroupareusedtotalkaboutamountsorquantities.Allcanalsobeusedtorefertoeverypartofsomething.Whenusedwiththismeaningitisusedwithanuncountablenoun.Alltheboysstartedtogiggle.Hewillgiveyoualltheinformation.Allthesepeoplekneweachother.Ishallmissallmyfriends.Iinvitedboththeboys.Boththesepartiessharedonebasicbelief.Shepaiddoublethesumtheyaskedfor.I’mgettingtwicethepayIusedtoget.In thesecondgroup,quiteandrathercanbeusedeither toemphasizeor to reduce theeffectofwhat isbeingsaid. In speech, themeaning ismadeclearbyyour toneofvoice. Inwriting, it issometimesdifficulttoknowwhichmeaningisintendedwithoutreadingmoreofthetext.Ittakesquitealongtimetogetadivorce.Itwasquiteashock.Seafordisratherapleasanttown.Itwasratheradisaster.

Suchandwhatareusedforemphasis.Hehassuchabeautifulvoice.Whatamess!

Chapter2Giving information about people and things: adjectives,numbers,andothermodifiers

2.1–2 Introduction

2.2–168 Describingpeopleandthings:adjectives

2.19–21 Adjectivestructures2.22–25 Identifyingqualities:asadstory,aprettygirl2.26–29 Identifyingtype:financialhelp,abdominalpains2.30–35 Identifyingcolours:colouradjectives2.36–39 Showingstrongfeelings:complete,absolute,etc.

2.40 Makingthereferencemoreprecise:postdeterminers2.41–53 Specialclassesofadjectives2.54–62 Positionofadjectivesinnounphrases2.63–76 Specialforms:-ingadjectives2.77–93 Specialforms:-edadjectives2.94–102 Compoundadjectives2.103–111 Comparingthings:comparatives2.112–122 Comparingthings:superlatives2.123–139 Otherwaysofcomparingthings:sayingthatthingsaresimilar2.140–156 Talkingaboutdifferentamountsofaquality2.157–168 Sayingthingsaredifferent

2.169–174 Modifyingusingnouns:nounmodifiers

2.175–207 Talkingaboutquantitiesandamounts

2.176–193 Talkingaboutamountsofthings:alotofideas,plentyofshops2.194–207 Talkingaboutparticularamountsofthings:apieceofpaper,adropofwater

2.208–271 Referringtoanexactnumberofthings:numbers

2.213–231 Talkingaboutthenumberofthings:cardinalnumbers2.232–239 Referringtothingsinasequence:ordinalnumbers2.240–249 Talkingaboutanexactpartofsomething:fractions2.250–257 Talkingaboutmeasurements2.258–263 Talkingaboutage2.264–271 Approximateamountsandmeasurements

2.272–302 Expandingthenounphrase

2.275–290 Nounswithprepositionalphrases2.291–292 Nounswithadjectives2.293–302 Nouns followed by to-infinitive, -ed participle, or -ing participle: something to eat, a girl called Patricia, a basket

containingeggs

2 Givinginformationaboutpeopleandthings:adjectives,numbers,andothermodifiers

Introduction2.1 In thepreviouschapter theuseofnouns,pronouns,anddeterminers tonameand identifypeople

andthingswasexplained.Thischapterexplainswaysofgivingmoreinformationaboutthepeopleandthingsthathavealreadybeennamedoridentified.Onewayofgivingmoreinformationwithinanounphraseaboutpeopleorthingsisbytheuseofanadjective,suchassmall,political,orblue.Adjectivescanbeusedasmodifiersofanounorafterlinkingverbs.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs2.2to2.168.Sometimes, nouns, rather than adjectives, are used to modify the noun. This is explained inparagraphs2.169to2.174.Thereareothergroupsofwordsthatareusedbeforeanounphrasetogivemoreinformationaboutpeople and things. They are linked to the noun phrase by of. These include certain indefinitedeterminers suchasmanyof and someof (explained in paragraphs 2.176 to 2.193), and otherexpressionsthatareusedfordescribingapartoramountofsomething,suchasapieceofandabottleof(explainedinparagraphs2.194to2.207).Numbersand fractions arealsoused to indicate theamountofpeopleor thingsyouare talkingabout. Numbers are explained in paragraphs 2.208 to 2.239 and fractions are explained inparagraphs2.240to2.249.Theotherwayofgivingmoreinformationwithinanounphraseaboutpeopleorthingsisbyusingaqualifier, that is, giving extra information in the form of a phrase or a clause after the noun toexpanditsmeaning.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.272to2.302.

Describingpeopleandthings:adjectives2.2 Whenyouwanttogivemoreinformationaboutsomethingthanyoucangivebyusinganounalone,

youcanuseanadjectivetoidentifyitordescribeitinmoredetail.…anewidea.…newideas.…newcreativeideas.Ideasareimportant.…tosuggestthatnewideasareuseful.

mainpointsaboutadjectives

2.3 ThemostimportantthingstonoticeaboutanadjectiveinEnglisharewhatstructureitisin(e.g.beforeanounorafteralinkingverb)whattypeofadjectiveitis(e.g.describingaqualityorplacingthenouninaparticularclass).

BECAREFUL

2.4 Theformofanadjectivedoesnotchange:youusethesameformforsingularandpluralandforsubjectandobject.Wewerelookingforagoodplacetocamp.Thenextgoodplacewasforty-fivemilesfurtheron.Goodplacestofishwerehardtofind.Wefoundhardlyanygoodplaces.

structure

2.5 Adjectivesarenearlyalwaysusedinconnectionwithanounorpronountogiveinformationabouttheperson,thing,orgroupthatisbeingreferredto.Whenthisinformationisnotthemainpurposeofastatement,adjectivesareplacedinfrontofanoun,asinhotcoffee.Theuseofadjectivesinanounphraseisexplainedinparagraph2.19.

2.6 Sometimes,however, themainpurposeofastatement is togive the informationexpressedbyanadjective.Whenthishappens,adjectivesareplacedafteralinkingverbsuchasbeorbecome,asin I am cold and He became ill. The use of adjectives after a linking verb is explained inparagraphs3.122to3.137.

typesofadjective

2.7 There is a large group of adjectives that identify qualities that someone or something has. Thisgroupincludeswordssuchashappyandintelligent.Thesearecalledqualitativeadjectives.Qualitativeadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.22to2.25.

2.8 There isanother largegroupofadjectives that identify someoneor somethingasamemberofaclass.Thisgroupincludeswordssuchasfinancialandintellectual.Thesearecalledclassifyingadjectives.Classifyingadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.26to2.28.Someadjectivesarebothqualitativeandclassifying.Theseareexplainedinparagraph2.29.

2.9 There is a small group of adjectives that identify the colour of something. This group includeswordslikeblueandgreen.Theyarecalledcolouradjectives.Colouradjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.30to2.35.

2.10 Anothersmallgroupofadjectivesareused toemphasizeyour feelingsabout thepersonor thingyou are talking about. These adjectives are called emphasizing adjectives, and they includeadjectivessuchascomplete,absolute,andutter.Emphasizingadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.36to2.39.

2.11 There is a small group of adjectives that are used in a very similar way to determiners (seeparagraphs1.162to1.251)tomakethereferencemoreprecise.Thesearecalledpostdeterminersbecause theirplace inanounphrase is immediatelyafter thedeterminer,ifthereisone,andbeforeanyotheradjectives.Postdeterminersareexplainedinparagraph2.40.

structuralrestrictions

2.12 Most adjectives can be used either before the noun or after a linking verb.However, there aresome thatcanbeusedonly inonepositionor theother.This isexplained inparagraphs2.41 to2.53.

2.13 There are a few adjectives that can be used immediately after the noun. They are explained inparagraphs2.58to2.62.

orderofadjectives

2.14 Whentwoormoreadjectivesareusedinastructure,theyusuallyoccurinaparticularorder.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.54to2.57.

-ingand-edadjectives

2.15 TherearealargenumberofEnglishadjectivesendingin-ing,manyofwhicharerelatedtothe-ingparticipleofaverb.Inthisgrammartheyarecalled-ingadjectives.TherearealsoalargenumberofEnglishadjectivesendingin-ed,manyofwhicharerelatedtothe-edparticipleofaverb.Inthisgrammartheyarecalled-edadjectives.-ing adjectives are explained in paragraphs 2.63 to 2.76. -ed adjectives are explained inparagraphs2.77to2.93.

compoundadjectives

2.16 Compoundadjectivesaremadeupoftwoormorewords,usuallywrittenwithhyphensbetweenthem.Compoundadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.94to2.102.

comparingthings

2.17 Whenyouwanttocomparetheamountofaqualitythattwoormorepeopleorthingshave,youcanusecomparativeandsuperlativeadjectives.Therearealsosomeotherwaysofcomparingthings.Comparatives are explained in paragraphs 2.103 to 2.111, and superlatives are explained inparagraphs2.112to2.122.Otherwaysofcomparingthingsareexplainedinparagraphs2.123 to2.139.

talkingabouttheamountofaquality

2.18 Youcanalsotalkabouttheamountofaqualitythatsomethingorsomeonehasbyusinganadverbliketotallyormildlywithanadjective.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.141to2.168.

Adjectivestructures2.19 Adjectives are used in twomain structures.Oneof them involves adjectives comingbefore the

nounphrase.IfyousayJuliawascarryinganoldsuitcase,yourmainpurposeistosaythatJuliawascarryingasuitcase.Theadjectiveoldgivesmoreinformationaboutwhatkindofsuitcaseitwas.Hewaswearingawhitet-shirt.…atechnicalterm.…aprettylittlestar-shapedflowerbed.Mostadjectivescanbeusedinthisway.

2.20 The other main structure involves adjectives being used after linking verbs such as be andbecome. Putting an adjective after a linking verb has the effect of focusing attention on theadjective.IfyousayThesuitcaseshewascarryingwasold,yourmainpurposeistodescribethesuitcase,sothefocusisontheadjectiveold.Theroadsarebusy.Thehousewasquiet.Hebecameangry.Ifeelcold.Nobodyseemedamused.Theuseofadjectivesafterlinkingverbsisexplainedinparagraphs3.132to3.137.Mostadjectivescanbeusedinthisway.

2.21 Inthefollowingexamples,thefirstexampleineachpairshowsanadjectivebeingusedbeforethenoun,whilethesecondexampleshowsitbeingusedwithalinkingverb.Therewasnoclearevidence.‘That’sveryclear,’Isaid.Ithadbeenapleasantevening.It’snotabigstream,butit’sverypleasant.Sheboughtaloafofwhitebread.Thewallswerewhite.

Identifyingqualities:asadstory,aprettygirl2.22 There are twomain types of adjective,qualitative and classifying. Adjectives that describe a

quality that someoneor somethinghas, such as sad,pretty, small, happy, healthy,wealthy, andwise,arecalledqualitativeadjectives.…asadstory.…aprettygirl.

…asmallchild.…ahappymotherwithahealthybaby.…wealthybankers.Ithinkitwouldbewisetogiveup.

gradability:verysad,ratherfunny

2.23 Adjectivesthatdescribequalitiesaregradable,whichmeansthat thepersonorthingreferredtocanhavemoreorlessofthequalitymentioned.

2.24 Theusualway inwhichyou show the amount of a quality that somethingor someonehas is byusing adverbs like very and rather in front of qualitative adjectives. This is explained inparagraphs2.140to2.156.

2.25 Theotherwayinwhichyoucantalkabouttheamountofaqualitythatsomethingorsomeonehasisby using a comparative, such as bigger andmore interesting, or a superlative, such as thebiggest and the most interesting. Comparatives and superlatives are explained in paragraphs2.103to2.122.Hereisalistofqualitativeadjectives:

activeangryanxiousappropriateattractivebadbeautifulbigbriefbrightbroadbusycalmcarefulcheapcleanclearclosecoldcomfortablecommoncomplexcoolcuriousdangerousdarkdeardeepdetermineddifferent

difficultdirtydryeasyeffectiveefficientexpensivefairfamiliarfamousfastfatfinefirmflatfrankfreefreshfriendlyfrightenedfunnygoodgreathappyhardheavyhighhotimportantinterestingkindlargelatelightlikelylonglooseloudlovelylowluckynarrownervousnewniceobviousoddoldpalepatientplainpleasantpoorpopular

powerfulprettyproudquickquietrarereasonablerichroughsadsafesensibleserioussharpshockedshortsicksignificantsillysimpleslowsmallsoftspecialsteadystrangestrongstupidsuccessfulsuitablesuresurprisedsweettallterriblethickthintighttinytiredtypicalunderstandingusefulviolentwarmweakwetwidewildworriedyoung

Identifyingtype:financialhelp,abdominalpains2.26 Theothermaintypeofadjectiveconsistsofadjectivesthatyouusetoidentifythetypeorclassthat

somethingbelongsto.Forexample,ifyousayfinancialhelp,youareusingtheadjectivefinancialtodescribewhattypeofhelpyouaretalkingabout(thatis,toclassifyhelp).Adjectivesthatareusedinthiswayarecalledclassifyingadjectives.…financialhelp.…abdominalpains.…amedievalmanuscript.…mydailyshower.…anequalpartnership.…asufficientamountofmilk.Notethatnounmodifiers(seeparagraphs2.169to2.174)areusedinasimilarwaytoclassifyingadjectives.For example, financialmattersandmoneymatters are similar in both structure andmeaning.Hereisalistofclassifyingadjectives:

absoluteactiveactualagriculturalalternativeannualapparentavailablebasiccentralchemicalcivilcommercialcommunistconservativeculturaldailydemocraticdirectdomesticdoubledueeasteasterneconomiceducationalelectricemptyexternalfemalefinancialforeign

freefullgeneralgoldenhistoricalhumanidealindependentindustrialinevitableintellectualinternalinternationallegallocalmagicmalemedicalmentalmilitarymodernmoralnationalnaturalnegativenorthnorthernnuclearofficialopenoriginalpersonalphysicalpoliticalpositivepossiblepotentialprivateprofessionalproperpsychologicalpublicrawreadyrealreligiousrevolutionaryrightroyalruralscientificseparatesexualsingle

social

solidsouthsouthernstandardstraightsufficienttheoreticaltraditionalurbanwestwesternwoodenwrong

2.27 AdjectivessuchasBritish,American,andAustralian,thatindicatenationalityororigin,arealsoclassifying adjectives. They start with a capital letter because they are related to names ofcountries.…Americancitizens.Some classifying adjectives are formed from people’s names, for example Victorian andShakespearean.Theyalsostartwithacapitalletter.…Victorianhouses.

2.28 Because they put something in a class, classifying adjectives are not gradable in the way thatqualitativeadjectivesare.Forexample, ifyoudonothave topayforsomething,youcannotsaythat it isvery free,orrather free.Thingsareeither inaparticularclassornot in it.Therefore,classifyingadjectivesdonothavecomparativesandsuperlativesandarenotnormallyusedwithadverbslikeveryandrather.However,whenyouwanttoshowthatyoufeelstronglyaboutwhatyouaresaying,youcanuseanintensifying adverb such as absolutely with a classifying adjective. This is explained inparagraphs2.147to2.148.

adjectivesthatareofbothtypes

2.29 Someadjectivescanbeeitherqualitativeorclassifyingdependingonthemeaning.Forexample,inanemotionalperson,emotionalisaqualitativeadjectivemeaningfeelingorexpressingstrongemotions;ithasacomparativeandsuperlativeanditcanbeusedwithwordslikeveryandrather.Thus,apersoncanbeveryemotional,ratheremotional,ormoreemotional thansomeoneelse.However, in the emotional needs of children, emotional is a classifying adjective meaningrelatingtoaperson’semotions,andsoitcannotbeusedwithwordslikeveryorrather,and itdoesnothaveacomparativeandsuperlative.Here is a list of adjectives that are often used both as qualitative adjectives and as classifyingadjectives:

academic

consciousdryeducationaleffectiveemotionalextremelatemodernmoralobjectiveordinaryregularreligiousrevolutionaryruralscientificsecretsimilarsocial

Identifyingcolours:colouradjectives2.30 Whenyouwanttosaywhatcoloursomethingis,youuseacolouradjective.

…herblueeyes.…aredribbon.Hereisalistofthemaincolouradjectives:

blackbluebrowncreamgreengreyorangepinkpurpleredscarletvioletwhiteyellow

addingextrainformationtocolouradjectives

2.31 Ifyouwanttospecifyacolourmoreprecisely,youuseawordsuchaslight,pale,dark,deep,orbright,infrontofacolouradjective.…lightbrownhair.

…apalegreensuit.…adarkbluedress.…deepreddye.…herbrightblueeyes.Thesecombinationssometimeshavehyphens.…alight-bluesuit.…theplant’stinypale-pinkflowers.Note that thesewordscannotbeusedwith thecoloursblackorwhite,becauseyoucannothavedifferentshadesofblackandwhite.

approximatecolours

2.32 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutacolourthatdoesnothaveadefinitenameyoucan:useacolouradjectivewith-ishaddedtotheend

…greenishglass.…yellowishhair.combinetwocolouradjectives,oftenwith-ishor-yontheendofthefirstone

…greenish-whiteflowers.…agreenyblueline.…theblue-greenwaves.

BECREATIVE

2.33 Youcanmixcoloursinthesewaystoproducewhatevernewcolouryouaretryingtodescribe.

comparisonofcolouradjectives

2.34 Colouradjectivessuchasblueandgreenoccasionallyhavecomparativesandsuperlativesendingin-erand-est.Hisfacewasredderthanusual.…thebluestskyIhaveeverseen.Comparativesandsuperlativesareexplainedinparagraphs2.103to2.122.

colournouns

2.35 Colourscanalsobenouns,andthemaincolourscanalsobepluralnouns.Thesnowshadowshadturnedtoadeepblue.Theyblendedinsowellwiththekhakiandredsofthelandscape.…brilliantlycolouredinreds,yellows,blacks,andpurples.

Showingstrongfeelings:complete,absolute,etc.

2.36 Youcanemphasizeyourfeelingsaboutsomethingthatyoumentionbyputtinganadjectivesuchascomplete,absolute,orutterinfrontofanoun.Hemademefeellikeacompleteidiot.Someofitwasabsoluterubbish.…utterdespair.…purebliss.You generally use an adjective of this kind only when the noun shows your opinion aboutsomething.Because they are used to show strong feelings, these adjectives are called emphasizingadjectives.Hereisalistofemphasizingadjectives:

absolutecompleteentireoutrightperfectpositivepurerealtotaltrueutter

adjectivesforshowingdisapproval

2.37 A small group of adjectives ending in -ing are used in very informal spoken English foremphasis,usuallytoshowdisapprovalorcontempt.Everybodyinthewholestinkingtownwasloadedwithmoney.Shutthatblinkingdoor!Hereisalistofadjectivesusedinformallyforemphasis:

blinkingblitheringbloomingblunderingcrashingflamingfreezingpiddlingravingscaldingstinkingthumping

thunderingwhopping

BECAREFUL

2.38 Many of these adjectives are usually used with one particular noun or adjective after them:blitheringidiot,blunderingidiot,crashingbore,ravinglunatic, thunderingnuisance, freezingcold,scaldinghot,piddlinglittle…,thumpinggreat…,whoppinggreat….He’sdrivingthatcarlikearavinglunatic!I’vegotastinkingcold.…apiddlinglittlecar.

veryasanemphasizingadjective

2.39 Thewordvery issometimesused toemphasizeanoun, inexpressions like thevery topand theveryend.…attheveryendoftheshop.…theverybottomofthehill.Thesemoleculeswereformedattheverybeginningofhistory.

Makingthereferencemoreprecise:postdeterminers2.40 There is a small group of adjectives that are used in a very similar way todeterminers (see

paragraphs1.162to1.251)tomakethereferencemoreprecise.Thesearecalledpostdeterminers,becausetheirplaceinanounphraseisimmediatelyafterthedeterminer,ifthereisone,andbeforeanyotheradjectives.…thefollowingbriefdescription.…certainbasichumanqualities.…improvementsinthelastfewyears.…furthertechnologicaladvance.Heworehisusualoldwhitecoat….…theonlysensiblethingtodo.Youoftenneedtomakeitclearpreciselywhatyouarereferringto.Forexample,ifyousayTurnleftatthetallbuildingsomeonemightaskwhichtallbuildingyoumean.IfyousayTurnleftatthenexttallbuilding,therecanbenodoubtwhichoneyoumean.Thepostdeterminernextpicksitoutprecisely.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatarepostdeterminers:

additionalcertainchiefentireexistingfirst

followingfurtherlastmainnextonlyoppositeotherparticularpastpresentpreviousprincipalremainingsamespecialspecificusual

Someoftheseadjectivesarealsoordinaryclassifyingadjectives.Hehadchildrenfromapreviousmarriage.Therearetwomainreasonsforthis.Hereisalistofpostdeterminersthatarealsoclassifyingadjectives:

additionalchiefexistingfurthermainotherparticularpastpreviousprincipalremainingspecific

Adjectivesthatareusedtoshowthepositionofsomethingarealsousedforprecisereference.…themiddlebuttonofherblackleathercoat.…thetop100Germancompanies.Hereisalistofadjectivessometimesusedtotalkaboutthepositionofsomethingaswellasforprecisereference:

leftright

upperlowertopbottommiddleendfrontback

Postdeterminerscanalsobeusedwithnumbers.Thisisexplainedinparagraph2.219.

Specialclassesofadjectives2.41 Mostadjectivescanbeusedbothbeforethenounandafteralinkingverb,buttherearesomethat

areonlyusedinonepositionortheother.Thereareafewadjectivesthatarealwaysoralmostalwaysusedinfrontofanounandareneverorrarelyusedafteralinkingverb.Theseadjectivesarecalledattributiveadjectives.Examplesareatomicandoutdoor.Youcantalkaboutanatomicexplosion,butyoudonotsayTheexplosionwasatomic.Youcantalkaboutoutdoorpursuits,butyoudonotsayTheirpursuitsareoutdoor.

adjectivesthatareonlyusedinfrontofanoun

2.42 Afewqualitativeadjectives(seeparagraphs2.22to2.25)areonlyusedinfrontofanoun.Hereisalistofqualitativeadjectivesalwaysusedinthisway:

adoringbelatedchequeredchokedcommandingfatefulflagrantfleetingknottypaltrypunishingramshacklescantsearingthanklessunenviable

Mostadjectives thatareonlyused in frontofanounareclassifyingadjectives (seeparagraphs2.26to2.28).Hereisalistofclassifyingadjectivesusedattributively:

atomicbridalcardiaccountlesscubicdigitaleasteasterneventualexistingfederalforensicindoorinstitutionalintroductoryinvestigativejudiciallonemaximumnationwideneighbouringnorthnorthernoccasionalorchestraloutdoorphoneticpreconceivedremedialreproductivesmokelesssouthsouthernsubterraneansupplementaryunderlyingwestwesternwoollen

2.43 Therearenocolouradjectives(seeparagraphs2.30to2.35)thatarerestrictedtothisposition.Emphasizingadjectives(seeparagraphs2.36to2.39)areusuallyusedinfrontofanoun.

adjectivesthatalwaysfollowalinkingverb

2.44 Some adjectives are normally used only after a linking verb and not in front of a noun. Theseadjectivesarecalledpredicativeadjectives.Forexample,youcansayShefeltglad,butyoudonotnormallytalkaboutagladwoman.Hereisalistofadjectivesusuallyusedinthisway:

afraidalivealoneapartasleepawakeawarecontentduegladilllikelyreadysafesorrysureunableunlikelywell

Notethattheydonothavetobefollowedbyaprepositionalphrase.2.45 Some adjectives are usually followed by a prepositional phrase because their meaning would

otherwise be unclear or incomplete. For example, you cannot simply say that someone isaccustomed.Youhavetosaythattheyareaccustomedtosomething.Thefollowingusagenoteexplainswhichprepositionsyouuseafteraparticularadjective.

USAGENOTE

2.46 There are a few adjectives that are followed by the preposition to when they are used after alinkingverb.She’sallergictocats.Olderpeopleareparticularlysusceptibletoheartproblems.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatareusuallyoralwaysusedafteralinkingverbandarefollowedbyto:

accustomedadjacentallergicattributableattunedaversecloseconducivedevotedimperviousinjuriousintegral

proneproportionalproportionatereconciledrelatedresignedresistantsimilarsubjectsubservientsusceptibleunaccustomed

2.47 There are a few adjectives that are followed by the preposition of when they are used after alinkingverb.Hewasawareofthedangerthatfacedhim.Theyseemedcapableofwinningtheirfirstgameoftheseason.Hewasdevoidofanytalentwhatsoever.Hismindseemedtohavebecomeincapableofanythought.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatareusuallyoralwaysusedafteralinkingverbandarefollowedbyof:

awarebereftcapablecharacteristicdesirousdevoidfondfullheedlessillustrativeincapableindicativemindfulreminiscentrepresentative

2.48 Therearea fewadjectives thatare followedby theprepositionwithwhen theyareusedafteralinkingverb.Hissurprisebecametingedwithdisbelief.Theplastichastobecompatiblewiththebodytissuesthatmakecontactwithit.Thiswayoflifeisfraughtwithdanger.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatareusuallyoralwaysusedafteralinkingverbandarefollowedbywith:

compatibleconsonantconversantfilledfraughtriddledtinged

2.49 Someadjectivesarefollowedbyotherprepositionswhentheyareusedafteralinkingverb.Theseideasarerootedinself-deception.Didn’tyousaytheraidwascontingentontheweather?Darwinconcludedthatpeopleweredescendedfromapes.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatareusuallyoralwaysusedafteralinkingverbandarefollowedbytheprepositionindicated:

contingentondescendedfrominherentinlackinginrootedinsteepedinswathedinunhamperedby

Insomecases,thereisachoicebetweentwoprepositions.Manyoftheircoursesareconnectedwithindustry.Suchnameswerearbitrarilygivenandwerenotconnectedtoanyparticularevent.Here is a list of adjectives that are usually or always used after a linking verb and that arefollowedbytheprepositionsshown:

answerableforanswerabletoburdenedbyburdenedwithconnectedtoconnectedwithdependentondependentuponimmunefromimmunetoinclinedtoinclinedtowardsincumbentonincumbentupon

insensibleofinsensibletointentonintentuponparalleltoparallelwithreliantonreliantuponstrickenbystrickenwith

2.50 Different is most commonly followed by from. It is also sometimes followed by to in BritishEnglishorthaninAmericanEnglish.

Studentstodayaredifferentfromthestudentstenyearsago.

adjectivesfollowedbyto-infinitiveclauses

2.51 Tocompletethemeaningofsomeadjectivesthatareusedpredicatively,youneedtofollowwithaclausebeginningwithato-infinitive.Forexample,youcannotjustsayHeisunable.Youhavetoaddaclausebeginningwithto-infinitivesuchastodo:Heisunabletodoit.To-infinitiveclausesareexplainedintheReferencesection.Theywereunabletohelpher.Iamwillingtotry.Sheisboundtonoticethere’ssomethingwrong.I’minclinedtoagreewiththeminister.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatarealwaysornearlyalwaysfollowedbyato-infinitiveclause:

ablebounddestineddoomedduefatedfitinclinedliablelikelyloathpreparedunableunwillingwilling

2.52 Youcanalsouseaclausebeginningwithato-infinitiveaftermanyotheradjectivestogivemoreinformationaboutsomething.

Iwasafraidtogohome.Iwashappytoseethemagain.Hewaspowerlesstopreventit.Iwasalmostashamedtotellher.Thepathwaseasytofollow.Notethatthesubjectofthemainclauseisalsothesubjectoftheto-infinitiveclause.

adjectivesfollowedbythat-clauses

2.53 Whenadjectivesthatrefertosomeone’sbeliefsorfeelingsareusedafteralinkingverb,theyareoftenfollowedbyathat-clause(seeparagraphs8.119to8.121).Thesubjectofthethat-clauseisnotalwaysthesameasthesubjectofthemainclause,soyouneedtospecifyit.Shewassurethathemeantit.Hewasfrightenedthatsomethingterriblemightbesaid.I’mawarethatIreachedaratherlargeaudiencethroughthebook.Notethatthewordthatisnotalwaysusedinathat-clause.Theyweresureshehadbeenborninthecity.Hereisalistofcommonadjectivesoftenfollowedbyathat-clause:

afraidangryanxiousawarecertainconfidentfrightenedgladhappypleasedproudsadsorrysuresurprisedunawareupsetworried

Note thatallof theseadjectivesexceptangry,aware,unaware,upset,andworried can also befollowedbyato-infinitive.Iwasafraidthatshemightnotbeabletobearthestrain.Don’tbeafraidtoaskquestions.ShewassurprisedthatIknewaboutit.ThetwinswereverysurprisedtoseeRalph.

Positionofadjectivesinnounphrases2.54 When you usemore than one adjective in a noun phrase, the usual order for the adjectives is:

qualitativeadjectives,followedbycolouradjectives,followedbyclassifyingadjectives.…alittlewhitewoodenhouse.…prettyblacklacydresses.…alargecircularpoolofwater.…abeautifulpinksuit.…rapidtechnologicaladvance.…aniceredapple.…theblacktriangularfin.ThisorderisnearlyalwaysfollowedinEnglish.Occasionallyhowever,whenyouwanttofocusonaparticular characteristicof thepersonor thingyouaredescribing,youcanvary thisorder,especiallywhenoneoftheadjectivesreferstocolourorsize.…asquareblackhole.Notethatyousometimesputacommaorandbetweenadjectives.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs8.180to8.186andparagraph8.201.…thelong,lowcaravan.Itwasalongandtediousbusiness.

2.55 Comparatives(seeparagraphs2.103to2.111)andsuperlatives(seeparagraphs2.112 to2.122)normallycomeinfrontofallotheradjectivesinanounphrase.…betterparentalcontrol.…thehighestmonthlyfiguresonrecord.

positionofnounmodifiersandadjectives

2.56 When a noun phrase contains both an adjective and a nounmodifier (see paragraphs 2.169 to2.174)theadjectiveisplacedinfrontofthenounmodifier.…theboomingEuropeancarindustry.…theworld’sbiggestandmostprestigiousbookfair.

twoormoreadjectivesafteralinkingverb

2.57 Whenyouusetwoadjectivesafteralinkingverb,youuseaconjunction,usuallyand,tolinkthem.Ifyouusemorethantwoadjectives,youusuallyputaconjunctionsuchasandbetweenthelasttwoadjectivesandcommasbetween theothers.This is fullyexplained inparagraphs8.180 to8.186andparagraph8.201.Theroomwaslargeandsquare.Wefelthot,tired,andthirsty.Notethatyouputtheadjectivesintheorderthatyouthinkisthemostimportant.

adjectivesafternouns

2.58 Thereareafewadjectivesthatareusuallyoralwaysusedafteranoun.Hereisalistshowingthedifferentgroupsofadjectivesusedafteranoun:

designateelectgaloreincarnatemanqué~broaddeephighlongoldtallthickwide~concernedinvolvedpresentproperresponsible~affectedavailablerequiredsuggested

USAGENOTE

2.59 Theadjectivesdesignate,elect,galore,incarnate,andmanquéareonlyusedimmediatelyafteranoun.Shewasnowpresidentelect.Thereareemptyhousesgalore.

2.60 The adjectives broad, deep, high, long, old, tall, thick, andwide are used immediately aftermeasurementnounswhengiving thesize,duration,orageofa thingorperson.Thisuse is fullyexplainedinparagraph2.253.…sixfeettall.…threemetreswide.…twentyfiveyearsold.

2.61 The adjectives concerned, involved,present, responsible, and proper have different meaningsdependingonwhetheryouputtheminfrontofanounorimmediatelyafterone.Forexample,theconcernedmotherdescribesamotherwhoisanxious,butthemotherconcernedsimplyreferstoamotherwhohasjustbeenmentioned.…theapprovalofinterestedandconcernedparents.

Theideaneedstocomefromtheindividualsconcerned.Allthisbecameaveryinvolvedprocess.Heknewallofthepeopleinvolved.…thepresentinternationalsituation.Ofthe18peoplepresent,Iknowonlyone.…parentstryingtoactinaresponsiblemanner.…thepersonresponsibleforhisdeath.…apropertraininginhowtoteach.…thefirstroundproperoftheFACup.

2.62 Theadjectivesaffected,available,required,andsuggestedcanbeusedinfrontofanounorafteranounwithoutanychangeinmeaning.Newspapersweretheonlyavailablesourceofinformation.…thenumberofteachersavailable.…therequiredchanges.You’rewaybelowthestandardrequired.…thecostofthesuggestedimprovements.Theproposalssuggestedarederivedfromsuccessfulexperiments.Asidefromtheaffectedchild,thedoctorcheckseveryothermemberofthehousehold.…theproportionofthepopulationaffected.

Specialforms:-ingadjectives2.63 Therearemanyadjectivesendingin-ing.Mostofthemarerelatedinformtothe-ingparticiples

ofverbs.Inthisgrammartheyarecalled-ingadjectives.Hewasanamiable,amusingfellow.Hehadbeenupallnightattendingadyingman.The-ingformisexplainedintheReferencesection.

describinganeffect

2.64 Onegroupof-ingadjectivesdescribetheeffectthatsomethinghasonyourfeelingsandideas,oronthefeelingsandideasofpeopleingeneral.…analarmingincreaseinburglaries.Asurprisingnumberofmendonotmarry.…acharminghouseontheoutskirtsofthetown.…awarmwelcomingsmile.

2.65 These adjectives are normallyqualitativeadjectives. Thismeans that they can be usedwith asubmodifyingadverb(awordlikeveryorrather),andhavecomparativesandsuperlatives.…averyconvincingexample.Thereisnothingverysurprisinginthis.…averyexcitingidea.…areallypleasingeveningatthetheatre.WhenBernardmoanshe’smuchmoreconvincing.

…oneofthemostboringbooksI’veeverread.2.66 Theycanbeusedinfrontofanounorafteralinkingverb.

Theycanstillshowamazingloyaltytotheirparents.It’samazingwhattheycando.…themostterrifyingtaleeverwritten.Thepresentsituationisterrifying.

2.67 These-ingadjectiveshavearelatedtransitiveverbthatyouusetodescribethewaysomeoneisaffected by something. For example, if you speak of an alarming increase, you mean that theincreasealarmsyou.Ifyouspeakofasurprisingnumber,youmeanthatthenumbersurprisesyou.Hereisalistof-ingadjectivesthatdescribeaneffectandthathaveasimilarmeaningtotheusualmeaningoftherelatedverb:

alarmingamazingamusingannoyingappallingastonishingastoundingbewilderingboringchallengingcharmingcompellingconfusingconvincingdemeaningdepressingdevastatingdisappointingdisgustingdistractingdistressingdisturbingembarrassingenchantingencouragingentertainingexcitingfrighteningharassinghumiliatinginfuriatinginspiringinterestingintimidatingintriguingmenacingmisleading

mockingoverwhelmingpleasingrefreshingrelaxingrewardingsatisfyingshockingsickeningstartlingsurprisingtemptingterrifyingthreateningthrillingtiringwelcomingworrying

Transitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.14to3.25.

describingaprocessorstate

2.68 Theothermaingroupof-ingadjectivesareusedtodescribeaprocessorstatethatcontinuesoveraperiodoftime.…hergrowingbandofsupporters.Oilandgasdrillersaredoingaboomingbusiness.…alifeofincreasinglabouranddecreasingleisure.

2.69 Theseadjectivesareclassifyingadjectives,sotheyarenotusedwithwordslikeveryandrather.However, adjectives used to identify a process are oftenmodified by adverbs that describe thespeedwithwhichtheprocesshappens.…afastdiminishingdegreeofpersonalfreedom.…rapidlyrisingproductivity.

2.70 These-ingadjectiveshaverelatedintransitiveverbs.Hereisalistof-ingadjectivesthatdescribeacontinuingprocessorstateandthathaveasimilarmeaningtotheusualmeaningoftherelatedverb:

ageingailingbleedingboomingburstingdecreasingdiminishingdwindlingdying

existingincreasinglivingprevailingrecurringreigningremainingresoundingrisingruling

Intransitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.8to3.13.2.71 These -ingadjectivesareonlyused in frontofanoun,sowhen -ing formsof intransitiveverbs

appearaftertheverbbetheyareactuallypartofaprogressiveform.

BECREATIVE

2.72 InEnglish,youcanmakemostverbs intoadjectivesbyadding -ing to theverbandputting it infrontofthenoun,tosaywhatsomeoneorsomethingisdoing.…awalkingfigure.…FIFA,worldfootball’srulingbody.…bandsperforminginfrontofscreamingcrowds.…twoyearsoffallingemployment.…atremendousnoiseofsmashingglass.

formandmeaning

2.73 Most of the -ing adjectives talked about so far are related to verbs. Sometimes however, -ingadjectivesarenotrelatedtoverbsatall.Forexample,thereisnoverbtoneighbour.Wholefamiliescamefromneighbouringvillages.Hereisalistof-ingadjectivesthatarenotrelatedtoverbs:

appetizingbaldingcunningenterprisingexcruciatingimpendingneighbouringscathingunwitting

2.74 Sometimes,an-ingadjectiveisrelatedtoanuncommonuseofaverb,orappearstoberelatedtoaverbbutisnotrelatedexactlytoanycurrentuse.Forexample,theverbhaunt ismostcommonlyused inconnectionwithghosts,but theadjectivehaunting ismoreoftenused to talkabout such

thingsassongsandmemories.Ahauntingtuneisatuneyoucannotforget.Here is a listofqualitative -ing adjectives that are not related to a common transitiveuseof averb:

becomingbracingcuttingdashingdisarmingengagingfetchinghaltinghauntingmovingpenetratingpiercingpressingpromisingramblingravishingretiringrevoltingsearchingtaxingtrying

Hereisalistofclassifying-ingadjectivesthatarenotrelatedtoacommonintransitiveuseofaverb:

actingdrivingfloatinggatheringgoingleadingmissingrunning

2.75 Someadjectivesarederivedfromaverbandaprefix.Forexample,outgoingisderivedfromtheverbgoandtheprefixout-.Thereisnoverbtooutgo.Wouldn’tthatcauseadelayinoutgoingmail?Hereisalistof-ingadjectivesderivedfromaverbandaprefix:

forthcomingincoming

oncomingongoingoutgoingoutstandingoverarchingoverbearingupliftingupstanding

2.76 A small group of -ing adjectives are used in informal spoken English for emphasis, usually toexpressdisapproval.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs2.41to2.42.Somecompoundadjectives(seeparagraphs2.94to2.102)endin-ing.

Specialforms:-edadjectives2.77 A large number ofEnglish adjectives end in -ed.Many of them have the same form as the -ed

participleofaverb.Othersareformedbyadding-edtoanoun.Othersarenotcloselyrelatedtoanyotherwords.…adisappointedman.…abeardedman.…sophisticatedelectronicdevices.

2.78 Adjectiveswiththesameformasirregular-edparticiples(seetheReferencesection)thatdonotendin-edarealsoincludedhereas-edadjectives.Wasitabrokenbone,atornligament,orwhat?The -ed participles of somephrasalverbs (see paragraphs 3.83 to 3.116) can also be used asadjectives.When theyareused in frontof anoun, the twopartsof thephrasalverb areusuallywrittenwithahyphenbetweenthem.…thebuilt-upurbanmassofthecity.

2.79 Most-edadjectivesarerelatedtoa transitiveverbandhaveapassivemeaning.Theyshowthatsomethinghashappenedor ishappeningto the thingbeingdescribed.Forexample,a frightenedpersonisapersonwhohasbeenfrightenedbysomething.Aknowncriminalisacriminalwhoisknownbythepolice.Wehavealonglistofsatisfiedcustomers.Wecannotrefusetoteachchildrentherequiredsubjects.

qualitative-edadjectives

2.80 -ed adjectives that refer to a person’smental or emotional reaction to something are generallyqualitative.Hewasaworriedoldman.…aboredoldwoman.…aninterestedstudent.

Theseadjectivescanbemodifiedbywordssuchasveryandextremely,justlikeotherqualitativeadjectives(seeparagraphs2.140to2.156).

formandmeaning

2.81 Likeotheradjectivesusedfortalkingaboutfeelings,theseadjectivesareoftenusedtodescribetheexpression,voice,ormannerofthepersonaffected,insteadofreferringdirectlytothatperson.…herbigbluefrightenedeyes.Shecouldhearhisagitatedvoice.Barrygavehimaworriedlook.

2.82 Hereisalistofqualitative-edadjectivesthathaveasimilarmeaningtothemostcommonmeaningoftherelatedverb:

agitatedalarmedamusedappalledastonishedboredconfusedcontenteddelighteddepresseddepriveddisappointeddisgusteddisillusioneddistressedembarrassedexcitedfrightenedinhibitedinterestedpleasedpreoccupiedpuzzledsatisfiedshockedsurprisedtiredtroubledworried

Hereisalistofqualitative-edadjectivesthatdonothaveasimilarmeaningtotheusualmeaningoftherelatedverb:

animated

attachedconcerneddetermineddisposeddisturbedguardedhurtinclinedmixedstrained

classifying-edadjectives

2.83 Manyother-edadjectivesareusedforclassifying,andsocannotbeusedwithwordslikeveryandrather. For example, a furnished apartment is one type of apartment, contrasting with anapartmentwithoutfurniture.…afurnishedapartment.…apaintedwoodenbowl.…theclosedbedroomdoor.Mostadjectivesthatrefertophysicaldistinctionsareclassifyingadjectives.

2.84 Hereisalistofclassifying-edadjectivesthathaveasimilarmeaningtothemostcommonmeaningoftherelatedverb:

abandonedarmedblockedboiledbrokencannedclassifiedclosedconcentratedcondemnedcookeddivideddrawndriedestablishedfixedfurnishedhauntedhiddenimprovedinfectedintegratedknownlicensedloaded

paidpaintedprocessedreducedrequiredtorntrainedunitedwasted

Here is list of -ed classifying adjectives that have a different meaning from the most commonmeaningoftherelatedverb:

advancedmarkednotedpointedspottedveiled

modifying-edadjectives

2.85 Classifying-edadjectivescannotnormallybemodifiedwithwordslikequiteandvery.However,anadverbofmanner,(seeparagraphs6.36to6.44)oranadverbofdegree,(seeparagraphs6.45to6.52)isoftenusedbeforean-edadjective.For example, a pleasantly furnished room is a room that has been furnished with pleasantfurniture.…pleasantlyfurnishedrooms.…awell-knownnovelist.

2.86 Some-edadjectivesarenotoftenusedontheirown,andanadverbisnecessarytocompletethesense.Youdonotusuallytalkaboutdressedpeople,butyoucansaythattheyarewelldressedorsmartlydressedforexample.The-edadjectivesinthefollowingexamplesnearlyalwayshaveanadverbinfrontofthem.…acautiouslywordedstatement.…impeccablydressedmen.Itwasarichlydeservedhonour.…superblycutclothes.…theexistenceofahighlydevelopednationalpress.…awellorganizedcampaign.…atall,powerfullybuiltman.Shegazeddownathisperfectlyformedlittleface.Notethatcombinationslikethisaresometimeshyphenated,makingthemcompoundadjectives.

…awell-equippedarmy.

-edadjectiveswithanactivemeaning

2.87 A few -ed adjectives are related to the -ed participle of intransitive verbs and have an activemeaning,notapassivemeaning.Forexample,afallentreeisatreethathasfallen.…acapsizedship.Sheisthedaughterofaretiredarmyofficer.…anescapedprisoner.Hereisalistof-edadjectiveswithanactivemeaning:

accumulateddatedescapedfadedfallenretiredswollenwilted

-edadjectivesafterlinkingverbs

2.88 Most-edadjectivescanbeusedbothinfrontofanounandafteralinkingverb.Theworriedauthoritiesdecidedtoplaysafe.Myhusbandwasworried.A small number of -ed adjectives are normally only used after a linking verb. Often, they arefollowedbyapreposition,ato-infinitive,orathat-clause.Iwasthrilledbytheexhibition.TheBraziliansarepleasedwiththeresults.…fooddestinedforareasofsouthSudan.Hewasalwayspreparedtoaccountforhisactions.Hereisalistof-edadjectivesoftenusedafteralinkingverb,withorwithoutaphraseorclauseafterthem:

convinceddelightedinterestedintimidatedintriguedinvolvedpleasedpreparedscaredthrilled

tiredtouched

Here isa listof -ed adjectivesnormallyusedafter a linkingverbwith aphraseor clause afterthem:

agreeddestineddressedfinishedlostpreparedshutstuck

BECREATIVE

2.89 The-edparticipleofalmostanytransitiveverbcanbeusedasanadjective,thoughsomearemorecommonlyusedthanothers.…shesaid,withaforcedsmile.Therewasonepaidtutorandthreevolunteertutors.Therecoveredanimalswillbereleased.…thefinalcorrectedversion.

BECREATIVE

2.90 Some -ed adjectives are formed from nouns. For example, if a living thing haswings, you candescribeitaswinged.Ifsomeonehasskills,youcandescribethemasskilled.…wingedangels.…askilledengineer.Shewasdressedinblackandcarriedablackbeadedpurse.…armouredcars.…theeducationofgiftedchildren.

-edadjectivesformedfromnouns

2.91 Hereisalistof-edadjectivesformedfromnouns:

armouredbarbedbeadedbeardeddetailedfloweredfreckled

giftedglovedhoodedmanneredpointedprincipledsalariedskilledspottedstripedturbanedwalledwinged

-edadjectivesformedfromnounsarecommonlyusedasthesecondpartofcompoundadjectives(seeparagraph2.94to2.102)suchasgrey-hairedandopen-minded.

-edadjectivesunrelatedtoverbsornouns

2.92 Therearealsosome-edadjectivesinregularusethatarenotrelatedtoverbsornounsinthewaysdescribedabove.Forexample,therearenowordsparchorbelove.Thereisanounconcert,buttheadjectiveconcerteddoesnotmeanhavingaconcert.Heclimbedupthedryparchedgrasstotheterracesteps.…acomplexandantiquatedsystemoftaxation.…attemptstomountaconcertedcampaign.…thepurchaseofexpensivesophisticatedequipment.

2.93 Hereisalistof-edadjectivesthatarenotrelatedtoverbsornouns:

antiquatedashamedassortedbelovedbloatedconcertedcrazeddeceaseddoomedindebtedparchedruggedsophisticatedtinned

Compoundadjectives2.94 Compoundadjectivesaremadeupoftwoormorewords,usuallywrittenwithhyphensbetween

them.Theymaybequalitative,classifying,orcolouradjectives.Iwasinalight-heartedmood.Shewasdressedinabottle-greenpartydress.…thebuilt-upurbanmassofthecity.…anair-conditionedrestaurant.…agood-lookinggirl.…one-waytraffic.…apart-timejob.

formationpatterns

2.95 Thesearethemostcommonandleastrestrictedpatternsforformingcompoundadjectives:adjectiveornumberplusnounplus-ed,e.g.grey-hairedandone-sidedadjectiveoradverbplus-edparticiple,e.g.low-paidandwell-behavedadjective,adverb,ornounplus-ingparticiple,e.g.good-looking,long-lastingandman-eating.

Notethatcompoundadjectivesdescribesimpleconcepts:agood-lookingpersonlooksgood,andaman-eatingbeasteatshumans.MorecomplexdescriptionsinEnglishneedtobegivenusingafollowingphraseorclause.

2.96 Thesearelesscommonandmorerestrictedpatternsforformingcompoundadjectives:nounplus-edparticiple,e.g.tongue-tiedandwind-sweptnounplusadjective,e.g.accident-prone,trouble-freeadjectiveplusnoun,e.g.deep-sea,present-day-edparticipleplusadverb,e.g.run-down,cast-offnumberplussingularcountablenoun,e.g.five-page,four-door

Note thatcompoundadjectivesformedaccording to the lastof thesepatternsarealwaysused infrontofanoun.

compoundqualitativeadjectives

2.97 Hereisalistofcompoundqualitativeadjectives:

able-bodiedabsent-mindedaccident-pronebig-headedclear-cutclose-fittingcold-bloodedeasy-goingfar-fetchedfar-reachinggood-looking

good-temperedhard-uphard-wearingill-advisedkind-heartedlaboursavinglaid-backlight-heartedlong-lastinglong-standinglong-sufferinglow-cutlow-paidlow-slungmind-blowingmouth-wateringmuddle-headednarrow-mindednice-lookingoff-colouroff-handoff-puttingold-fashionedone-sidedopen-mindedrun-downsecond-classsecond-rateshop-soiledshort-handedshort-livedshort-sightedshort-temperedslow-wittedsmooth-talkingsoft-heartedstarry-eyedstrong-mindedstuck-upsun-tannedswollen-headedtender-heartedthick-skinnedtongue-tiedtop-heavytrouble-freetwo-edgedtwo-facedwarm-heartedwell-balancedwell-behavedwell-dressedwell-knownwell-off

wind-blown

worldly-wisewrong-headed

compoundclassifyingadjectives

2.98 Hereisalistofcompoundclassifyingadjectives:

air-conditionedall-outall-powerfulaudio-visualblue-bloodedbow-leggedbrand-newbreast-fedbroken-downbroken-heartedbuilt-upbullet-proofburnt-outcast-offclean-shavencross-Channelcross-countrycut-pricedeep-seadeep-seateddouble-barrelleddouble-breasteddrip-drydrive-induty-boundduty-freeempty-handedface-savingfar-flungfirst-classfree-rangefree-standingfreeze-driedfront-pagefull-blownfull-facefull-grownfull-lengthfull-scalegilt-edgedgrey-hairedhalf-pricehalf-yearly

hand-pickedhigh-heeledhome-madeice-coldinterest-freeknee-deeplast-minutelate-nightlead-freeleft-handedlife-sizelong-distancelong-lostlong-rangeloose-leafmade-upman-eatingmass-producedmiddle-agednever-endingnorth-eastnorth-westnuclear-freeodds-onoff-guardoff-peakone-wayopen-endedopen-mouthedpanic-strickenpart-timepresent-daypurpose-builtready-maderecord-breakingred-brickremote-controlledright-angledright-handedsecond-classsecond-handsee-throughsilver-platedsingle-handedso-calledso-sosouth-eastsouth-weststrong-armtax-freetone-deaftop-secretunheard-ofwide-awake

world-famous

worn-outyear-long

compoundcolouradjectives

2.99 Hereisalistofcompoundcolouradjectives:

blood-redblue-blackbottle-greendove-greyelectric-blueflesh-colouredice-blueiron-greyjet-blacklime-greennavy-bluenut-brownoff-whitepea-greenpearl-greyroyal-blueshocking-pinksky-bluesnow-white

longcompoundadjectives

2.100 Afewcompoundadjectivesaremadeupofmore than twowords.Compoundsof threeormorewordsareoftenwrittenwithhyphenswhentheyareused infrontofnouns,andwithouthyphenswhentheyareusedafteralinkingverb.…theday-to-daychoresoflife.…adown-to-earthapproach.…afree-and-easyrelationship.…life-and-deathdecisions.…atriptoanout-of-the-wayresort.Theiractisoutofdate.

2.101 Some compound adjectives seem rather odd because they containwords that are never used assinglewordsontheirown,forexamplenamby-pamby,higgledy-piggledy,andtopsy-turvy.Wordsliketheseareusuallyinformal.…allthatartsy-craftsyspiritualism.…hisla-di-dafamily.

foreigncompoundadjectives

2.102 Some compound adjectives are borrowed from foreign languages, especially from French andLatin.…theargumentsonceusedtodefendlaissez-faireeconomics.…theirpresentpercapitafuelconsumption.Inthecommercialtheatre,almosteveryproductionisadhoc.Hereisalistofcompoundadjectivesborrowedfromotherlanguages:

àlamodeaposterioriaprioriadhocadlibaufaitavant-gardebonafidecomposmentiscordonbleudefactodejuredeluxederigueurdetropexgratiahorsdecombatinfradiglaissez-fairenoncomposmentispercapitaprimafacieproratasubjudice

Comparingthings:comparatives2.103 Youcandescribesomethingbysayingthatithasmoreofaqualitythansomethingelse.Youdothis

byusingcomparative adjectives. Only qualitative adjectives usually have comparatives, but afew colour adjectives also have them. Comparatives normally consist of the usual form of theadjectivewitheither-eraddedtotheend,asinharderandsmaller,ormoreplacedinfront,asinmoreinterestingandmoreflexible.Notethatgoodandbadhavetheirregularcomparativeformsbetterandworse.ThepatternsforformingregularandirregularcomparativesareexplainedintheReferencesection.

infrontofanoun

2.104 Comparativescanbeusedasmodifiersinfrontofanoun.Thefamilymovedtoasmallerhome.Hedreamsofabetter,moreexcitinglife.Ahardermattressoftenhelpswithbackinjuries.Notethatcomparativescanalsobeusedasmodifiersinfrontofone.Anunderstandingofthisrealityprovokesabetterone.

afteralinkingverb

2.105 Comparativescanalsobeusedafteralinkingverb.Theballsoakedupwaterandbecameheavier.Hisbreathbecamequieter.Weneedtobemoreflexible.Theuseofadjectivesafterlinkingverbsisexplainedinparagraphs3.132to3.137.

structuresusedaftercomparatives

2.106 Comparativesareoftenfollowedbythanwhenyouwanttospecifywhattheotherthinginvolvedin the comparison is. You say exactly what you are comparing by using one of a number ofstructuresafterthan.Thesestructurescanbenounphrases

Charliewasmorehonestthanhispredecessor.…anareabiggerthanMexico.Notethatwhenthanisfollowedbyapronounonitsown,thepronounmustbeanobjectpronounsuchasme,him,orher.Mybrotherisyoungerthanme.Laminwasshorterthanher.phrasesthatstartwithapreposition

Thechangeswillbeevenmorestrikinginthecaseofteachingthaninmedicine.TheoddsofsurvivingchildhoodinNewYorkCityareworsethaninsomeThirdWorldcountries.clauses

Iwouldhavedoneabetterjobthanhedid.Iwasabetterwriterthanhewas.He’stallerthanIam.Notethatwhenacomparativeisnotfollowedbyathanphrase,theotherthinginthecomparisonshouldbeobvious.For example, if someone saysCould I haveabiggerone, please? they arelikelytobeholdingtheitemthattheythinkistoosmall.Amattresswouldbebetter.

positionofcomparatives

2.107 Ifyouchooseaphraseorclausebeginningwiththanwhenyouareusingacomparativeinfrontofa noun, you usually put the phrase or clause after thewhole noun phrase, not directly after thecomparative.Theworldisamoredangerousplacethanitwas.WillyownedalargercollectionofbooksthananyoneelseIhaveevermet.Acomparativecanalsocomeimmediatelyafteranoun,butonlywhenitisfollowedbythanandanounphrase.We’vegotaratbiggerthanacatlivinginourroof.…packsofcardslargerthanhewasusedto.

moreandmorethan

2.108 More issometimesusedinfrontofawholenounphrasetoshowthatsomethinghasmoreofthequalitiesofonethingthananother,orisonethingratherthanbeinganother.Musicismoreawayoflifethananinterest.Thisismoreawarmoviethanawestern.Notethatmorethanisusedbeforeadjectivesforemphasis.Theirlifemaybehorriblydull,buttheyaremorethansatisfied.Youwouldbemorethanwelcome.

comparativesusedasnouns

2.109 Comparativeadjectivesaresometimesusedasnoun-typewordsinfairlyformalEnglish.Insuchphrases,youput the infrontof it,andfollowitwithofandanounphrase that refers to the twothingsbeingcompared.…theshorterofthetwolines.Dorotheawasthemorebeautifulofthetwo.Therearetwowindmills,thelargerofwhichstandsahundredfeethigh.Ifitisclearwhatyouaretalkingabout,youcanomitofandthefollowingnounphrase.Noticetoquitmustcovertherentalperiodorfourweeks,whicheveristhelonger.

less

2.110 Theformthatisusedtosaythatsomethingdoesnothaveasmuchofaqualityassomethingelseislessfollowedbyanadjective.Theanswerhadbeenlesstruthfulthanhisown.Youcanalsouselessandanadjectivetosaythatsomethingdoesnothaveasmuchofaqualityasithadbefore.Asthedayswentby,Sitabecamelessanxious.

Notethatlessthanisusedbeforeadjectivestoexpressanegativeidea.Itwouldhavebeenlessthanfair.

contrastedcomparatives

2.111 Youshowthatoneamountofaqualityorthingislinkedtoanotheramountbyusingtwocontrastedcomparativesprecededbythe.Thesmalleritis,thecheaperitistopost.Themoremilitantwebecame,thelessconfidentshebecame.Thelargertheorganization,thelessscopethereisfordecision.

Comparingthings:superlatives2.112 Anotherwayofdescribingsomethingistosaythatithasmoreofaqualitythananythingelseofits

kind. You do this by using a superlative adjective. Only qualitative adjectives usually havesuperlatives,butafewcolouradjectivesalsohavethem.Superlativesnormallyconsistofeither-estaddedtotheendofanadjectiveandtheplacedinfrontofit,asinthehardestandthesmallest,orofthemostplacedinfrontoftheadjective,asinthemostinterestingandthemostflexible.Notethatgoodandbadhavetheirregularsuperlativeformsthebestandtheworst.The patterns for forming regular and irregular superlatives of adjectives are explained in theReferencesection.Notethatsuperlativeadjectivesarenearlyalwaysprecededbythe,becauseyouaretalkingaboutsomethingdefinite.Occasionally,whensuperlativesareusedaftera linkingverb, the is omitted(seeparagraph2.117).

BECAREFUL

2.113 Adjectiveswithmostinfrontofthemarenotalwayssuperlatives.Mostcanalsomeanvery.Thisbookwasmostinteresting.Mygrandfatherwasamostextraordinaryman.Wordslikeveryandratherarecalledsubmodifyingadverbs.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs2.140to2.156.

usedinfrontofanoun

2.114 Superlativescanbeusedasmodifiersinfrontofanoun.HewasthecleverestmanIeverknew.Itwasthemostexcitingsummeroftheirlives.Shecameoutofthethickestpartofthecrowd.Nowwecometothemostimportantthing.…theoldestrockpaintingsinNorthAmerica.…themosteminentscientistsinBritain.Notethatsuperlativesarealsousedasmodifiersinfrontofone.

Nooneeverusedthesmallestone.

usedafteralinkingverb

2.115 Superlativesarealsousedafteralinkingverb.Hewastheyoungest.Thesergeantwasthetallest.Theuseofadjectivesafterlinkingverbsisexplainedinparagraphs3.132to3.137.

structuresusedaftersuperlatives

2.116 Youcanuseasuperlativeonitsownifitisclearwhatisbeingcompared.Forexample,ifyousayPaulwasthetallest,youarereferringtoagroupofpeoplethathasalreadybeenidentified.Ifyouneedtorefertothepointofthecomparison,youuseaphraseorclausethatconsistsofphrasesthatstartwithapreposition,usuallyinorof

Henrywasthebiggestofthem.Thethirdrequirementisthemostimportantofall.Thesecakesareprobablythebestintheworld.Notethatifthesuperlativeisplacedinfrontofanoun,theprepositioncomesafterthenoun.…thebesthotelforfamilies.I’mintheworstbusinessintheworld.arelativeclause

It’sthebestI’mlikelytoget.ThewaitingroomwastheworstIhadseen.Notethatifthesuperlativeisplacedinfrontofanoun,therelativeclausecomesafterthenoun.That’sthemostconvincinganswerthatyou’vegivenme.

USAGENOTE

2.117 You usually put the in front of the superlative, but you can occasionally omit it, especially ininformalspeechorwriting.Woolandcottonblanketsaregenerallycheapest.Itcanbeusedbywhoeverisclosest.However,youcannotomitthewhenthesuperlativeisfollowedbyoforanotherstructureshowingwhatgroupofthingsyouarecomparing.So,forexample,youcansayAmandawastheyoungestofourgrouporAmandawastheyoungestorAmandawasyoungest,butyoucannotsayAmandawasyoungestofourgroup.Youcansometimesusethepossessiveformofanounorapossessivedeterminerinsteadoftheinfrontofasuperlative.Often thepossessiveformofanounisusedinsteadofaphrasebeginningwithapreposition.Forexample,youcansayBritain’soldestman insteadof theoldestman inBritain.

…theworld’smostpopularcheese.…mynewestassistant.The possessive form of nouns is explained in paragraphs 1.211 to 1.222, and possessivedeterminersareexplainedinparagraphs1.194to1.210.

usedwithotheradjectives

2.118 Asuperlativeissometimesaccompaniedbyanotheradjectiveendingin-ableor-ible.Thissecondadjectivecanbeplacedeitherbetweenthesuperlativeandthenounorafterthenoun.…thenarrowestimaginablerangeofinterests.…themostbeautifulsceneryimaginable.…thelongestpossiblegap.Isaythatinthenicestwaypossible.

superlativesusedasnouns

2.119 Superlative adjectives are sometimes used like nouns in fairly formal English.When you use asuperlativeadjective in thisway,youput the in frontof it, and follow itwithof and a nounorpronounthatreferstothethingsbeingcompared.Whensuperlativeadjectivesareusedinthiswaytheycanrefertoonethingortomorethanone.Theyareoftentoopoortobuyorrenteventhecheapestofhouses.Hemadeseveralimportantdiscoveries.Themostinterestingofthesecamefromanexaminationofanoldmanuscript.Ifitisclearwhatyouaretalkingabout,youcanomitofandthefollowingnounphrase.Therearethreetypesofant-eater.Thesmallestlivesentirelyintrees.

USAGENOTE

2.120 In informal speech,peopleoftenuse a superlative rather thana comparativewhen theyaretalkingabout two things.Forexample, someonemight sayThe train isquickest rather thanThetrainisquickerwhencomparingatrainservicewithabusservice.However,somepeoplethinkthatitisbettertousesuperlativesonlywhencomparingmorethantwothings.

usedwithordinalnumbers:thesecondbiggestcity

2.121 Ordinalnumbers are usedwith superlatives to show that something hasmore of a quality thannearlyallotherthingsoftheirkind.Forexample,ifyousaythatamountainisthesecondhighestmountain,youmeanthatitishigherthananyothermountainexceptthehighestone.CanceristhesecondbiggestcauseofdeathinBritain.…thesecondmostimportantmaninherlife,herhairdresser.ItisJapan’sthirdlargestcity.Ordinalnumbersareexplainedinparagraphs2.232to2.239.

theleast

2.122 Whenyouwanttoshowthatsomethinghaslessofaqualitythananythingelse,youusethe leastfollowedbyanadjective.Thisistheleastpopularbranchofmedicine.Similarly,whenyouaretalkingaboutagroupofthingsthathavelessofaqualitythanotherthingsoftheirkind,youusetheleast.…theleastsavagemeninthecountry.

Otherwaysofcomparingthings:sayingthatthingsaresimilar2.123 Anotherwayofdescribingthingsisbysayingthatsomethingissimilarinsomewaytosomething

else.

talkingaboutthingswiththesamequality

2.124 Ifyouwanttosaythatathingorpersonhasasmuchofaqualityassomethingorsomeoneelse,youcanuseastructurebasedonthewordasinfrontofaqualitativeadjective.Usuallythisadjectiveisfollowedbyaphraseorclausethatalsobeginswithas.Thiscanbeaphrasebeginningwiththeprepositionas

You’rejustasbadasyoursister.…hugepondsasbigastenniscourts.Takingswereashighasever.aclauseintroducedbyas

ConversationwasnotasslowasIfeareditwouldbe.Thevillagegardensaren’tasgoodastheyusedtobe.

2.125 Whenthiscomparativestructureisfollowedbyaphraseconsistingofasandapronounonitsown,thepronounmustbeanobjectpronounsuchasme,him,orher.Janewasnotascleverashim.However,whenthecomparativestructureisfollowedbyaclauseconsistingofasandapronounthatisthesubjectofaclause,thenthatpronounmustbeasubjectpronounsuchasI,heorshe.Theyaren’tascleverastheyappeartobe.

2.126 Ifitisclearwhatyouarecomparingsomethingorsomeoneto,youcanomitthephraseorclause.Frozenpeasarejustasgood.

2.127 Youcanalsousetheas…as…structuretosaythatsomethinghasmuchmoreorlessofaqualitythansomethingelse.Youdothisbyputtinganexpressionsuchastwice,threetimes,tentimes,orhalfinfrontofthefirstas.Forexample,ifonebuildingistenmetreshighandanotherbuildingistwentymetreshigh,youcansaythatthesecondbuildingis twiceashighas the firstbuildingorthatthefirstbuildingishalfashighasthesecondone.

Thegrasswastwiceastallasintherestofthefield.Wateriseighthundredtimesasdenseasair.This structure is often used in the sameway to refer to qualities that cannot bemeasured. Forexample,ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingismuchmoreusefulthansomethingelse,youcansaythatthefirstthingisahundredtimesasusefulasthesecondone.Withoutthishelp,rearingourchildrenwouldbetentimesashardasitis.

USAGENOTE

2.128 When the as…as… structure is preceded by not, it has the same meaning as less…than. Forexample,IamnotastallasGeorgemeansthesameasIamlesstallthanGeorge.Somepeopleusenotso…as…insteadofnotas…as….Thefilmisnotasgoodasthebook.Theyoungotterisnotsohandsomeastheold.

2.129 Words like just, quite, nearly and almost can be used in front of this comparative structure,modifyingthecomparisonwiththeirusualmeanings.Sunburncanbejustassevereasaheatburn.Theuseofthesewordsincomparisonisexplainedinparagraphs2.157to2.168.

2.130 Whenyouareusingtheas…as…structureyousometimesputanounaftertheadjectiveandbeforethefollowingphraseorclause.Thisnounmustbeginwithaoran.Forexample,insteadofsayingThisknifeisasgoodasthatone,youcansayThisisasgoodaknifeasthatone.I’masgoodacookassheis.Thiswasnotasbadaresultastheyexpected.Sometimes, insteadofusingnotbefore this structure,youusenotsuch followedbyaoran, anadjective,anoun,andas.Waterisnotsuchagoodconductorasmetal.

2.131 Insteadofusingthisas…as…structureyoucanuseexpressionssuchastheheightofandthesizeoftoshowthatsomethingisasbigassomethingelse,orbiggerorsmaller.Thetumourwasthesizeofagolfball.Itisroughlythelengthofaman’sarm.

like

2.132 If something has similar qualities or features to something else, instead of using the as…as…comparativestructureyoucansaythatthefirstthingislike thesecondone.Youdothisbyusingphrasesbeginningwithlikeafterlinkingverbs.Helookedlikeanactor.Thatsoundslikeanexaggeration.Thewholethingislikeabaddream.Hereisalistofthelinkingverbsusedwithlike:

befeellookseemsmellsoundtaste

Whenyouwanttosaythatonethingresemblesanother,youcanuseaphrasebeginningwithlikeaftertheselinkingverbs.Itwaslikeadream.SometimesIfeellikeaprisonerhere.Helookedlikeaniceman.Thehousesseemedlikemansions.Yousmelllikeatramp!Itsoundedlikeafineidea.

2.133 Likehasthecomparativemorelikeandlesslike,andthesuperlativemostlikeandleastlike.Itmadeherseemlesslikeachild.Ofallhischildren,shewastheonemostlikeme.

USAGENOTE

2.134 Youcanusewordslikeexactlyandjustinfrontoflike.Helooksjustlikeababy.Shelookedlikeaqueen,justexactlylikeaqueenThisisexplainedinparagraph2.165.

sameas

2.135 Ifyouwanttosaythatonethingisexactlylikesomethingelse,youcansaythatitisthesameastheotherthing.Thericharethesameastherestofus.Thesameascanbefollowedbyanounphrase,apronoun,oraclause.24SpringTerracewasthesameasallitsneighbours.Hercolouringwasthesameasmine.Thefurnishingsarenotexactlythesameastheywerewhenwelivedthere.Iftwoormorethingsareexactlylikeeachother,youcansaythattheyarethesame.Comeandlook!They’reexactlythesame.Theybothtastethesame.Youusethesamewhenyouarecomparingpeopleor thingswithotherpeopleor things thatyouhavejustmentioned.Itlookslikeacalculatorandweighsaboutthesame.

Themessagewasthesame.Theendresultisthesame.Notethatyouusetheoppositeandthereverseinasimilarway.ThekindofreligiousthoughtsIhadwerejusttheopposite.Somepeoplethinkthatahealthydietisexpensive,butinfactthereverseistrue.

USAGENOTE

2.136 Youcanusewordslikenearlyandexactlyinfrontofthesameasandthesame.Theyarevirtuallythesameasothersinglecells.Youtwolookexactlythesame.Hereisalistofwordsusedinthesamewaywiththesameasandthesame:

almostexactlyjustmoreorlessmuchnearlyvirtually

Thesewordsareexplainedinparagraphs2.140to2.168.2.137 Youcanputanounsuchassize,length,orcolourafterthesame.Forexample,ifyouwanttosay

thatonestreetisaslongasanotherone,youcansaythatthefirststreetisthesamelengthas thesecondone,orthatthetwostreetsarethesamelength.Itsbrainwasaboutthesamesizeasthatofagorilla.Theywerealmostthesameheight.

adjectivesmeaningthesame

2.138 Theadjectivesalike,comparable,equivalent,identical,andsimilararealsousedtosaythattwoormorethingsarelikeeachother.Youcanputtheprepositiontoafterallofthemexceptalike inordertomentionthesecondofthethingsbeingcompared.Theyalllookedalike.Thehouseswereallidentical.FlemishissimilartoAfrikaans.

modifyingadjectivesusedincomparisons

2.139 Whenyouwanttosuggestthatyouarecomparingdifferentamountsofaquality,youcanusewordslikecomparatively,relatively,andequally.Psychology’sacomparativelynewsubject.

Thecostsremainedrelativelylow.HertechniquewaslessdramaticthanAnn’s,butequallyeffective.Hewasextrapolitetohissuperiors.

Talkingaboutdifferentamountsofaquality2.140 Whenyouwanttosaysomethingmoreaboutthequalitythatanadjectivedescribes,youcanusea

submodifyingadverbsuchasveryorratherwithit.Youdothisinordertoindicatetheamountofthequality,ortointensifyit.

submodifyingadverbs:extremelynarrow,slightlydifferent

2.141 Becausequalitativeadjectivesaregradable, allowingyou to sayhowmuchorhow littleof thequality is relevant, you aremore likely to use submodifyingadverbs (words like extremely orslightly)withthemthanwithothertypesofadjective.…anextremelynarrowroad.…ahighlysuccessfulcompany.…inaslightlydifferentway.Iwasextraordinarilyhappy.…helpingtheminastronglysupportiveway.…averyprettygirl.Sheseemsverypleasant.…aratherclumsyperson.Hishairwasratherlong.

2.142 You can use words like very and extremely with some classifying adjectives (see paragraphs2.146to2.148)andwithcolouradjectives(seeparagraph2.35).Notethatmost-edadjectivescanbemodifiedbywordssuchasveryandextremely,justlikeotherqualitativeadjectives.…averyfrightenedlittlegirl.…anextremelydisappointedyoungman.

intensifyingqualitativeadjectives

2.143 You can use many submodifying adverbs like very or extremely with qualitative adjectives inordertointensifytheirmeaning.…extremelyhightemperatures.Geoffreywasadeeplyreligiousman.Franceisheavilydependentonforeigntrade.Hereisalistofwordsusedtointensifythemeaningofadjectives:

amazinglyawfullybitterlycriticallydangerously

deeplydelightfullydisturbinglydreadfullyeminentlyespeciallyexceedinglyextraordinarilyextremelyfantasticallygreatlyheavilyhighlyhopelesslyhorriblyhugelyimpossiblyincrediblyinfinitelynotablyparticularlyradicallyreallyremarkablyseriouslystrikinglysupremelysurprisinglysuspiciouslyterriblyunbelievablyveryviolentlyvitallywildlywonderfully

Notethatverycanbeusedinfrontofsuperlativeadjectiveswhenyouwanttobeveryemphatic.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.167to2.168.

2.144 Manyofthesesubmodifyingadverbsnotonlyintensifythemeaningoftheadjectivebutalsoallowyoutoexpressyouropinionaboutwhatyouaresaying.Forexample,ifyousaythatsomethingissurprisingly large, you are expressing surprise at how large it is as well as intensifying themeaningoflarge.Hehasamazinglylongeyelashes.…adelightfullyrefreshingtaste.…ashockinglybrutalscene.…ahorriblyuncomfortablechair.…incrediblyboringdocuments.However,youuseafewofthesesubmodifyingadverbswithnootherpurposethantointensifythe

meaningoftheadjective.

They’reawfullybrave.Theothergirlsweredreadfullydullcompanions.Hereisalistofwordsonlyusedtointensifyadjectives:

awfullydreadfullyespeciallyextremelygreatlyhighlyreallysoterriblyvery

Notethatawfully,dreadfully,andterriblyareusedininformallanguageandhighlyisusedinveryformallanguage.Notealsothatsoisnormallyonlyusedafteralinkingverb.Iamsosorry.

reducingqualitativeadjectives

2.145 Somesubmodifyingadverbsareusedtoreducetheeffectofqualitativeadjectives.Thestorywasmildlyamusing.It’safairlycommonfeeling.…moderatelyrichpeople.…hisratherlargestomach.Mylastquestionissomewhatpersonal.Hereisalistofwordsusedtoreducetheeffectofanadjective:

faintlyfairlymildlymoderatelyprettyquiteratherreasonablyslightlysomewhat

Notealsothatquiteisnormallyonlyusedwithadjectivesthatareusedafteralinkingverb.

Shewasquitetall.

talkingaboutextent

2.146 Somemodiifyingadverbsareusedtotalkabouttheextentofthequalitythatyouaredescribing.Hereisalistofwordsusedtotalkabouttheextentofaquality:

almostexclusivelyfullylargelymainlymostlynearlypartlypredominantlyprimarilyroughly~absolutelyaltogethercompletelyentirelyperfectlypurelyquitesimplytotallyutterly

USAGENOTE

2.147 Thefirstgroupinthelistaboveareusedalmostalwaysjust totalkabouttheextentofaquality.Theyaremostcommonlyusedwithclassifyingadjectives.Itwasanalmostautomaticreflex.…ashopwithanexclusivelyfemaleclientele.…thelargelyruralsoutheast.Thewolfisnownearlyextinct.Thereasonsforthiswerepartlyeconomicandpractical,andpartlypoliticalandsocial.Almostandnearlyarealsousedwithqualitativeadjectives.Theclubwasalmostempty.Itwasnearlydark.Notethatroughlycanbeusedwhenyouwanttosaythatsomethingisnearlyorapproximatelylikesomethingelse.WestGermany,JapanandSwedenareatroughlysimilarlevelsofeconomicdevelopment.

Notealsothathalfissometimesusedinthisway.Forexample,youcandescribesomeoneashalfAmericanifjustoneoftheirparentswasAmerican.

2.148 Thesecondgroupinthelistaboveareusednotonlytotalkabouttheextentofaqualitybutalsotoemphasize the adjective. They are used with classifying adjectives as well as qualitativeadjectives.You’reabsolutelyright.Thispolicyhasbeencompletelyunsuccessful.Everyoneappearedtobecompletelyunawareofthefact.Thediscussionwaspurelytheoretical.Itreallyisquiteastonishing.…atotallynewsituation.Welivedtotallyseparatelives.…utterlytrivialmatters.Notethatabsolutelyisfrequentlyusedwithqualitativeadjectivesthatexpressenthusiasmorlackof enthusiasm.Whenyouuseabsolutely in thiswayyouare emphasizinghowstronglyyou feelaboutwhatyouaresaying.…anabsolutelyabsurdidea.Ithinkit’sabsolutelywonderful.Theenquiryisabsolutelycrucial.Hereisalistofqualitativeadjectivesoftenemphasizedbyabsolutely:

absurdawfulbrilliantcertaincrucialenormousessentialexcellentfurioushilarioushugeimpossiblemassiveperfectridiculoussplendidterriblevitalwonderful

Notealsothatcompletelyandutterlycanalsobeusedinthisway.Itiscompletelyimpossibletoimaginesuchaworld.Hebegantofeelutterlymiserable.

sayingthatthereisenoughofsomething

2.149 You can use submodifying adverbs such as adequately, sufficiently, and acceptably when youwanttosaythatsomeoneorsomethinghasenoughofthequalityyouaredescribing.Theroofisadequatelyinsulated.Wefoundabankofsnowsufficientlydeeptodigacave.

USAGENOTE

2.150 Youcanalsoshowthatyouthinksomethingissufficientbyusingenough.Enoughalwayscomesaftertheadjective,andneverbeforeit.Iwasnotagoodenoughrider.ItseemedthatHenryhadnotbeencarefulenough.Enoughcanbefollowedbytheprepositionfortoindicateapersoninvolved,orbyato-infinitivetoindicatearelatedaction.Agirlfromthefactorywasn’tgoodenoughforhim.Ifyoufindthatthewhitewineisnotcoldenoughforyou,askforsomeicetobeputinit.Thechildrenareoldenoughtotraveltoschoolontheirown.Noneofthefruitwasripeenoughtoeat.Notethatwhenenoughisusedafteranadjective,youcanusejustinfrontoftheadjectivetoshowthatsomeoneorsomethinghasenoughofthequalitydescribedbytheadjective,butnomorethanthat.Someofthesecreaturesarejustlargeenoughtoseewiththenakedeye.

2.151 Enoughisalsoadeterminer(seeparagraphs1.223to1.247).Hehasn’thadenoughexercise.Whenenoughisadeterminer,itcanhaveawordlikejustoralmostinfrontofit.Therewasjustenoughspaceforabed.Ihavealmostenoughtokensforonebook.

sayingthatthereisnotenoughofsomething

2.152 If you want to show that you think something you are describing is insufficient, you can usesubmodifyingadverbssuchasinadequately,insufficiently,andunacceptably.…peoplegrowingupininsufficientlysupportivefamilies.Theirpublicationswereinadequatelyresearched.

sayingthatthereistoomuchofsomething

2.153 Ifyouwanttosaythatyouthinksomeoneorsomethinghastoomuchofaquality,younormallyusetooinfrontofaqualitativeadjectivethatisusedafteralinkingverb.Myfeetaretoobig.Itwastoohot.

DadthoughtIwastooidealistic.Youcanemphasizetoobyputtingfarinfrontofit.IninformalEnglishyoucanalsouseway.Thejourneywasfartoolong.Itwasfartoohottoworkinthegarden.Thepricewaswaytoohigh.Toocanbefollowedbytheprepositionfor toindicateapersoninvolvedorbya to-infinitive toindicatearelatedaction.Theshoesweretoobigforhim.Hewastoooldforthatsortofthing.Shewastooweaktoliftme.Hewastooproudtoapologize.Notethatyoudonotusuallyusetoowithanadjectiveinfrontofanoun,althoughyoudousetooinfrontofthedeterminersmany,much,andfew.Thereistoomuchchanceoferror.Toofewpeoplenowadaysareinterestedinliterature.Youasktoomanyquestions,Sam.

BECAREFUL

2.154 Toocannotbeusedinsteadofvery.RatherthansayingIamtoohappytomeetyou,youmustsayIamveryhappytomeetyou.

2.155 Otherwordsthatindicatetoomuchofaqualityareexcessively,overly,andtheprefixover-.Thesecanbeused,liketoo,withadjectivesthatcomeafteralinkingverb,buttheycanalsobeusedwithadjectivesinfrontofanoun.…excessivelyhighaccidentrates.…anintellectualbutover-cautiousman.Theywereoverlyeager.

BECREATIVE

2.156 Aswellasadverbsofdegreelikeexcessivelyandinsufficiently,youcanusesomeothertypesofadverbinfrontofadjectivestomodifytheirmeaning.…theonceelegantpalace.…apermanentlymuddyroad.…internationallyfamousgolfers.…naturallyblondehair.…coollyelegantfurniture.…purposelyexpensivegadgets.AdverbsareexplainedinChapter6.

Sayingthingsaredifferent2.157 Whenyouareusingcomparativeadjectives,youmaywanttosaythatsomethinghasmuchmoreor

muchlessofaqualitythansomethingelse.Youdothisbyaddingwordslikemuchoralittle.Itisamuchbetterschoolthanyours.Thesecreaturesaremuchlessmobile.Therearefarworsedangers.Somechildrenarealotmoredifficultthanothers.Youalsousethesewordstosaythatsomethinghasmuchmoreormuchlessofaqualitythanithadbefore.Hehadbecomemuchmoremature.That’smuchlessimportantthanitwas.

2.158 Somemodifyingwords and phrases are only usedwhen comparative adjectives are being usedafterlinkingverbs.Youlookalotbetter.Itwouldbeagooddealeasierifyoucametomyplace.Thejourneybackwasagreatdealmoreunpleasantthantheoutwardonehadbeen.

Here is a list of modifying words and phrases used in front of comparative adjectives after alinkingverb:

agooddealagreatdealalotheapslots

NotethatlotsandheapsareonlyusedininformalspokenEnglish.2.159 However,othersubmodifyingadverbscanbeusedwithcomparativeadjectivesthatarebeingused

eitherinfrontofanounorafteralinkingverb.Theyarefacedwithamuchharderproblemthantherestofus.Theriskfromsmokingismuchgreaterifyouhaveaweakheart.Computerscanbeappliedtoafarwiderrangeoftasks.Thedelaywasfarlongerthantheyclaimed.Hereisalistofsubmodifyingadverbsusedwithadjectivesthatareusedbothinfrontofanounandafteralinkingverb:

considerablyfarinfinitelymuchvastlyverymuch

USAGENOTE

2.160 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethinghasmoreofaqualitythansomethingelsethatalreadyhasalotofit,youuseevenorstillbeforeacomparativeadjective,orstillafterit.She’sevenlazierthanme!ShewasevenmorepossessivethanRosamund.Ihadastillmorerecentreport.Thetextisactuallyworsestill.Similarly,youuseevenorstilltosaythatsomethinghaslessofaqualitythansomethingelsethathaslittleofthisquality.Thisdidnothappenbeforethewar,andisnowevenlesslikely.Youalsouseevenorstillwhencomparingtheamountofaqualitythatsomethinghasatonetimewiththeamountthatithasatanother.Theflightwasevenfastercomingback.Theywillbecomericherstill.

InformalorliteraryEnglish,yetissometimesusedinthesamewayasstill.Hewouldhavebeenyetmorealarmedhadshewithdrawn.Theplanesgrowmightieryet.

2.161 You can show that something has an increasing or decreasing amount of a quality by repeatingcomparative adjectives. For example, you can say that something is getting bigger and bigger,moreandmoredifficult,orlessandlesscommon.He’sgettingtallerandtaller.…defencesthatwereprovingmoreandmoreeffective.Increasinglycanbeusedinsteadofmoreandmoreanddecreasinglyinsteadoflessandless.Iwasbecomingincreasinglydepressed.Itwasthefirstofanumberofincreasinglyfranktalks.

2.162 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethinghasalittlemoreoralittlelessofaqualitythansomethingelse,youuserather,slightly,abit,alittlebit,oralittlewithcomparativeadjectives.It’sarathermorecomplicatedstorythanthat.She’sonlyalittlebittallerthanhersister.Youalsousetheseformstosaythatsomethinghasalittlemoreoralittlelessofaqualitythanithadbefore.Wemustberathermorevisibletopeopleinthecommunity.…thelittlethingsthatmadelifeslightlylessintolerable.

2.163 Ifyouwanttosayemphaticallythatsomethinghasnomoreofaqualitythansomethingelseorthanithadbefore,youcanusenoinfrontofcomparativeadjectives.Somespeciesofdinosaurwerenobiggerthanachicken.Anyisusedforemphasisinfrontofcomparativesinnegativeclauses,questions,andconditionalclauses.Forexample,Hewasn’tanytallerthanJanemeansthesameasHewasno taller thanJane.Iwastenanddidn’tlookanyolder.Ifitwillmakeyouanyhappier,I’llshaveoffmybeard.Isthatanyclearer?Notethatyouonlyusenoandanylikethiswhencomparativesarebeingusedafteralinkingverb.Youcannotusenoandanywithcomparativeswhentheyarebeingusedinfrontofanounphrase.Forexample,youcannotsayItwasanobettermealorIsthatananyfastertrain?

2.164 Whenyouusethecomparativestructureas…as…(seeparagraphs2.124to2.130),submodifyingwordssuchasjust,quite,nearly,andalmostcanbeusedinfrontofit,modifyingthecomparisonwiththeirusualmeanings.Marywasjustaspaleashewas.Thereisnothingquiteaslonelyasillness.…ahugebirdwhichwasnearlyasbigasaman.Thelandseemedalmostasdarkasthewater.Nearlyisalsousedwhentheas…as…structureisprecededbynotwiththemeaningless……

than.Youputitafterthenot.Forexample,IamnotnearlyastallasGeorgemeansthesameasIammuchlesstallthanGeorge.Thisisnotnearlyascomplicatedasitsounds.

2.165 When you use like to describe someone or something by comparing them with someone orsomethingelse(seeparagraphs2.132to2.134),youcanuseasubmodifyingadverbinfrontofit.…animalsthatlookedalittlelikedonkeys.It’saplaneexactlylikehis.Hereisalistofmodifyingwordsandphrasesusedwithlike:

abitalittleexactlyjustquiterathersomewhatvery

2.166 Whenyou use the sameas and thesame to describe someone or something by saying they areidenticaltosomeoneorsomethingelse,youcanuseanumberofsubmodifyingadverbsinfrontofthem,includingjust,exactly,much,nearly,virtually,andmoreorless.I’mjustthesameaseveryoneelse.ThesituationwasmuchthesameinGermany.Themoralcodewouldseemtobemoreorlessthesamethroughouttheworld.

2.167 Whenyouareusingsuperlativeadjectives,youmaywishtosaythatsomethinghasmuchmoreormuchlessofaqualitythananythingelseofitskind.Thesubmodifyingadverbsmuch,quite,easily,byfar,andverycanbeusedwiththesuperlativeadjectives.Much,quite,andeasilyareplacedinfrontoftheandthesuperlative.Musicmayhavebeenmuchthemostrespectableofhistastes.…themostfrighteningtimeofmylife,andquitethemostdishonest.Thisiseasilythebestfilmoftheyear.Byfarcanbeplacedeitherinfrontoftheandthesuperlativeorafterthesuperlative.Theyarebyfarthemostdangerouscreaturesontheisland.TheUnionwasthelargestbyfar.

2.168 Very isonlyusedwithsuperlativesformedbyadding-estorwith irregularsuperlativessuchasthebestandtheworst.Veryisplacedbetweentheandthesuperlative.…theveryearliestcomputers.Itwasoftheveryhighestquality.Veryisalsousedtomodifysuperlativeadjectiveswhenyouwanttobeveryemphatic.Itisplaced

afteradeterminersuchastheorthatandinfrontofasuperlativeadjectiveoronesuchasfirstorlast.…intheverysmallestcountries.…oneoftheveryfinestbreedsofdogs.…ontheveryfirstdayofthewar.Hehadcomeattheverylastmoment.Thatverynextafternoonhewasworkinginhisroom.Hespentweeksinthatverysamebasement.

Modifyingusingnouns:nounmodifiers2.169 Nouns can be used as modifiers in front of other nouns when you want to give more specific

informationaboutsomeoneorsomething.Sometimes,whennounsareusedlikethistheybecomefixedexpressionscalledcompoundnouns(seeparagraphs1.83to1.92).When the nouns used in front of other nouns are not in fixed expressions, they are callednounmodifiers.…thecardoor.…tennislessons.…afootballplayer.…catfood.…themusicindustry.…asurpriseannouncement.

singularandpluralforms

2.170 Younormallyusethesingularformofacountablenoun(seeparagraphs1.15to1.22)asanounmodifier,evenwhenyouarereferringtomorethanonething.Forexample,yourefertoashopthatsellsbooksasabookshop,notabooksshop,eventhoughitsellsalargenumberofbooks,notjustone.Manypluralnounslosetheir-sendingswhenusedinfrontofothernouns.…mytrouserpocket.…pyjamatrousers.…paratroopattacks.Here is a list of commonplural nouns that lose their -s and -es endingswhen they are used asmodifiers:

knickersparatroopspyjamasscissorsspectaclestroops

trousers

However,somepluralnounskeepthesameformwhenusedinfrontofothernouns.…armscontrol.…clothespegs.Hereisalistofcommonpluralnounsthatremainthesamewhentheyareusedasmodifiers:

armsbinocularsclothesglassesjeanssunglasses

Pluralnounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.41to1.46.

usingmorethanonenounmodifier

2.171 Ifyouwanttobeevenmorespecific,youcanusemorethanonenounmodifier.Forexample,acarinsurancecertificate isacertificate thatshowsthatacarhasbeen insured,andastatepensionschemeisaschemethatisrunbythestateandconcernsworkers’pensions.…aCareersInformationOfficer.…carbodyrepairkits.…afamilydinnerparty.…aschoolmedicalofficer.

usedwithadjectives

2.172 Ifyouwanttogivemoreinformationaboutanounthathasanounmodifierinfrontofit,youcanputadjectivesinfrontofthenounmodifier.…alongcarjourney.…anewscarletsilkhandkerchief.…complexbusinessdeals.…thisbeautifulmorningsunlight.…theFrenchfilmindustry.Whenanadjectivecomesinfrontoftwonouns,it isusuallyobviouswhetherit ismodifyingthetwonounscombinedoronlythenounmodifier.Forexample,inanelectriccanopener, theadjectiveelectric ismodifying thecombinationcanopener;whereasinelectricshocktreatment,electric ismodifyingthenounshockand thenboththeadjectiveandthenounmodifieraremodifyingthenountreatment.Adjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.2to2.102.

useofpropernouns

2.173 Proper nouns can also be used as noun modifiers. For example, if you want to show thatsomething is connectedwith a place, organization, or institution, youput the nameof the place,organization, or institution in front of all other noun modifiers. You also put them in front ofclassifyingadjectives.…BrightonTechnicalCollege.…theCambridgeHouseLiteracyScheme.Propernounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.52to1.58.

BECREATIVE

2.174 Theuseofnounmodifiers inEnglish isverycommon indeed. In fact,when thecontextmakes itclearwhatyoumean,youcanuse almost anynoun tomodify anyothernoun.Youcanusenounmodifierstotalkaboutawiderangeofrelationshipsbetweenthetwonouns.Forexample,youcansaywhatsomethingismadeof,asincottonsocks.Youcanalsosaywhatismadeinaparticularplace,asinaglassfactory.Youcansaywhatsomeonedoes,asinafootballplayer,oryoucansaywheresomethingis,asinmybedroomcurtains.Youcansaywhensomethinghappens,asinthemorningmistandherwartimeactivities.Youcanalsodescribethenatureorsizeofsomething,asinasurpriseattackandapocketchess-set.

Talkingaboutquantitiesandamounts2.175 Thissectiondealswithwaysoftalkingaboutquantitiesandamountsofthings.Youoftenreferto

quantitiesbyusinganumber,butsometimesineverydaysituationsyoucandothisbyusingawordoraphrasesuchasseveraloralotandlinkitwithoftothefollowingnoun.Quantityexpressionsliketheseareexplainedinparagraphs2.176to2.193.Whenphrasessuchasabottleareusedlikethis,theyarecalledpartitives.Partitivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.194to2.207.Whenyouwanttobeverypreciseaboutthequantityoramountofsomething,youcanusenumbers(seeparagraphs2.208to2.239)orfractions(seeparagraphs2.240to2.249).Numbers, fractions, and quantity expressions are also used in expressions of measurement toindicatethesize,weight,length,andsoon,ofsomething.Waysoftalkingaboutmeasurementsareexplainedinparagraphs2.250 to2.257.Approximatemeasurementsareexplained inparagraphs2.264to2.271.Numbersarealsousedtosayhowoldsomeoneorsomethingis.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.258to2.263.

Talkingaboutamountsofthings:alotofideas,plentyofshops2.176 When you want to talk about a quantity of things or an amount of something, you can use the

pronoun form of some indefinite determiners (such as all or both) followed by of and a nounphrase.Iamsurebothofyouagreewithme.Mostofthepopulationhavefled.Allofherchildrenliveabroad.

2.177 Hereisthelistofindefinitedeterminersthatcanbeusedinthisway.Of isgivenaftereachasareminder.

allofanotherofanyofbothofeachofeitherofenoughof(a)fewoffeweroflessof(a)littleoflotsofmanyofmoreofmostofmuchofneitherofnoneofoneofseveralofsomeof

Youcanalsouseaphrasesuchasalotoforanumberoftotalkaboutquantityinthesameway.…ahousewithlotsofwindows.Imakealotofmistakes.InTunisthereareanumberofartgalleries.Ineverfoundtherestofmyrelatives.

2.178 Hereisalistofphrasesthatcanbeusedtotalkaboutquantity.

anamountofabitofalittlebitofacoupleofagooddealofagreatdealofalotofagoodmanyofagreatmanyofanumberofplentyofaquantityof~amajorityofthemajorityofaminorityof

~partoftheremainderoftherestofthewholeof~gobsof(American)heapsofloadsofmassesoftonsof

Notethatthewordsinthelastgroupinthislistareusedininformalspeechonly.

onlywithdefinitedeterminers

2.179 Someofthesequantityexpressionsarelinkedbyofonlytonounphrasesthatbeginwithadefinitedeterminersuchasthe,these,ormy.Apronounsuchasus,them,orthesecanalsobeusedafterof.Nearlyalloftheincreasehasbeencausedbyinflation.Partofthefarmlayclosetotheriverbank.Onlyafewofthemwerearmed.Hereisalistofquantityexpressionswithofthatareusuallyoralwaysfollowedbynounphrasesbeginningwithdefinitedeterminers:

allofanotherofanyofbothofcertainofeachofeitherofenoughoffewoffeweroflessoflittleofmanyofmoreofmostofmuchofneitherofnoneofoneofpartofseveralofsomeofvariousof

~afewofalittleofagoodmanyofagreatmanyof~theremainderoftherestofthewholeof

withplacenames

2.180 Someofthesequantityexpressionscanalsobeusedwithplacenames.MuchofAmericawillbeshockedbywhathappened.…involvingmostofAfricaandalotofSouthAmerica.Hereisalistofquantityexpressionsusedwithplacenames:

alloflessofmoreofmostofmuchofnoneofpartofsomeof~abitofalittlebitofagooddealofagreatdealofalotof~therestofthewholeof

verbagreement

2.181 When you use a quantity expression as the subject of a verb, the verb is singular or pluraldependingonwhetherthequantityexpressionreferstoonethingortomorethanonething.Someoftheinformationhasalreadybeenanalysed.Someofmybestfriendsarepolicemen.

withpluralnouns

2.182 Manyquantityexpressionscanonlybeusedinfrontofpluralnounphrases.Iamsurebothofyouagreewithme.

Startbylookingthroughtheirpapersforeitherofthetwodocumentsmentionedbelow.Fewoftheseorganizationssurviveforlong.Severalofhisbestbooksareaboutspaceflight.Iwouldliketoaskyouacoupleofquestions.Thereportcontainedlargenumbersofinaccuracies.Hereisalistofquantityexpressionsthatareonlyusedwithpluralnounphrases:

anotherofbothofcertainofeachofeitheroffewoffewerofmanyofneitherofnumbersofoneofseveralofvariousof~acoupleofafewofagoodmanyofagreatmanyofanumberof

Formoreinformationabouteachofseeparagraphs2.186to2.187,aboutfewerof seeparagraph2.189,andaboutanumberofseeparagraphs2.191to2.192.Notethatneitherofisusedinasimilarwaytoeitherofwhenyouaretalkingabouttwothingsinnegativeclauses.Thisisexplainedinparagraph5.81.

withuncountablenounsandsingularnouns

2.183 Afewquantityexpressionsareonlyusedwithuncountablenounsandsingularnounphrases.Muchofthedaywastakenupwithclasses.Thisisabitofachange.Therewasagooddealofsmoke.Ifyouuserichmilk,pouroffalittleofthecream.Ispentthewholeoflastyearworkingthere.Hereisalistofquantityexpressionsonlyusedwithuncountablenounsandsingularnounphrases:

lessoflittleofmuchof

partof~abitofalittlebitofagooddealofagreatdealofalittleof~thewholeof

Formoreinformationaboutlessofseeparagraph2.189.

withpluralnounsanduncountablenouns

2.184 Averyfewquantityexpressionsareusedonlywithpluralnounphrasesanduncountablenouns.…theseizureofvastquantitiesofillegalweapons.Verylargequantitiesofaidwereneeded.Theyhadloadsofthingstosayabouteachother.Wehadloadsofroom.…plentyofthemen.Makesureyougiveplentyofnotice.Hereisalistofquantityexpressionsthatareonlyusedwithpluralnounphrasesanduncountablenouns:

plentyofquantitiesof~gobsof(American)heapsofloadsofmassesoftonsof

Notethatwhenthesecondgroupinthislistareusedwithanuncountablenounasthesubjectofaverb,theverbissingular,eventhoughthequantityexpressionlooksplural.Massesandmassesoffoodwasleftover.

withalltypesofnoun

2.185 Somequantityexpressionscanbeusedwithpluralnouns,withsingularnouns,orwithuncountablenouns.…someofthemostdistinguishedmenofourtime.Wedidsomeofthejourneybynight.Someofthegossipwassurprisinglyaccurate.

Here is a list of quantity expressions that are used with plural nouns, singular nouns, oruncountablenouns:

allofanyofenoughoflotsofmoreofmostofnoneofsomeof~anamountofalotofaquantityof~theremainderoftherestof

Notethatanamountofisnearlyalwaysusedwithanadjectivesuchassmall:asmallamountof.Thisisexplainedinparagraph2.191.Notealsothatwhenlotsofisusedwithanuncountablenounasthesubjectofaverb,theverbissingular,eventhoughthequantityexpressionlooksplural.Hethoughtthatlotsoflovelymoneywasthesourceofhappiness.Anyofisexplainedmorefullyinparagraph2.188.

USAGENOTE

2.186 Whenyouwant to refer toeachmemberofaparticulargroup,youcanuseeachofandapluralnounphrase.Eachofthedrawingsisslightlydifferent.Wefeelquitedifferentlyabouteachofourchildren.Workouthowmuchyoucanaffordtopayeachofthem.Notethateachoneandeveryonecanbeusedbeforeofinsteadofeach,foremphasis.Thisviewofpovertyinfluenceseachoneofus.Everyoneofthemisgivenafinancialtarget.

BECAREFUL

2.187 Whenthequantityexpressioneachof isusedwithapluralnounphrase, theverbafter thenounphraseisalwayssingular.

USAGENOTE

2.188 Anyofcanrefer tooneorseveralpeopleor things,or topartofsomething.Notethat if it is the

subjectofaverb,whenitreferstoseveralthings,theverbisplural,andwhenitreferstoapartofsomething,theverbissingular.Shehasthosecoats.Shemighthavebeenwearinganyofthem.Hardlyanyofthesefindtheirwayintoconsumerproducts.Hasanyofthisbeenhelpful?Itwasmoreexpensivethananyoftheothermagazineswewerenormallyabletoafford.

2.189 Therearethreecomparativequantityexpressionsthatcanbeusedbeforenounphrases.Lessofisusuallyusedwithsingularnounsanduncountablenouns,fewerofisusuallyusedwithpluralnouns,andmoreofisusedwithallthreetypesofnoun.Ienjoycookingfarmorenow,becauseIdolessofit.Fewerofthesechildrenwillbecomebored.Hewasfarmoreofanexistentialist.Notethatmoreofissometimesusedinfrontofanounphrasetointensifyit.Hecouldhardlyhavefeltmoreofafoolthanhedidatthatmoment.Shewasmoreofaflirtthanever.Americaismuchmoreofaclasslesssociety.Notealsothatlessofissometimesusedinsteadoffewerof,butmanypeoplethinkthatthisisnotcorrect.

omittingof

2.190 When the context makes it clear, or when you think that the person you are talking to willunderstandwhatyoumean,youcansometimesreducethestructuretothequantitywordonly.Forexample,ifyouaretalkingaboutapplicationsforajobandthereweretwentycandidates,youcansaySomewereverygoodratherthanSomeofthemwereverygood.Afewcrossedoverthebridge.Somepartscanbeseparatedfromthewhole.Ihavefourbins.Ikeeponeinthekitchenandtherestinthedustbinarea.Mostofthebookshadbeenpackedintoanenormoustrunkandtheremainderpiledontopofit.

USAGENOTE

2.191 Youcanaddadjectivestoanumberofandaquantityoftosayhowlargeorsmallanamountornumberofthingsis.Thecityattractsalargenumberoftourists.Wehadalimitednumberofpeopletochoosefrom.Thenovelprovidesanenormousquantityofinformation.…atinyquantityofacid.Anamountofisalwaysusedwithadjectives,andisusuallyusedwithuncountablenouns.Pourasmallamountofthesauceoverthechicken.Hehasalargeamountofresponsibility.Itonlyinvolvesasmallamountoftime.

Therehastobeacertainamountofsacrifice.Theyhavedoneavastamountofhardwork.Thepluralformsofquantity,number,andamountareused,especiallywhenreferringtoseparateamounts.…groupsthatemploylargenumbersoflow-paidworkers.Enormousamountsofmoneyarespentonadvertising.

modifyingquantityexpressions

2.192 Whenaquantityexpressioncontainsanadjective,youcanputveryinfrontoftheadjective.…averygreatdealofwork.…averylargeamountofmoney.

2.193 Somequantityexpressionscanbemodifiedusingquite.I’vewastedquiteenoughofmylifehere.Quiteafewoftheemployeesarebeginningtorealisethetruth.Mostofthemhavehadquitealotofexperience.…quitealargeamountofindustry.Hereisalistofquantityexpressionsthatcanbemodifiedbyquite:

enoughafewalotofalargeamountofasmallamountofanumberofalargenumberof

Talkingaboutparticularamountsofthings:apieceofpaper,adropofwater2.194 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutaparticularquantityofsomething,youcanuseapartitive structure

thatconsistsofaparticularpartitive(e.g.piece)linkedbyoftoanothernoun.Partitivesarealwayscountablenouns.Whoownsthisbitofland?…portionsofmashedpotato.Ifthepartitiveissingular,thentheverbusedwithitisusuallysingular.Ifitisplural,theverbisalsoplural.Apieceofpaperislifeless.Twopiecesofmetalwerebeingrubbedtogether.Note thatallpartitivesconsistof twoormorewords,becauseof isneeded ineverycase.Of isprintedinthelistsbelowasareminder.

partitiveswithuncountablenouns

2.195 Whenthenounafterthepartitiveisanuncountablenoun,youusecountablenounssuchasbit,drop,lump,orpieceasthepartitive.Here’sabitofpaper.…adropofblood.Dropsofsweatdrippedfromhisforehead.…atinypieceofmaterial.…apinchofsalt.…specksofdust.Thesepartitivescanbeusedwithoutofwhenitisobviouswhatyouaretalkingabout.Hesatdowninthekitchenbeforeaplateofcoldham,buthehadonlyeatenonepiecewhenthephonerang.

2.196 Hereisalistofpartitivesusedwithuncountablenouns:

amountofbitofblobofchunkofclumpofdashofdropofgrainofheapofknoboflumpofmassofmorselofmountainofpieceofpileofpinchofpoolofportionofscrapofsheetofshredofsliceofspeckofspotoftouchoftraceof

Someof thesepartitives are alsousedwithplural nouns referring to things that together formamass.…ahugeheapofstones.

…apileofnewspapers.Hereisalistofpartitivesusedwithbothuncountableandpluralnouns:

amountofclumpofheapofmassofmountainofpileofportionof

BECREATIVE

2.197 Many nouns that refer to the shape of an amount of something can also be partitives withuncountableorpluralnouns.…aballofwool.…columnsofsmoke.…aringofexcitedfaces.Hereisalistofpartitivesusedfortalkingabouttheshapeofanamountofsomething:

ballofcolumnofringofshaftofsquareofstickofstripofthreadoftuftofwallof

Manynounsthatrefertobothshapeandmovementcanalsobeusedaspartitives.Itblewajetofwaterintotheair.…aconstantstreamofchildrenpassingthroughthedoor.Hereisalistofpartitivesusedfortalkingaboutbothshapeandmovement:

dribbleofgushofgustofjetofshowerofspurtofstreamoftorrentof

BECREATIVE

Youcanuseanynountodescribeshapeinthisway.Forexampleyoucantalkaboutatriangleofsnookerballs.

2.198 Therearemanynounsthatrefertogroupsthatcanbeusedaspartitives.Theyarelinkedbyof topluralnounsthatindicatewhatthegroupconsistsof.Itwasevaluatedbyanindependentteamofinspectors.Agroupofjournalistsgatheredattheairporttowatchustakeoff.…abunchofflowers.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtogroups:

audienceofbunchofclumpofcompanyoffamilyofflockofgangofgroupofherdofteamoftroupeof

BECREATIVE

Youcanuseanynounreferringtoagroupofpeopleorthingsinthisway.Forexample,youcantalkaboutanarmyofvolunteers.

measurementnouns

2.199 Nounsreferringtomeasurementsareoftenusedinpartitivestructures to talkaboutanamountofsomethingthatisaparticularlength,area,volume,orweight.Uncountablenounsareusedafterofin structures referring to length, and both uncountable and plural nouns are used in structuresreferringtoweight.…tenyardsofvelvet.Thousandsofsquaremilesoflandhavebeencontaminated.Idrinkapintofmilkaday.…threepoundsofstrawberries.…10ouncesofcheese.Nounsreferringtomeasurementsareexplainedinparagraphs2.250to2.257.

referringtocontentsandcontainers

2.200 You use partitives when you want to talk about the contents of a container as well as to thecontaineritself.Forexample,youcanrefertoacartonfilledwithmilkasacartonofmilk.Iwenttobuyabagofchips.Thewaiterappearedwithabottleofredwine.…apacketofcigarettes.…apotofhoney.…tubesofglue.Youcanalsousepartitivestorefertothecontentsonly.Theydrankanotherbottleofchampagne.Sheateawholeboxofchocolates.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtocontainers:

bagofbarrelofbasinofbasketofbottleofbowlofboxofbucketofcanofcartonofcaseofcaskofcrateofcupofglassofjarofjugofmugofpackofpacketofplateofpotofsackofspoonoftablespoonoftankofteaspoonoftinoftuboftubeoftumblerof

endingin-ful

2.201 Youcanadd-fultothesepartitivesreferringtocontainers.

Hebroughtmeabagfulofsweets.Pourabucketfulofcoldwaterontheash.…acupfulofboiledwater.…atankfulofpetrol.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtocontainersthatareverycommonlyusedwith-ful:

bagbasketboxbucketcupplatespoontablespoontankteaspoon

Whenpeoplewant tomakeanounending in -fulplural, theyusuallyaddan -s to theendof theword,asinbucketfuls.Howeversomepeopleputthe-sinfrontof-ful,asinbucketsful.Sheladledthreespoonfulsofsugarintomytea.Theywerecollectingbasketfulsofapples.…twoteaspoonfulsofpowder.…2teaspoonsfulofmilk.

BECREATIVE

2.202 Youcanalsoadd-fultootherpartitives.Eleanorwasholdinganarmfulofredroses.Iwentoutsidetothrowahandfulofbreadtothebirds.Hetookanothermouthfulofwhisky.…ahousefulofchildren.

USAGENOTE

2.203 Yousometimesuseamassnouninsteadofapartitivestructure.Forexample,twoteasmeans thesameastwocupsoftea,andtwosugarsmeanstwospoonfulsofsugar.Wedrankacoupleofbeers.Iaskedfortwocoffeeswithmilk.Massnounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.28to1.31.

referringtopartsandfractions

2.204 Youuseapartitivewhenyouwanttotalkaboutapartorafractionofaparticularthing.Ispentalargepartofmylifeinbroadcasting.

ThesystemisbreakingdowninmanypartsofAfrica.AlargeportionoftheuniversitybudgetgoesintotheCommunityServicesarea.…amassmovementinvolvingallsegmentsofsociety.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtoapartofsomething:

partofportionofsectionofsegmentof

referringtoindividualitems

2.205 Youuseapartitivewithanuncountablenounreferringtothingsofacertaintypewhenyouwanttorefertooneparticularthingofthattype.…anarticleofclothing.Iboughtafewbitsoffurniture.Anyitemofinformationcanbeaccessed.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtoonethingofaparticulartype:

articleofbitofitemofpieceof

Hereisalistofuncountablenounsreferringtothingsofacertaintypethatareoftenusedwiththepartitiveslistedabove:

adviceapparatusbaggageclothingequipmentfurniturehomeworkinformationknowledgeluggagemachinerynewsresearch

pairof

2.206 Somepluralnounsrefertothingsthatarenormallythoughttoconsistoftwoparts,suchastrousersorscissors.Someothersrefertothingsthataremadeintwos,suchasshoesorsocks.Whenyouwanttotalkaboutoneofthesetwo-partitems,ortwo-itemsets,youusethepartitivepairlinkedtothesepluralnounsbyof.…apairofjeans.…apairoftights.…adozenpairsofsunglasses.Iboughtapairoftennisshoes.Ismashedthreepairsofskis.Thesepluralnounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.41to1.46.

BECREATIVE

2.207 Whenever you want to (i) talk about a limited amount of something, (ii) indicate the area thatsomethingoccupies,or(iii)specifyaparticularfeaturethatsomethinghas,youcanuseanounthatindicatestheamountorthenatureofthething(e.g.abottle),linkedbyoftoanounthatindicateswhatthethingis(e.g.water).Forexample,ifyousayaforestofpines,youaretalkingaboutalargeareaoftrees.Similarly,youcantalkaboutaborderofroses.Thisstructurecanbeextendedverywidely,sothatyoucantalkaboutacityofdreamingspires,forexample.

Referringtoanexactnumberofthings:numbers

cardinalnumbers

2.208 Whenyouwanttorefertoanexactnumberofthings,youusenumberssuchastwo,thirty,and777,whicharecalledcardinalnumbers,orsometimescardinals.I’mgoingtoaskyouthirtyquestions.…twohundredandsixtycopiesoftherecord.ThecardinalnumbersarelistedintheReferencesectionandtheiruseisexplainedinparagraphs2.213to2.231.

ordinalnumbers

2.209 When you want to identify or describe something by showing where it comes in a series orsequence,youuseanordinalnumber,oranordinal,suchasfirst,second,fourteenth,ortwenty-seventh.Shereceivedavideocameraforherfourteenthbirthday.Irepeatedmystoryforthethirdtimethatday.Theordinalnumbersare listedin theReferencesectionand theiruse isexplained inparagraphs2.232to2.239.

fractions

2.210 Whenyouwanttoshowhowlargeapartofsomethingiscomparedtothewholeofit,youuseafractionsuchasathirdorthree-quarters.AthirdoftheAmericanforceswereinvolved.Thebottlewasaboutthree-quartersfullwhenhestarted.Fractionsareexplainedinparagraphs2.240to2.249.

measuringthings

2.211 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutasize,distance,area,volume,weight,speed,ortemperature,youcandosobyusinganumberorquantityexpressioninfrontofameasurementnounsuchasfeetandmiles.Hewasaboutsixfeettall.It’sfourmilestothecitycentrefromhere.Measurementnounsareexplainedinparagraphs2.250to2.257.Ifyoudonotknowtheexactnumber,size,orquantityofsomething,youcangiveanapproximateamount or measurement using one of a group of special words and expressions. These areexplainedinparagraphs2.264to2.271.

age

2.212 Whenyouwanttosayhowoldsomeoneorsomethingis,youhaveachoiceofwaysinwhichtodoit.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs2.258to2.263.

Talkingaboutthenumberofthings:cardinalnumbers2.213 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutsomeorallofthethingsinagroup,youcanshowhowmanythingsyou

aretalkingaboutbyusingacardinalnumber.ThecardinalnumbersarelistedintheReferencesection.ByChristmas,wehadtencows.Whenyouuseadeterminerandanumberinfrontofanoun,youputthedeterminerinfrontofthenumber.…thethreeyoungmen.…mytwodaughters.Watchtheeyesofanytwopeopleengrossedinconversation.AllthreecandidatesarecomingtoBlackpoollaterthisweek.Whenyouputanumberandanadjectiveinfrontofanoun,youusuallyputthenumberinfrontoftheadjective.…twosmallchildren.…fifteenhundredlocalresidents.…threebeautifulyounggirls.

one

2.214 Oneisusedasanumberinfrontofanountoemphasizethatthereisonlyonething,toshowthatyouarebeingprecise,ortocontrastonethingwithanother.Oneisfollowedbyasingularnoun.ThatistheonebigreservationI’vegot.Hebalancedhimselfononefoot.Therewasonlyonegateintothepalace.ThistreatywassignedoneyearaftertheSuezCrisis.Itwasnegativeinonerespectbutpositiveinanother.Oneisalsoused,likeothernumbers,asaquantityexpression.Oneofmystudentssoldmeherticket.…oneofthefewgreatnovelsofthecentury.It’soneofthebestfilmsI’veeverseen.Onealsohasspecialusesasadeterminerandapronoun.Theseareexplainedinparagraph1.249andparagraphs1.158to1.161.

2.215 Whena largenumberbeginswith the figure1, the1 canbesaidorwrittenasaorone.One ismoreformal.…amilliondollars.…ahundredandfiftymiles.Overonemillionpoundshasbeenraised.

talkingaboutnegativeamounts

2.216 Thenumber0isnotusedinordinaryEnglishtosaythatthenumberofthingsyouaretalkingaboutiszero. Instead thenegativedeterminernoor thenegativepronounnone isused,orany isusedwithanegative.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs5.51and5.71to5.73.

numbersandagreement

2.217 Whenyouuseanynumberexceptoneinfrontofanoun,youuseapluralnoun.Thereweretenpeoplethere,allmen.…ahundredyears.…ahundredandonethings.

2.218 Whenyouuseanumberandapluralnountotalkabouttwoormorethings,youusuallyuseapluralverb.Youuseasingularverbwithone.Sevenguerrillaswerewounded.Thereisoneclue.However,whenyouaretalkingaboutanamountofmoneyortime,oradistance,speed,orweight,youusuallyuseanumber,apluralnoun,andasingularverb.Threehundredpoundsisalotofmoney.Tenyearsisalongtime.

Twentysixmilesisalongwaytorun.90milesanhourismuchtoofast.Ninetypoundsisallsheweighs.Waysofmeasuringthingsareexplainedinparagraphs2.250to2.257.

numberswithordinalsandpostdeterminers

2.219 You can use cardinal numbers with both ordinals (see paragraphs 2.232 to 2.239) andpostdeterminers (see paragraph 2.40). When you use a cardinal number with a determinerfollowedbyanordinalnumberorapostdeterminer, thecardinalnumberusuallycomesafter thedeterminerandtheordinalorpostdeterminer.Thefirsttwoyearshavebeenverysuccessful.…throughoutthefirstfourmonthsofthisyear.…thelasttwovolumesoftheencyclopedia.…inthepreviousthreeyearsofhisreign.Note thatsomepostdeterminerscanbeused likeordinaryclassifyingadjectives (seeparagraph2.40).Whentheyareusedlikethis,thecardinalnumbercomesbeforethem.Hehaswrittentwopreviousnovels.…twofurtherexamples.

numbersaspronouns

2.220 Wheneitherthecontextmakesitclear,oryouthinkthatyourlisteneralreadyknowssomething,youcanusethecardinalnumberwithoutanoun.Thesetwoarequitedifferent.When cardinal numbers are used like this, you can put ordinal numbers, postdeterminers, orsuperlativeadjectivesinbetweenthedeterminerandthecardinalnumber.Iwanttotellyouabouttheprogrammes.Thefirstfouraredevotedtouniversities.Theothersixaremasterpieces.Thebestthirtyhavethepotentialtobesuccessfuljournalists.

expressinglargenumbers

2.221 Whenyouusedozen,hundred,thousand,million,orbilliontoindicateexactnumbers,youputaoranothernumberinfrontofthem.…ahundreddollars.…sixhundredandtenmiles.…athousandbillionpounds.…twodozendiapers.

BECAREFUL

2.222 Whenyouusedozen,hundred,thousand,million,orbillion theyremainsingularevenwhen the

numberinfrontofthemisgreaterthanone.

BECAREFUL

2.223 Youcanusedozen, hundred, thousand,million, orbillionwithoutof in a less preciseway byputtingseveral,afew,andacoupleofinfrontofthem.…severalhundredpeople.Afewthousandcarshavegone.…lifeacoupleofhundredyearsago.

approximatequantities

2.224 When you want to emphasize how large a number is without stating it precisely, you can usedozens,hundreds,thousands,millions,andbillionsinthesamewayascardinalsfollowedbyof.That’sgoingtotakehundredsofyears.…hundredsofdollars.WetravelledthousandsofmilesacrossEurope.…languagesspokenbymillionsofpeople.Wehavedozensoffriendsinthecommunity.Youcanputmanyinfrontofthesepluralforms.Ihavetravelledmanyhundredsofmileswiththem.

USAGENOTE

2.225 Peopleoftenusethepluralformswhentheyareexaggerating.Iwasmeetingthousandsofpeople.Doyouhavetofillinhundredsofformsbeforeyougo?Youcanalsoemphasizeorexaggeratealargenumberbyusingthesewordsinphrasesbeginningwithby.…abookwhichsellsbythemillion.…peoplewhogiveinjectionsbythedozen.Videosoftheroyalweddingsoldbythehundredthousand.

numbersaslabels

2.226 Cardinalnumbersareusedtolabeloridentifythings.Room777oftheStanleyHotel.Number11DowningStreet.

numbersasquantityexpressions

2.227 Youcanalsousecardinalnumbersasquantityexpressionslinkedbyoftoanounphrasereferringtoagroup.Youdothiswhenyouwant toemphasize thatyouare talkingaboutapartorallofa

group.

Isawfouroftheseprogrammes.Threeofthequestionstodayhavebeenaboutdemocracy.Iuseplastickitchenbins.Ihavefourofthem.Alleightofmygreat-grandparentslivedinthecity.AllfourofuswantedtogetawayfromtheEarl’sCourtarea.Theclerklookedatthesixofthemandsaid,Allofyou?Ifinditlessworryingthanthetwoofyouaresuggesting.Quantityexpressionsareexplainedinparagraphs2.176to2.193.

numberquantityexpressionsaspronouns

2.228 Cardinalnumbers areused toquantify somethingwithout theof and the nounphrase,when it isclearwhatyouarereferringto.…agroupofpainters,nineorteninall.Oftheotherwives,twoaredancersandoneisasinger.…thetallerstudentofthetwo.…breakfastfortwo.

numbersaftersubjectpronouns

2.229 Cardinalnumbersarealsousedaftersubjectpronouns.InthefallwetwoaregoingtoEngland.Youfour,comewithme.

numbersincompoundadjectives

2.230 Cardinalnumberscanbeusedaspartofacompoundadjective (seeparagraphs2.94 to2.102).The cardinal number is used in front of a noun to form a compound adjective that is usuallyhyphenatedHetookoutafive-dollarbill.Iwroteafive-pagesummaryofthesituation.Note that the noun remains singular evenwhen the number is two ormore, and that compoundadjectives thatareformedlike thiscannotbeusedaftera linkingverb.Forexample,youcannotsayMyessay is five-hundred-word. Instead youwould probably sayMy essay is five hundredwordslong.

numberswithtimeexpressions

2.231 Cardinalnumbersaresometimesusedwithgeneraltimewordssuchasmonthandweek.Youdothiswhenyouwant todescribesomethingbysayinghow long it lasts. If the thing is referred towith an uncountable noun, you use thepossessive form (see paragraphs 1.211 to 1.222) of thegeneraltimeword.

She’salreadyhadatleastninemonths’experience.OnFridayshehadbeengiventwoweeks’notice.Sometimestheapostropheisomitted.Theywantedthreeweeksholidayandthreeweekspay.Thedetermineraisusuallyusedwhenyouaretalkingaboutasingleperiodoftime,althoughonecanbeusedinsteadwhenyouwanttobemoreformal.She’sonayear’sleavefromHunterCollege.Hewasonlygivenoneweek’snotice.Cardinalnumbersarealsousedwithgeneraltimewordsasmodifiersofadjectives.Shewasfourmonthspregnant.Therainsaretwomonthslate.Hisrentwasthreeweeksoverdue.

Referringtothingsinasequence:ordinalnumbers2.232 Ifyouwanttoidentifyordescribesomethingbysayingwhereitcomesinaseriesorsequence,you

useanordinalnumber.Quietlytheytooktheirseatsinthefirstthreerows.Flora’sflatisonthefourthfloorofthisfive-storeyblock.Theystoppedatthefirstofthetrees.Notethatyoucanalsousefollowing,last,next,preceding,previous,andsubsequentlikeordinalnumberstosaywheresomethingcomesinaseriesorsequence.Thefollowingmorninghecheckedoutofthehotel.…thelastrungsofthefire-escape.…atthenextgeneralelection.Theprecedingtexthasbeenprofessionallytranscribed.Imentionedthisinapreviousprogramme.…thesubsequentcareerpatternsofthosetakingdegrees.Following, subsequent, previous, and preceding are only used to indicate the position ofsomethinginasequenceintimeorinapieceofwriting.Nextandlastareusedmoregenerally,forexampletorefertothingsinrowsorlists.TheordinalnumbersarelistedintheReferencesection.

asmodifiers

2.233 Ordinals areoftenused in front of nouns.They arenot usuallyused after linkingverbs likebe.Theyareusuallyprecededbyadeterminer.…thefirstdayofautumn.Hetookthelifttothesixteenthfloor.…onhertwenty-firstbirthday.…hisfather’ssecondmarriage.

Insomeidiomaticphrasesordinalsareusedwithoutdeterminers.Thepictureseemsatfirstglancechaotic.Imight.Onsecondthoughts,no.Firstchildrenusuallygetalotofattention.

writtenforms

2.234 Ordinalscanbewritteninabbreviatedform,forexampleindatesorheadingsorinveryinformalwriting.Youwrite the last two letters of the ordinal after the number expressed in figures. Forexample, first can bewritten as 1st, twenty-second as22nd, hundred and third as103rd, andfourteenthas14th.…onAugust2nd.…the1stDivisionoftheSovereign’sEscort.…the11thCavalry.

ordinalswithof

2.235 Youcanspecifywhichgroupthethingreferredtobyanordinalbelongstobyusingtheprepositionofaftertheordinal.Itisthethirdofaseriesofeightprogrammes.Tonywasthesecondoffoursons.Whenordinalsareusedlikethis,theyusuallyrefertoonepersonorthing.However,whentheyareusedwitha to-infinitive,oranotherphraseorclauseafter them, theycanrefer toonepersonorthingortomorethanone.Firstisusedlikethismorethantheotherordinals.Iwasthefirsttorecover.Theyhadtobethefirsttogo.Theproposals–thefirstfor22years–amounttoanewcharterforthementallyill.Thewithdrawalswerethefirstthatthearmyagreedto.

aspronouns

2.236 You can use an ordinal to refer to amember of a group that you have alreadymentioned or tosomethingofthekindalreadymentioned,andyoucanomitthenounthatidentifiesthething.In August 1932 two of the group’s members were expelled from the party and a third wassuspended.Thethirdchildtriestooutdothefirstandsecond.Asecondpheasantflewup.Thenathirdandafourth.

2.237 Theadjectivesnextandlastcanbeused,likeordinals,bythemselveswhenthecontextmakesthemeaningclear.Youmissedonemeal.Thenextisonthetableinhalfanhour.Smithyremovedthelastofthescrews.

ordinalsusedasadverbs

2.238 Theordinal first is also used as an adverb to show that something is done before other things.Otherordinalsarealsosometimesusedtoshowtheorderinwhichthingsaredone,especiallyininformal English. People also use ordinals as adverbs when they are giving a list of points,reasons,oritems.Thisisexplainedfullyinparagraph10.54.

otherusesofordinals

2.239 Theuseofordinalsinexpressingfractionsisexplainedinparagraphs2.241and2.243.Theuseofordinalstoexpressdates,asintheseventeenthofJune,isexplainedinparagraph4.88.Ordinalnumberscanbeusedinfrontofcardinalnumbers.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.219to2.220.

Talkingaboutanexactpartofsomething:fractions2.240 Whenyouwanttoshowhowsmallorlargeapartofsomethingiscomparedtothewholeofit,you

useafraction,suchasathird,followedbyofandanounreferringtothewholething.Fractionscanalsobewritteninfigures(seeparagraph2.248).

singularfractions

2.241 When you express a fraction in words, the way you do so depends on whether the fraction issingularorplural.Ifitissingular,youwriteorsayanordinalnumberorthespecialfractiontermshalforquarter,witheitherthenumberoneoradeterminersuchasainfrontofthem.Thefractionislinkedtoanounbyof.Thisstateproducesathirdofthenation’soil.…aquarterofaninch.Youcantakeafifthofyourmoneyoutondemand.Atenthofourbudgetgoesonfuel.Forestscoveronethirdofthecountry.…onethousandthofadegree.…onequarterofthetotalpopulation.Anadjectivecanalsobeplacedafterthedeterminerandbeforethefraction.…thefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.Ireadthefirsthalfofthebook.…thesouthernhalfofEngland.…inthefirstquarterof2004.

USAGENOTE

2.242 Ifyouareusinghalfinfrontofapronoun,youstilluseofafterthehalf.NearlyhalfofitcomesfromtheMiddleEast.Morethanhalfofthemhavegonehome.

Halfofushavelostourjobs.Note thatwhen the fractionahalf isusedwithof, youusuallywriteor say it ashalfwithout adeterminer.Ahalfandonehalfarerarelyused.Theylosthalfoftheirpay.Halfofthepeoplewenttoprivateschools.IhadcrossedmorethanhalfofAmerica.

pluralfractions

2.243 Ifthefractionisplural,youputacardinalnumberinfrontofapluralformoftheordinalnumberorspecialfractionwordquarter.…thepoorertwothirdsoftheworld.Thejourneyisgoingtotakethreequartersofanhour.…fourfifthsofthemoney.Ninetenthsofthemliveontheland.…3millionthsofacentimetre.Whenhalfisusedwithwholenumbersoramounts,itisusedwiththedeterminera.…oneandahalfacresofland.…fourandahalfcenturies.

agreementwithverb

2.244 Whenyoutalkaboutfractionsofasinglething,youuseasingularformofaverbafterwards.Halfofourworkistodesignprogrammes.Twothirdsoftheplanet’ssurfaceiscoveredwithwater.Twofifthsoftheforestwasremoved.However,whenyou talk about fractionsof a number of things, youuse a plural formof a verbafterwards.TwothirdsofChad’sexportswerecotton.Aquarterofthestudentswereseenindividually.Morethanhalfofthesephotographsareofher.

fractionsaspronouns

2.245 Whenitiscleartoyourlistenerorreaderwhoorwhatyouarereferringto,eitherbecauseofthecontextorbecauseyouandyourlistenerorreaderknowwhatismeant,youcanusefractionsaspronounswithouttheofandnounafterthem.Ofthepeoplewhoworkhere,halfareFrenchandhalfareEnglish.Twothirdsweresterilized.Onesixtharedisappointedwiththeservice.

numbersfollowedbyfractions

2.246 Besidestheiruseasquantityexpressionslinkedbyoftoanounphrase,fractionscanalsobeusedafterawholenumberoramountplusand,withanounplacedafterthefraction.Thenounmustbepluralevenifthenumberisone.You’vegottositthereforoneandahalfhours.…fiveandaquarterdays.…morethanfourandahalfcenturiesagoIfyouareusingainsteadofone,theandandthefractioncomeafterthenoun.…amileandahalfbelowthesurface.…amileandaquarterofmotorway.

halfaspredeterminer

2.247 Besidesbeingusedwithof asaquantityexpression,half isalsousedasapredeterminer (seeparagraph1.251),directlyinfrontofadeterminer.Imethalfthegirlsattheconference.Thefarmerssoldoffhalftheirland.…halfapoundofcoffee.…halfabottleofmilk.Notethathalfisalwaysusedwithofbeforeapronoun(seeparagraph2.242).

fractionsexpressedinfigures

2.248 Youcanwriteafractioninfigures,forexample1/2,1/4,3/4,and2/3.Thesecorrespondtoahalf,aquarter,threequartersandtwothirdsrespectively.

expressingpercentages

2.249 Fractions are often given in a special form as a number of hundredths. This type of fraction iscalledapercentage.Forexample,threehundredths,expressedasapercentage,isthreepercent.It can also bewritten as three percent or3%. A half can be expressed as fifty per cent, fiftypercent,or50%.90percentofmostfoodiswater.About20percentofstudentaccountantsarewomen.Before196045%ofBritishtradewaswiththeCommonwealth.Youusepercentagesontheirownasnounphraseswhenitisclearwhattheyreferto.Ninetypercentwereselfemployed.…interestat10%perannum.

Talkingaboutmeasurements2.250 Youcanrefertoasize,distance,area,volume,weight,speed,ortemperaturebyusinganumberor

quantityexpressioninfrontofameasurementnoun.Measurementnounsarecountable.

Theygrowtotwentyfeet.…blocksofstoneweighinguptoahundredtons.Reducethetemperaturebyafewdegrees.Averageannualtemperaturesexceed20°centigrade.Otherwaysofexpressingdistanceareexplainedinparagraphs6.91 to6.92.Measurementnounsreferringtosize,area,volume,andweightareoftenusedinpartitivestructures(seeparagraphs2.194 to 2.207) such asa pint ofmilk anda pound of onions. They are also used in phrasesbeginningwithof(seeparagraph2.283).

imperialandmetricmeasurements

2.251 There are two systems of measurement used in Britain – the imperial system and themetricsystem.Eachsystemhasitsownmeasurementnouns.Here is a list of the imperial units ofmeasurement indicating size, distance, area, volume, andweight:

inchfootyardmile~acre~pintquartgallon~ouncepoundstonehundredweightton

Note that the plural of foot is feet, but foot can also be usedwith numbers. Similarly stone isusuallyusedinsteadofstones.Here is a list of the metric units of measurement indicating size, distance, area, volume, andweight:

millimetrecentimetremetrekilometre~hectare~

millilitrecentilitrelitre~milligramgramkilogramtonne

afterlinkingverbs

2.252 Measurementnounsareoftenusedafterlinkingverbssuchasbe,measureandweigh.Thefishwasabouteightfeetlong.Itmeasuresapproximately26incheswide×25incheslong.…asquareareameasuring900metresoneachside.Itweighsfiftyormorekilos.Theuseofadjectivesafterlinkingverbsisexplainedinparagraphs3.132to3.137.

adjectivesaftermeasurements

2.253 Whenmeasurement nouns that give the size of something are used after a linkingverb, they areoftenfollowedbyanadjectivethatmakesitclearexactlywhatthemeasurementreferstoHewasaboutsixfeettall.Thespearswereaboutsixfootlong.…aroom2metreswide.Thewaterwasfifteenfeetdeep.…alayerofstonefourmetresthick.Hereisalistoftheadjectivesthatfollowmeasurementnounsindicatingsize:

broaddeephighlongtallthickwide

Notethatyoudonotsaytwopoundsheavybuttwopoundsinweightinstead.

phrasesbeginningwithinaftermeasurements

2.254 Similarly,somemeasurementnounscanbefollowedbyprepositionalphrasesbeginningwithin.…ablockoficeonecubicfootinsize.

Iputonnearlyastoneinweight.Theyarethirtycentimetresinlength.…depositsmeasuringuptoakilometreinthickness.Itwasclosetotenfeetinheight.Hereisalistofphrasesbeginningwithinusedaftermeasurements:

inareainbreadthindepthindistanceinheightinlengthinsizeinthicknessinvolumeinweightinwidth

measurementnounsusedasmodifiers

2.255 Measurementnounscanalsobeusedasmodifiers in frontofanounwhenyouwant todescribethingsintermsoftheirmeasurements.…a5foot9inchbed.…70foothighmoundsofdust.…12×12inchtiles.…afive-poundbagoflentils.Notethatthemeasurementnounissingular.

USAGENOTE

2.256 Ifyouwanttodescribefullythesizeofanobjectorarea,youcangiveitsdimensions;thatis,yougive measurements of its length and width, or length, width, and depth. When you give thedimensionsofanobject,youseparatethefiguresusingand,by,orthemultiplicationsignx.…planksofwoodaboutthreeinchesthickandtwofeetwide.Theislandmeasuresabout25milesby12miles.LakeNyasais450mileslongbyabout50mileswide.Theboxmeasuresapproximately26incheswide×25inchesdeep×16incheshigh.Ifyouaretalkingaboutasquareobjectorarea,yougivethelengthofeachsidefollowedbythewordsquare.Eachfamilyhasonlyoneroomeightortenfeetsquare.Thesitemeasuresroughly35feetsquare.Squareisusedinfrontofunitsoflengthwhenexpressingarea.Cubicisusedinfrontofunitsoflengthwhenexpressingvolume.

…afarmcovering300squaremiles.Thebrainof thefirstape-menwasaboutthesamesizeasthatofagorilla,around500cubiccentimetres.Youexpresstemperatureindegrees,usingeitherdegreescentigrade,ordegreesFahrenheit.Notethat ineverydaylanguagethemetric termcentigrade isusedto indicate temperature,whereas inscientificlanguagethetermCelsiusisusedwhichreferstoexactlythesamescaleofmeasurement.

2.257 Youtalkaboutthespeedofsomethingbysayinghowfaritcantravelinaparticularunitoftime.Todothis,youuseanounsuchasmileorkilometre,followedbyper,a,oran,andatimenoun.Thecarcoulddoonlyforty-fivemilesperhour.Windspeedsattheairportwere160kilometresperhour.Warshipsmoveatabout500milesperday.

Talkingaboutage2.258 Whenyouwanttosayhowoldsomeoneis,youhaveachoiceofwaysinwhichtodoit.Youcan

be exact or approximate. Similarly, when you want to say how old something is, you can usedifferentways,someexact,andsomeapproximate.

talkingaboutexactage

2.259 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutaperson’sexactage,youcandosobyusingbefollowedbyanumber,andsometimesyearsoldafterthenumber

Iwasnineteen,andhewastwenty-one.I’monly63.Sheistwenty-fiveyearsold.Iamfortyyearsold.of(orlesscommonlyaged)andanumberafteranoun

…achildofsix.…twolittleboysagedaboutnineandeleven.acompoundadjective,usuallyhyphenated,consistingofanumber,followedbyasingularnoun

referringtoaperiodoftime,followedbyold…atwenty-two-year-oldstudent.…afive-month-oldbaby.…apretty350-year-oldcottage.…aviolationofasix-year-oldagreement.acompoundnounconsistingofanumberfollowedby-year-old

Theservantwasapalelittlefourteen-year-oldwholookedhardlymorethanten.Allthesix-year-oldsaretaughtbyoneteacher.…MelvinKalkhoven,atall,thinthirty-five-year-old.

talkingaboutapproximateage

2.260 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutaperson’sageinanapproximateway,youcandosobyusingin, followed by a possessive determiner, followed by a plural noun referring to a particular

rangeofyearssuchastwentiesandteensHewasinhissixties.Ididn’tmaturetillIwasinmyforties.…thegroupswhoarenowintheirthirties.…whenIwasinmyteens.Notethatyoucanuseearly,mid-,middle,orlatetoindicateapproximatelywheresomeone’sagecomesinaparticularrangeofyears.Hewastheninhislateseventies.Shewasinhermid-twenties.Janeisonlyinherearlyforties.overorunderfollowedbyanumber

Shewaswelloverfifty.Shewasonlyalittleoverfortyyearsold.Thereweren’tenoughpeoplewhowereunder25.Notethatyoucanalsouseaboveorbelowfollowedbytheageofandanumber.55percentofthemwerebelowtheageoftwenty-one.a compoundnoun referring to a groupof peoplewhose age ismore or less than a particular

number,whichconsistsofoverorunderfollowedbythepluralformoftheparticularnumber.Theover-sixtiesdonotwanttobeturnedoutoftheirhomes.Schoolingforunder-fivesshouldbeexpanded.

ThisconstructionisnotcommoninAmericanEnglish.2.261 Youcanputseveraloftheabovestructuresafteranountotalkabouttheageofapersonorthing.

…awomaninherearlythirties.…helpforelderlyladiesover65.Shehadfourchildrenundertheageoffive.

2.262 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeone’sageissimilartosomeoneelse’sage,youusestructuressuchasofhisageandofherparents’ageafteranoun.Theofisoftendropped.AlotofgirlsofHelen’sageareinterestedinclothes.It’seasytomakefriendsbecauseyou’rewithpeopleofyourownage.Shewillhaveatoughtimewhensheplayswithchildrenherownage.

talkingabouttheageofathing

2.263 Ifyouwanttosaywhattheageofathingis,youcanusebefollowedbyanumberfollowedbyyearsold

It’satleastathousandmillionyearsold.Thehousewasaboutthirtyyearsold.

Notethatyoucanalsousethispatternafteranoun.…rocks200millionyearsold.a compound adjective indicating the century when something existed or was made, which

consistsofanordinalnumberandcentury…asixth-centurychurch.…lifeinfifth-centuryAthens.acompoundadjective,usuallyhyphenated,consistingofanumber,followedbyasingularnoun

referringtoaperiodoftime,followedbyold…a1,000-year-oldtemple.

Approximateamountsandmeasurements2.264 Ifyoudonotknowtheexactnumber,size,orquantityofsomething,youcangiveanapproximate

amount ormeasurement using one of a group of specialwords and expressions. Some of thesewordsandexpressionsareputinfrontofaquantityandsomeareputafterit.Here is a list of some of the words and expressions used to give approximate amounts andmeasurements:

aboutalmostamaximumofaminimumofapproximatelyaroundatleastatmostatthemaximumatthemostlessthanmaximumminimummorethannearlynomorethanoddorlessormoreorsoorthereaboutsorunderoverroughlysomesomethinglikeunderupto

expressingminimumamounts

2.265 Someoftheseexpressionsindicatethatanumberisaminimumfigureandthattheactualfigureisormaybelarger.Hereisalistofexpressionsthatindicateaminimumnumber:

aminimumofatleastminimummorethanormoreoverplus

USAGENOTE

2.266 Youputaminimumof,morethan,andoverinfrontofanumber.Heneededaminimumof26Democraticvotes.…aschoolwithmorethan1300pupils.TheBritishhavebeenontheislandforoverathousandyears.Youputormoreandplusafteranumberoramount,andminimumafteranamount.…achoiceofthreeormorepossibilities.ThisistheworstdisasterIcanrememberinmy25yearsplusasapoliceofficer.Hedoesanhour’shomeworkpernightminimum.Youputatleastinfrontofanumberorafteranumberoramount.Shehadatleastadozenbrandies.Imusthaveslepttwelvehoursatleast!

expressingmaximumamounts

2.267 Some of these expressions are used to indicate that a number is amaximum figure and that theactualfigureisormaybesmaller.Hereisalistofexpressionsthatindicateamaximumnumber:

almostamaximumofatmostatthemaximumatthemostfewerthanlessthanmaximumnearly

nomorethanorlessorunderunderupto

USAGENOTE

2.268 Youputalmost,amaximumof,fewerthan,lessthan,nearly,nomorethan,underandup to infrontofanumber.Fewerthanandlessthanmeanthesame,butfewerthanismoreformal.Therewerefewerthan20peopleattheevent.Thepuppy’slessthansevenweeksold.Thecompanynowsuppliesalmost100ofthecity’srestaurants.Theseloansmustberepaidoveramaximumofthreeyears.Shehadnearlyfiftydollars.Wemanagedtofinishtheentirejobinunderthreemonths.Theirbodiesmightbeuptoametrewide.Youputatthemaximum,atmost,atthemost,maximum,orless,andorunderafteranumber.Classesareofeightatthemaximum.Theimagestakethirty-sixhoursmaximum.Theareawouldyieldonly200poundsofriceorless.…12hoursaweekorunder.

expressingapproximateamounts

2.269 Someoftheseexpressionsareusedtoshowthatanumberisapproximateandthattheactualfigurecouldbelargerorsmaller.Hereisalistoftheexpressionsshowingthatanumberisapproximate:

aboutapproximatelyaroundoddorsoorthereaboutsroughlysomesomethinglike

USAGENOTE

2.270 Youputabout,approximately,around,roughly,some,andsomethinglikeinfrontofanumber.

About85studentswerethere.Everyyearwehaveapproximately40pupilswhotakemathematics.Itwouldcostaround35millionpounds.Aloftconversioncostsroughly£12,000.TheyhavetopayAmericasome$683,000thisyear.Harringtonhascheatedusoutofsomethinglikethirtythousandquidoverthepasttwoyears.Youputoddandorsoafteranumberoramount,andorthereaboutsafteranamount.…ahundredoddacres.Forhalfaminuteorso,neitherofthemspoke.Getthetemperatureto30°Corthereabouts.

2.271 Youshowarangeofnumbersusingbetweenandand,orfromandto,orjustto.Mostofthefarmsaroundherearebetweenfourandfivehundredyearsold.Myhospitalgroupscontainfromtentotwentypatients.…peasantsowningtwotofiveacresofland.Notetheuseofanythingbeforebetweenandfrom,toemphasizehowgreattherangeis.Anaveragerateofanythingbetween25and60percentisusual.Itisajobthattakesanythingfromtwotofiveweeks.

Expandingthenounphrase2.272 Thissectiondealswithstructuresthatareusedtoaddfurtherinformationaboutthepersonorthing

referredto.Thesearecalledqualifiers.Thewordthatisqualifiedisusuallyanounbutcanbeanindefinitepronounorthose.

possiblestructures

2.273 Thestructuresthataredealtwithinthissectionareprepositionalphrases

…agirlwithredhair.…themaninthedarkglasses.Theuseofprepositionalphrases toexpand thenounphrase isexplained inparagraphs2.275 to2.290.adjectivesfollowedbyphrasesorclauses

…machinerycapableofclearingrubbleoffthemainroads.…thetypeofcommentslikelytoprovokecriticism.…aconceptinconceivableahundredyearsearlier.Theuseofadjectives followedbyphrasesorclauses toexpand thenounphrase isexplained inparagraphs2.291to2.292.non-finiteclauses

…asimpledevicetotestlungfunction.

…twooftheproblemsmentionedabove.Hegesturedtowardsthethreecardslyingonthetable.Theuseofnon-finiteclausestoexpandthenounphraseisexplainedinparagraphs2.293to2.301.nounphrasesgivingfurtherinformationaboutothernounphrases.Thisisexplainedinparagraph

2.302.2.274 Someotherstructuresarealsoused.Theseareexplainedfullyinothersections.Theyinclude

singlewordssuchasgaloreandconcerned,whichareexplainedinparagraphs2.58to2.62.relativeclauses

Shortlyaftertheshooting,themanwhohaddoneitwasarrested.Where’sthatcakeyourmothermade?Relativeclausesareexplainedinparagraphs8.83to8.116.placeadverbsandtimeadverbials

…downinthedungeonbeneath.…areflectionoflifetodayinEngland.TimeadverbialsareexplainedinChapter4andadverbsofplaceareexplainedinparagraphs6.53to6.72.

Nounswithprepositionalphrases2.275 In general, any prepositional phrase that describes or classifies something can be used directly

afteranounorpronoun.…themanincharge.…afilmaboutfourmenonholiday.Shereachedintotheroombehindher.

2.276 Inparticular,thereareseveralkindsofprepositionalphrasethatareusuallyonlyusedinthisway.Of these,prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithof are themostnumerous.Others include certainusesofwith,inandby.

of

2.277 Many nouns referring to things and actions can be expanded by using prepositional phrasesbeginningwithofafterthem.Thisallowsthenountobeexpandedwithawiderangeofmeanings.Youcanuseofwith nouns referring to feelings such as love and fear to showwhat the feelingrelatesto;forexample,fearofflyingandloveofanimals.Furthermeaningsaredescribedinthefollowingparagraphs.

BECAREFUL

2.278 Personalpronouns are not usually placed afterof. For example, you cannot sayJoycewas thedaughterofhimorthepagesofit.Possessivedeterminersareusedinsteadtoshowpossession.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs1.194to1.210.

2.279 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithofcanbeusedtoshowwhatsomethingconsistsof.…aletterofconfirmation.…strongfeelingsofjealousy.Theycanalsobeusedtoshowwhatthesubjectmatterofsomethingis.…apictureofahouse.…Gretchen’saccountofherinterviewwithNichols.…theideaofdeath.

2.280 Prepositional phrases beginning with of can be used to say that something belongs to or isassociatedwithsomeoneorsomething.CentalisatrademarkofMonotoreLtd.No.28wasthetownhouseofSirWinstonChurchill.JamesisthesonofaMethodistminister.Theactingabilityofthepupilsisadmirable.…thebeautyoftheWelshlandscape.Fourboyssatonthefloorofthelivingroom.Ellenaimlesslyturnedthepagesofhermagazine.Notethatapostrophes(’s)structuresaremuchmorefrequentlyusedtosaythatsomethingbelongstosomeoneorsomething.Apostrophes(’s)isexplainedinparagraphs1.211to1.222.

2.281 Prepositional phrases beginning with of can be used to say that someone or something has aparticularquality.…awomanofenergyandambition.…problemsofvaryingcomplexity.…aflowerofmonstrousproportions.Ahouseholdofthissizeinevitablyhasproblems.Ofcanalsobeusedinfrontofanumbertoindicatesomeone’sage.…awomanoftwenty-two.…achildofsix.Otherwaysoftalkingaboutageareexplainedinparagraphs2.258to2.263.

2.282 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithofcanbeusedwithnounsreferringtoanactiontoshowwhoorwhatisperformingtheaction.…thearrivalofthepolice.…thegrowthofmodernindustry.They are also used to showwho orwhat someone does something to. For example, if you aretalkingaboutpeoplewhosupportascheme,youcancallthemthesupportersofthescheme.…supportersofthehungerstrike.…criticsoftheTradeUnionMovement.…thecreatoroftheuniverse.…astudentofEnglish.…thecauseofthetragedy.Ofstructuresarealsousedtoindicatethethingaffectedbyanaction.

…thedestructionoftheircity.…thedismissalofhundredsofworkers.

2.283 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithofandcontainingmeasurementareusedtoshowhowgreatanarea,speed,distance,ortemperatureis.Therewerefiresburningoveratotalareaofabout600squaremiles.Itcanbarelymaintainaspeedof25kilometresanhour.…anaverageannualtemperatureof20°.Waysofmeasuringthingsareexplainedinparagraphs2.250to2.257.

with

2.284 Prepositional phrases beginningwithwith can be used to say that someone or something has aparticularcharacteristic,feature,orpossession.…agirlwithredhair.…agirlwithaforeignaccent.…abigcarwithrecliningseats.…amanwithaviolenttemper.…themanwiththegun.…thosewithlargefamilies.Theyarealsousedtoindicatewhatsomethinghasonorinit.…asheetofpaperwithwritingonit.…aroundboxwithsomebuttonsinit.…awhite,plainenvelopewithhernameprintedonit.…fragmentsofwrappingpaperwithbitsofstickytapestilladheringtothem.

in

2.285 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithincanbeusedtosaywhatsomeoneiswearing.…agrey-hairedmaninaraincoat.…themaninthedarkglasses.…littlegroupsofpeopleinblack.

by

2.286 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithbycanbeusedafteranounreferringtoanactiontosaywhoorwhatisperformingit.…hisappointmentbytheKing.…thecompressionofairbythepiston.

withprepositionalphrases

2.287 Some nouns, especially abstract nouns, need to be followed by a prepositional phrase to show

what they relate to. There is often little or no choice about which preposition to use after aparticularnoun.Hehasanallergytopeanuts.…hisauthorityoverthem.…thesolutiontoourenergyproblem.…thebondbetweenmotherandchild.

2.288 Hereisalistofnounsthatusuallyoroftenhavetoafterthem:

accessaddictionadherenceaffrontallegianceallergyallusionalternativeanswerantidoteapproachattachmentaversioncontributiondamagedevotiondisloyaltyexceptionfidelityincitementintroductionprefacepreluderecoursereferencerelevancereplyresistancereturnsequelsolutionsusceptibilitytestimonythreatvulnerabilitywitness

Hereisalistofnounsthatusuallyoroftenhaveforafterthem:

admiration

appetiteaptitudebidcravingcreditcuredemanddesiredisdaindislikedisregarddisrespecthungerloveneedprovisionquestreciperegardremedyrespectresponsibilityroomsearchsubstitutesympathysynonymtastethirstdemand

Hereisalistofnounsthatusuallyoroftenhaveonafterthem:

assaultattackbanclaimcommentconcentrationconstraintcrackdowncurbdependenceeffectembargoholdinsistencereflectionreliancerestrictionstance

tax

Hereisalistofnounsthatusuallyoroftenhavewithafterthem:

affinitycollisioncollusionconnectioncontrastcorrespondencedatedealingsdissatisfactionencounterfamiliarityidentificationintersectionintimacyinvolvementlinkparityquarrelrelationshipsympathy

Hereisalistofnounsthatareusuallyfollowedbyoneoftwoprepositions.Thelistindicatesthechoiceofprepositionsavailable:

agreementaboutagreementonargumentagainstargumentforbattleagainstbattleforcaseagainstcasefordebateaboutdebateondecisionaboutdecisionontransitionfromtransitionto

Hereisalistofothernounsthatareusuallyfollowedbyapreposition.

complexabout

crimeagainstgrudgeagainstinsuranceagainstreactionagainstsafeguardagainstangeratbondbetweendeparturefromescapefromexcerptfromfreedomfromquotationfromforayintorelapseintoawarenessofauthorityovercontrolover

Asyou can see from the lists and examples given above, it is often the case thatwordswith asimilarmeaningaretypicallyfollowedbythesamepreposition.Forexample,appetite,craving,desire,hunger,andthirstareallfollowedbyfor.

USAGENOTE

2.289 Some nouns are related to verbs that are always or often followed by a particular preposition.These nouns are followed by the same preposition as their related verbs, and they are used toindicatethethingthatisaffectedbytheaction.Forexample,toisusedafterboththeverbreferandtherelatednounreference.Wehavealreadyreferredtothisphenomenon.…reverentreferencestotheimportanceofhome.Theyswimaboutbusilysearchingforfood.…thesearchforfood.Iwanttoescapefromhere.…anescapefromreality.

2.290 Somenounsreferringtoafeelingorstatearerelatedtoanadjectivethatisusuallyfollowedbyapreposition. These nouns are followed by the same preposition as their related adjectives. Forexample,ofisusedaftertheadjectiveawareandtherelatednounawareness.Shewasquiteawareofhercurrentsituation.…thepublic’sincreasingawarenessoftheproblems.HewasangryatSallyGardnerforaccusinghim.…herangeratthekids.

Nounswithadjectives2.291 Whenadjectivesareusedinclausesafternounsorpronounstoexpandtheirmeaningtheycanbe

followedbyprepositionalphrases

…awarningtopeopleeagerforaquickcure.thoseresponsiblefortheproject.ato-infinitive

…remarkslikelytocauseoffence.Ithasbeendirectedagainstthoseleastabletoretaliate.expressionsoftimeorplace

…aconceptinconceivableahundredyearsearlier.Forthefacilitiesavailablehere,Imustaskforafee.Note that you can use adjectives as qualifierswhen they are preceded by time ormeasurementexpressions.…thosestillalive.…asmallhillabout400feethigh.Notealsothatafewadjectives,suchaspresentandresponsible,canbeusedontheirownafteranounorpronoun.Theuseoftheseadjectivesisexplainedinparagraphs2.58to2.62.

otherstructures

2.292 Therearesomeotherstructures,especiallythosethatindicatecomparison,degree,orresult, thatoften involve a qualifying structure. In particular, some words that modify adjectives, such asmore,too,orso,oftenhaveaqualifyingstructuretocompletetheirmeaning.Petercamein,moreexcitedthananyonehadseenhimbefore.Ralphwastooangrytothinkclearly.…steelcylindersstrongenoughtosurviveanuclearcatastrophe.…agrandpianoasbigastwocoffins.Shewassoillthatshecouldn’teat.Technologyhasmadesuchspectacularadvancesthatitisdifficulttokeepup.Theuseofcomparativeadjectivesplusthanafternounphrasesisexplainedinparagraphs2.106to2.108.Otherwaysofcomparingthingsareexplainedinparagraphs2.123to2.139.Theuseofso…thatandsuch…thatisexplainedinparagraphs8.58to8.63.

Nouns followed by to-infinitive, -ed participle, or -ing participle:somethingtoeat,agirlcalledPatricia,abasketcontainingeggs2.293 Thefollowingnon-finite clauses (=clauses containingaverb thathasno tense) canbeused to

expandthemeaningofanoun:to-infinitiveclauses(seeparagraphs2.294to2.299),-edparticipleclauses(seeparagraph2.300),and-ingparticipleclauses(seeparagraph2.301).

nounsfollowedbyto-infinitiveclauses

2.294 A to-infinitive clause is often placed after nouns in order to showwhat the thing referred to isintendedtodo.

ThegovernmentofMexicosetupaprogrammetodevelopnewvarietiesofwheat.Theyneedpeopletoworkinthefactories.

2.295 Youcanrefertosomethingorsomeonethatshouldorcanhavesomethingdonetothembyusingaclausecontainingato-infinitiveafteranounorindefinitepronoun.Imakenotesinthebackofmydiaryofthingstobemendedorreplaced.…whenI’vehadsomethingtoeat.Youcanalsouseaclauseconsistingofato-infinitivefollowedbyapreposition.Therewasn’tevenachairtositon.Hehadnothingtowritewith.

2.296 You can also use a to-infinitive clause when you want to say that you are talking about, forexample,thefirst,oldest,oronlypersonwhodidsomething.…thefirstwomantobeelectedtothecouncil.

2.297 A clause containing a to-infinitive is used after some abstract nouns to showwhat action theyrelateto.…peoplewhodidn’thavetheopportunitytogotouniversity.

USAGENOTE

2.298 Manyofthesenounsarerelatedtoverbsoradjectivesthatarealsooftenfollowedbyto-infinitiveclauses.Forexample,ato-infinitiveclauseisusedafterboththeverbneedandthenounneed,andafterboththeadjectiveableandtherelatednounability.Ineedtoborrowfivethousanddollars.…theneedtopreservesecrecyabouttheirintentions.Itfailedtogrow.

2.299 Hereisalistofnounsthatusuallyoroftenhaveato-infinitiveclauseafterthem:

abilityattemptbidchancecompulsiondesiredisinclinationfailureinabilityinclinationneedopportunityreadinessreasonrefusalunwillingnessurgeway

willingness

nounsfollowedby-edparticipleclauses

2.300 Aclausecontainingan-edparticiplecanbeuseddirectlyafteranountoshowthatsomethinghasbeenproducedoraffectedbyanaction.…agirlcalledPatricia.…dressesmadeofpaper.…twooftheproblemsmentionedabove.…astorywrittenbyanine-year-oldgirl.

nounsfollowedby-ingparticipleclauses

2.301 Aclausecontainingan-ingparticiplecanbeuseddirectlyafteranountoshowthatsomeoneorsomethingisdoingsomething.Hegesturedtowardsthethreecardslyingonthetable.…awickershopping-basketcontaininggroceries.

withanidentifyingnounphrase

2.302 Youcangivefurtherinformationaboutsomeoneorsomethingbyusinganounphrasethatdescribesthemoridentifiesthem.Ifyouputthisnounphraseafterthemainnounphrase,acommaisalmostalwaysputafterthemainnounphrasebecausethesecondnounphraseisseparatefromit,notpartofit.…thebaldeagle,thesymbolofAmerica.…DavidBeckham,afirst-classfootballplayer.Hermother,aCanadian,diedwhenshewassix.Ifyouputthisnounphrasebeforethemainnounphrase,youcansometimeschoosewhethertouseacommatoseparatethetwonounphrasesornot.…Joan’shusband,JimInglis.…myhusbandGeorge.

Chapter3Makingamessage:typesofverb

3.2–125 Showingwhoisinvolved

3.8–13 Intransitiveverbs:talkingabouteventsthatinvolveonlythesubject3.14–25 Transitiveverbs:involvingsomeoneorsomethingotherthanthesubject3.26–31 Reflexiveverbs:verbswheretheobjectrefersbacktothesubject3.32–45 Delexicalverbs:verbswithlit t lemeaning3.46–54 Verbsthatcanbeusedbothwithandwithoutanobject3.55–58 Verbsthatcantakeanobjectoraprepositionalphrase3.59–67 Changingyourfocusbychangingthesubject:Iopenedthedoor,Thedooropened3.68–72 Verbsthatinvolvepeopleaffectingeachotherwiththesameaction:JohnandMaryargued3.73–82 Verbsthatcanhavetwoobjects:givesomeonesomething3.83–116 Phrasalverbs:Isatdown,Shewokemeup3.117–125 Compoundverbs:ice-skate,baby-sit

3.126–181 Linkingverbs

3.132–137 Adjectivesafterlinkingverbs:Heseemshappy,I’mtired3.138–147 Nounsafterlinkingverbs:Sheisateacher,Itremainedasecret3.148–154 Commenting3.155–160 Otherverbswithfollowingadjectives:Hestoodstill3.161–171 Describingtheobjectofaverb3.172–177 Usingaprepositionalphraseafteralinkingverb3.178–181 Talkingaboutwhatrolesomethinghasorhowit isperceived:theprepositionas

3.182–212 Talkingaboutcloselylinkedactions:usingtwomainverbstogether

3.189–201 Talkingabouttwoactionsdonebythesameperson3.202–212 Talkingabouttwoactionsdonebydifferentpeople

3 Makingamessage:typesofverb

3.1 Whenyoumakeastatement,youuseaclause.Aclausethatisusedtomakeastatementcontainsanounphrase,which refers to thepersonor thing thatyouare talkingabout, andaverb phrase,whichshowswhatsortofaction,process,orstateyouaretalkingabout.Thenounphrase,whichusuallycomesinfrontoftheverb,iscalledthesubjectoftheverbortheclause. For example, in the clauseEllen laughed, Ellen is the subject. The formation of nounphrasesisexplainedinChapters1and2.Averbphraseused ina statementhasaparticular form,andshowsagreementwithnumberandperson. The formation of verb phrases is explained in the Reference section. Quite often instatements the verbphrase is a singleword, and it is quite common to talk about theverb of aclause.This chapter deals mainly with the use of verbs in active clauses, where the subject is theperformerofanaction rather than thepersonor thingaffectedbyanaction.Theuseofverbs inpassiveclauses,wherethesubjectisthepersonorthingaffected,isexplainedinparagraphs9.8to9.24.

Showingwhoisinvolved

intransitiveverbs

3.2 If an action or event involves only one person or thing, youmention only the performer of theaction(thesubject)andtheaction(theverb).Thegirlscreamed.Iwaited.Anawfulthinghashappened.Verbslikethisarecalledintransitiveverbs.However, you can then mention another person or thing that is involved using a prepositionalphrase.Shewalkedacrossthestreet.Intransitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.8to3.13.

transitiveverbs

3.3 If the action or event involves another person or thing that the action affects, relates to, orproduces,youputanounphrasereferringtothemaftertheverb.Thisiscalledtheobjectof the

verb.Ifitisnecessarytodistinguishitfromotherobjects,itiscalledthedirectobject.Heclosedthedoor.Ihatesport.Someofthewomennoticedme.Verbslikethisarecalledtransitiveverbs.Transitiveverbsareexplained inparagraphs3.14 to3.25.Reflexiveverbsanddelexicalverbsarespecialkindsoftransitiveverbs.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs3.26to3.31and3.32to3.45.

intransitiveortransitiveverbs

3.4 ThemajorityofverbsinEnglishgiveyoutheoptionofpresentinganeventeitherasinvolvingthesubjectonly,orasinvolvingthesubjectandsomeoneorsomethingelseasadirectobject.Shepaintsbyholdingthebrushinherteeth.Yarkovpaintsvividportraitsoffriendsandacquaintances.GusaskedmewhetherI’dliketohavedinnerwithhim.Iaccepted.Iacceptedtheinvitation.Thismeansthatmostverbscanbeusedwithorwithoutanobject.Verbsthatcanbeusedlikethisareexplainedinparagraphs3.46to3.54.With someverbs, the thing affectedby the action canbeput as theobject of theverbor as theobjectofaprepositionaftertheverb.Theseverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.55to3.58.Ergativeverbs area specialkindofverb thatcanbeusedwithorwithoutanobject.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs3.59to3.67.

reciprocalverbs

3.5 Reciprocalverbsrefertoactionsthatinvolvepeopleaffectingeachotherinthesamewaywiththesameaction.Therearetwotypesofreciprocalverb.Onetype isusedeitherwithorwithoutanobject.WemetatHargreaves’place.IhadmethiminZermatt.Theother type isusedwithoutanobject,andwithorwithoutaprepositionalphrasementioningoneoftheparticipants.Wearguedoverthisquestionforalongtime.Iarguedwiththismanforhalfanhour.Reciprocalverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.68to3.72.

verbswithtwoobjects

3.6 Sometransitiveverbsalsoallowyoutomentionapersonwhobenefitsfromanactionorreceivessomethingasaresult.Theverbisthenfollowedbybothadirectobjectandanindirectobject.

Handmemybag.HisunclehadgivenhimbooksonIndia.Shesendsyouherlove.Shepassedhimhiscup.Verbsthatcantakeanindirectobjectaswellasadirectobjectareexplainedinparagraphs3.73to3.82.

phrasalverbs,compoundverbs

3.7 Someverbshavetwoorthreeparts.Thesearephrasalverbsandcompoundverbs.Phrasalverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.83to3.116,andcompoundverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.117to3.125.

Intransitiveverbs:talkingabouteventsthatinvolveonlythesubject3.8 Whenyouaretalkingaboutanactionoreventthatdoesnothaveanobject,youuseanintransitive

verb.Herwholebodyached.Suchpeoplestillexist.Myconditiondeteriorated.Manyintransitiveverbsdescribephysicalbehaviourorthemakingofsounds.Bobcoughed.Vickiweptbitterly.Thegatesqueaked.

3.9 Hereisalistofverbsthatarenormallyusedwithoutanobjectandthatusuallyoroftenhavenoadverborprepositionalphraseafterthem:

acheadvancearisearrivebleedblushceasecollapsecoughcracklecrydecaydepartdeterioratediedigressdinedisappeardisintegrate

dozedroopeconomizeelapseensueeruptevaporateexistexpirefaintfallfalterfidgetflinchflourishfluctuategleamgrowlhappenhesitatehowlitchkneellaughmoanoccurpausepersistprosperquiverrecederelentriseroarscreamshineshiversighsleepslipsmilesnarlsneezesnoresnortsobsparklespeaksqueaksquealstinksubsidesulksurrender

swimthrobtinglevanishvaryvibratewaitwaverweepwiltworkyawn

Afewoftheseverbsareusedwithanobjectinidiomsorwithveryspecificobjects,buttheyareintransitiveinalltheircommonmeanings.

intransitiveverbsfollowedbyphrasesthatbeginwithapreposition

3.10 Many intransitive verbs always or typically have an adverb or prepositional phrase after them.Withsome,onlyaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithaparticularpreposition ispossible.Thisuseofaprepositionallowssomethingaffectedbytheactiontobementioned,astheobjectofthepreposition.Everythingyouseeherebelongstome.Landlordsoftenresortedtoviolence.Isympathizedwiththem.I’mrelyingonBill.Hestrivesforexcellenceinallthings.

3.11 Hereisalistofverbsthatalwaysortypicallyhaveaparticularprepositionafterthemwhentheyareusedwithaparticularmeaning:

raveabout~insureagainstplotagainstreactagainst~hintat~alternatebetweendifferentiatebetweenoscillatebetween~appealforatoneforcareforclamourforhopeforlongfor

optforpayforqualifyforstriveforyearnfor~detractfromemanatefromemergefromradiatefromshrinkfromstemfromsufferfrom~believeinconsistinculminateindabbleinindulgeininvestinresultinwallowin~lapseinto~complainofconceiveofconsistofdespairoflearnofsmackofthinkoftireof~betonfeedoninsistonspyontrampleon~adheretoalludetoamounttoappealtoaspiretoassenttoattendtobelongtobowtoclingtodefertodictatetoleadtolistento

objecttorefertorelatetoresorttoreverttostoopto~alternatewithassociatewithconsortwithcontendwithflirtwithgrapplewithsympathizewithteemwith

Here isa listofverbs thatcanhaveeitherof twoprepositionsafter themwith thesameorverysimilarmeaning:

aboundinaboundwithcaterforcatertoconformtoconformwithcontributetocontributetowardsdependondependupondoteondoteuponembarkonembarkuponendinendwithengageinengageonenthuseaboutenthuseovergravitatetogravitatetowardshungerafterhungerforimproveonimproveuponliaisebetweenliaisewithlustafterlustforprevailonprevailupon

profitbyprofitfromrelyonrelyuponrevolvearoundrevolveroundspringfromspringoutof

Note that some intransitive verbs can be used in the passive when they are followed by apreposition.Seeparagraph9.23.

intransitiveverbsfollowedbyanadverborprepositionalphrase

3.12 Otherverbscanbefollowedbyavarietyofprepositionalphrases,oranadverb,oftenrelatingtotimeorplace.Verbsofmovementareusuallyoroftenfollowedbyadverbsorphrasesrelatingtodirection.Hewentbacktohisownroom.Itravelledsouth.Hereisalistofverbsofmovement:

comecrawlcreepdriftflowgallopglidegohurtleplungerunsoarspringstrolltravelwalk

Look,gaze,glance,andstarearealsofollowedbyadverbsorphrasesrelatingtodirection.Verbsofpositionareusuallyfollowedbyadverbsorphrasesrelatingtoposition.Donaldwaslyingonthebed.ShelivesinLausanne.Iusedtolivehere.Hereisalistofverbsofposition:

bebelonghanglielivebelocatedremainsitbesituatedstandstay

Verbssuchasextendorstretcharefollowedbyadverbsorphrasesrelatingtoextent.…anareastretchingfromLondontoCambridge.Thereareafewverbsthatarealwaysfollowedbyothertypesofadverborphrase.Itbehavesratherlikeasquirrel.Mybrotheragreedtoactasago-between.Ihopedthattheabsorptionofpoisonhadn’tprogressedtoofar.Hereisalistofverbsthatarealwaysfollowedbyothertypesofadverborphrase:

actbehavecampaignprogress

verbsthatareoccasionallytransitive

3.13 Therearea fewverbs that areusually intransitivebut that canbe transitivewhen theyareusedwithoneparticularobject.Theobjectisusuallydirectlyrelatedtotheverb.Forexample,smileisusuallyusedwithoutanobject,butyoucanuseitwiththenounsmile.Forexample,Hesmiledapatientsmile isa literaryalternative tosayingHesmiledpatiently.The focus ison the typeofsmileratherthanontheactofsmiling.Stevesmiledhisthin,cruelsmile.Heappearstohavelivedthelifeofanyotherrichgentleman.Alicelaughedascornfullaugh.Ioncedreamedaverynicedreamaboutyou.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanonlybeusedwithanobjectwhentheobjectisdirectlyrelatedtotheverb:

dance(adance)die(adeath)dream(adream)

laugh(alaugh)live(alife)sigh(asigh)smile(asmile)

Amorecommonwayoffocusingonthenounphraseistouseadelexicalverbsuchasgive,take,or have, as inMary gave him a really lovely smile. See paragraphs 3.32 to 3.45 for moreinformationabouttheuseofdelexicalverbs.

Transitive verbs: involving someone or something other than thesubject3.14 Manyverbsdescribe events thatmust, in addition to the subject, involve someoneor something

else.Someoftheseverbscanonlybeusedwithafollowingobject.Theextraprofitjustifiestheinvestment.Hehadcommittedadisgracefulaction.Theyareemployingmorestaff.Thismeansthattheyarefollowedbyadirectobject.Shehadfriends.Childrenseekindependence.Thetrialraisedanumberofquestions.

differenttypesofobject

3.15 Manyverbsthatareonlyusedwithanobjectcantakealargerangeofobjects.Forexample,therearemanythingsyoucanwant:money,arest,success,andsoon.Shewantedsomehelp.Iputmyhandonthedoor.Shedescribedherbackground.Istillsupportthegovernment.HehadalwayslikedMrPhillips.Japanhasapopulationofaboutahundredmillion.Sometransitiveverbshavearestrictedrangeofobjects,becauseoftheirmeaning.Forexample,theobjectof theverbkillmustbesomething that isalive.Theobjectof theverbwastemustbesomethingyoucanuse,suchastime,money,orfood.Theykilledhugeelephantswithtinypoisoneddarts.Whywastemoneyonthem?

3.16 Hereisalistofverbsthataretransitive:

achieveaddressadmire

affectaffordavoidbearbelieveblamebuildbuycalmcarrycatchclaimcommitcompleteconcernconsidercontrolconvincecorrectcovercreatecutdamagedefydemanddescribedesigndesiredestroydiscoverdiscussdisplaydodreadenjoyequalexchangeexpectexperienceexpressfavourfearfillfindfreegetgivegrantguardhandlehatehavehearheat

hirehitincludeinfluenceintroduceissuejustifykeepkillknowlacklikelistlovelowermaintainmakemeanmentionnameneedownplantpleasepreferpreventprocessproducepronounceprotectprovideraisereachreceiverecommendrecordreleaserememberremoverentreportrespectrevealriskseeseeksellshockspecifyspotsupporttaketeasetest

threatentrust

upsetusevaluewantwastewearwelcome

Notethatdoandhavearealsoveryoftenusedasauxiliaries.See theReferencesectionfor thisuse.Have got and has got are often used instead of the present tense of have when talking aboutpossession.Theformsofhavebehavelikeauxiliarieswhenusedlikethisbeforegot.I’vegotanumbrella.She’sgotadegree.Measure and weigh are sometimes considered to be transitive verbs when used to statemeasurementsandweights.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph2.252.Costisusedtostatethecostofsomething,asinAnadultticketcosts90p.

humanobjects

3.17 When you are talking about something that affects a person rather than a thing, it is normal inEnglishtosaywhothatpersonis.Therefore,verbssuchasanger,thank,andwarn,whichinvolveaffectingpeople,usuallyhaveahumanobject.Itriedtocomforther.Hersuddendeathhadsurprisedeverybody.Bluesuitsyou.Moneydidnotinteresthimverymuch.LebelbriefedCaronontheeventsoftheafternoon.

3.18 Hereisalistofverbsthatusuallyhaveahumanobject:

angerbriefcomfortcontactfrighteninterestsuitsurpriseteasethanktroublewarn

transitiveverbsthatneedtobefollowedbyanadverborprepositionalphrase

3.19 With some transitive verbs, you have to give additional information aboutwhat is going on byusinganadverborprepositionalphraseaftertheobject.Some verbs typically have a prepositional phrase beginning with a particular preposition aftertheirobject.Thejudgebasedhisdecisiononconstitutionalrights.Hehadsubjectedmetothepressureoffinancialruin.Myparentsstillviewmeasalittleboy.Hereisalistofverbsthatalwaysorusuallyhaveaparticularprepositionaftertheirobject:

regardasviewas~mistakeforswapfor~dissociatefrompreventfrom~depriveofremindofridofrobof~accustomtoascribetoattributetocomparetocondemntoconfinetoconsigntodedicatetoentitletolikentoowetoreturntosubjecttosubordinateto~acquaintwithassociatewithconfrontwithengravewithpeltwithplywithtrustwith

Withthefollowingverbs,thereisachoiceofpreposition:

dividebydivideinto~incorporateinincorporateinto~baseonbaseuponlavishonlavishupon~entrusttoentrustwithequatetoequatewithpresenttopresentwithsupplytosupplywith

3.20 Otherverbsaretypicallyfollowedbyanadverborprepositionalphrase,butnotonecontainingaparticularpreposition.Theadverborphraseoftenrelatestoplace.Heplacedthebabyonthewoman’slap.Ipositionedmychairoutsidetheroom.Heneverputsanythingaway.Hetreatedhislabourerswithkindness.Here isa listofverbs thatusuallyhavesomekindofadverborprepositionalphraseafter theirobject:

bringchuckconveycramdirectdragescortflinghoistjabjotlayleadplacepointpositionprop

putripsendsetshovesmearstickstorethrowthrusttietreat

Formoreonadverbsandphrasesthatfollowverbs,seeChapter6.

transitiveverbsofpositionandmovement

3.21 Notethatsomeverbsofmovementandpositionaretransitive,notintransitive;theyarefollowedbynounsreferringtoplacesratherthanbyadverbsorprepositionalphrases.Thisisbecausetheverbsthemselvesshowthatyouaretalkingaboutmovementorpositionofaparticularkind.Forexample,enterimpliesmovementintoaplaceandoccupyimpliespositioninaplace.Heapproachedthehousenervously.Itwasdarkbythetimetheyreachedtheirhouse.Asmallornamentalpooloccupiedthecentreoftheroom.Everyonehadlefttheroom.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsofmovement:

approachenterleavenearreachround

Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsofposition:

covercrowdfillinhabitoccupythrong

Someverbsofmovementcanbefollowedeitherbyanounphraseorbyaprepositionalphrase.

Seeparagraph3.58.

USAGENOTE

3.22 Note that even verbs that are almost always followed by an object can occasionally be usedwithoutanobject.Thisispossibleinveryrestrictedcontexts.Forexample,ifyouarecontrastingtwoactions,itisnotnecessarytosaywhatelseisinvolved.Moneymarketsaretheplaceswherepeoplewithmoneybuyandsell.Somepeoplebuildwhileothersdestroy.Wegave,theytook.Ifyouusealistofdifferentverbsforemphasis,youdonotneedtonametheobject.Theysetouttoberude;todefy,threaten,ortease.Ifyourepeataverbinordertocontrastitwithasimilaraction,ortoemphasizeit,theobjectcanbeomitted.Shehadceasedtoloveasshehadonceloved.

3.23 Verbsthatdescribefeelingsandattitudesaresometimesusedwithoutanobject,particularlyintheto-infinitive form.This is because the object is assumed to be people in general. For example,pleaseusuallyrequiresanobject,butyoucansayHelikestoplease,meaninghelikestopleasepeople.Helikestoshock.Shewasanxioustoplease.Hemustbeconvincedifheistoconvince.Ihaveatendencytotease.

reportingverbs

3.24 There isa largegroupofverbs, suchassay,suggest,and think,whichareused to reportwhatpeoplesayorthink.Theyarecalledreportingverbs.Theyarefollowedbyathat-clausewhichiscalledthereportedclause.Shesaidthatshewouldcome.Thereportedclauseisoftenthoughtofasbeinganobject,andsotheseverbsareusuallysaidtobetransitiveverbs.Inthisbook,reportingverbsareexplainedinChapter7.Reportingverbssuchasadviseandpersuade,whichhaveanobjectthatreferstothepersonbeingaddressed,areexplainedinparagraphs7.75and7.76.Some reporting verbs can take as their object a noun such as question or story that refers tosomethingthatissaidorwritten.Theseverbsarelistedinparagraph7.82.Sometakeanobjectthatrefers to an event or fact, and is therefore closely related to a that-clause. These are listed inparagraph7.83.Verbssuchasbelieveandknowthatcanbeusedasreportingverbs,butthatareordinarytransitiveverbswhenusedwithanothercommonmeaning,areincludedinthelistsoftransitiveverbsgivenabove.

3.25 Mosttransitiveverbscanbeusedinthepassive.Seeparagraphs9.9to9.21.

Reflexiveverbs:verbswheretheobjectrefersbacktothesubject

BECREATIVE

3.26 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutasituationwherethesamepersonisinvolvedasboththesubjectandtheobject of an action, you use a reflexive pronoun as the object of a clause. For example, it iscommon toblame someone else if somethinggoeswrong, but you say I blamemyself forwhathappenedifyouthinkthatthemistakewasyourownfault.Althoughafewverbsaretypicallyusedwithreflexivepronouns,youcanactuallyuseareflexivepronounastheobjectofanytransitiveverb,whenthemeaningallowsyoutodoso.Iblamemyselffornotpayingattention.Shefreedherselffrommyembrace.Afterthemeeting,heintroducedhimselftome.Whynotbuyabookandteachyourself?Don’tdeceiveyourself.Wemustaskourselvesseveralquestions.Everycountryhastherighttodefenditself.Reflexivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.111to1.118.

truereflexiveverbs

3.27 Note that theverbsbusy,content, andpride are true reflexive verbs: theymust be usedwith areflexivepronoun.Hehadbusiedhimselfinthelaboratory.Manyscholarscontentedthemselveswithwritingtextbooks.Heprideshimselfonhistidiness.

3.28 Another small group of verbs only take an object that refers to a person when the object is areflexive pronoun. For example, you can express an opinion and you can express yourself(meaningthatyoucanputideasintowords),butyoucannotexpressaperson.ProfessorBaxendaleexpressedhimselfveryforcibly.Sheenjoyedherselfenormously.HeappliedhimselftolearninghowParliamentworked.Hereisalistofverbsthattakeareflexivepronounastheirobjectwhenyourefertoaperson:

applycomposedistanceenjoyexcelexertexpress

strain

reflexivepronounsusedforemphasis

3.29 Some verbs that normally do not have objects, because they involve only the performer of theaction,canhavea reflexivepronounas theirobject ifyouwant toemphasize that the subject isdoingsomethingthataffectshimselforherself.YoucanthereforesayBillwashedhimself ratherthanBillwashed.Ialwayswashfivetimesaday.Childrenwereencouragedtowashthemselves.Istoodinthekitchenwhileheshaved.Hepreferstoshavehimselfbeforebreakfast.Ashtonhadbehavedabominably.Heisoldenoughtobehavehimself.Successfulcompaniesknowhowtoadapttochange.You’vegottobewillingtoadaptyourself.Hereisalistofverbsthathavesensesinwhichyoucanuseareflexivepronounforemphasis:

acclimatizeadaptbehavecommitdresshidemovereadjustshaveundresswash

BECAREFUL

3.30 Note that reflexive pronouns are not used asmuch inEnglish as in some other languageswhentalkingaboutactionsthatyoudotoyourself.Asmentionedabove,youwouldusuallysayIwashedratherthanIwashedmyselfinEnglish.Sometimesanounwithapossessiveisusedinstead.Forexample,youwouldsayIcombedmyhairratherthanIcombedmyself.

3.31 Notethatreflexiveverbsarenotusedinthepassive.

Delexicalverbs:verbswithlittlemeaning3.32 Therearesomeverycommonverbsthatareusedwithnounsas theirobject toshowsimplythat

someoneperformsanaction,notthatsomeoneaffectsorcreatessomething.Theseverbshaveverylittlemeaningwhentheyareusedinthisway.Forexample,hadinShehadashowerhasverylittlemeaninginitself.Mostofthemeaningofthe

sentenceiscarriedbythenounshower.Wewerehavingajoke.Rogergaveagrinofsheerdelight.HetookasteptowardsJack.

verbsthatareoftendelexical

3.33 Thissectionfocusesontheverycommonverbsthatareusedinthistransitivestructure.Theyarecalleddelexicalverbs.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedasdelexicalverbs.Thefirstfourareverycommonlyusedinthisway.

givehavemaketake~doholdkeepset

Notethathavegotisnotusedasadelexicalverb.Structures containingdelexical verbs arevery common inEnglish.Although the total numberofdelexicalverbsissmall,itincludessomeofthemostcommonwordsinthelanguage.

3.34 Inmanycases, there isaverb thathasasimilarmeaning to themeaningof thedelexicalverb+noun.Forexample,theverblookmeansalmostthesameashavealook.Whenlookisaverb,asinIlookedroundtheroom,youarefocusingontheactionoflooking.Whenyouuselookasanounina delexical structure, you are naming an event, something that is complete. This structure oftenseems to be preferred. Note that the verb corresponding to the delexical structure is oftenintransitive.Shemadeasignal.Shesignalledforataxi.Acouplewerehavingadrinkatatablebythewindow.Afewstudentsweredrinkingatthebar.Shegaveanamusedlaugh.Theybothlaughed.Hegaveavaguereply.Theyrepliedtohisletter.Therearealsosomeverbsthataretransitive.Fanstriedtogetaglimpseofthesinger.Iglimpsedabrightflashofgoldontheleft.

Hegavealittlesniff.Shesniffedtheair.Comistookaphotographofher.TheyphotographedthepigeonsinTrafalgarSquare.

withsingularnoun

3.36 Thenounthatistheobjectofthedelexicalverbisofteninthesingularandisusuallyprecededbyaoran.Shemadearemarkabouttheweather.ShegaveacrywhenIcamein.Imighttakeastroll.Therearesomecountablenounsthatarealmostalwaysusedinthesingularafteradelexicalverb.Hereisalistofthesenouns:

cryfeelgrousegrumbleneedreadsmelltastetry

Notethatthesewordsaremorecommonlyusedasverbsinthelanguageasawhole.

withpluralnoun

3.36 Youcanalsouseadelexicalverbfollowedbyapluralnoun.Shetooklittlesipsofthecolddrink.HetookphotographsofVitainhersummerhouse.Thenewspapermadeunpleasantremarksabouthiswife.

withuncountablenoun

3.37 Itisalsooccasionallypossibletofollowadelexicalverbwithanuncountablenoun.Wehavemadeprogressinbothscienceandart.Caltookchargeofthissideoftheireducation.

talkingaboutabriefevent

3.38 Onedifferenceinmeaningbetweenusingastructurecontainingadelexicalverbandaverbwitha

similar meaning is that the delexical structure can give the impression that the event you aredescribing is brief. For example, She gave a scream suggests that there was only one quickscream,whereasShescreameddoesnotsuggestthattheeventwasbrief.Mr.Suttongaveashoutoftriumph.Zoegaveasighofrelief.Hegavealaugh.

usingadjectives

3.39 Anotherreasonforchoosingadelexicalstructureisthatyoucanaddfurtherdetailsabouttheeventby using adjectives in front of the noun, rather than by using adverbs. It is more natural, forexample,tosayHegaveaquickfurtiveglanceroundtheroom thantosayHeglancedquicklyandfurtivelyroundtheroom.HegavealonglectureaboutRoosevelt.Shehadagoodcry.Hewasforcedtomakeahumiliatingapology.TheselegendsholdaromanticfascinationformanyJapanese.

nounswithnoequivalentverb

3.40 Therearesomenounsusedindelexicalstructuresthatdonotcorrespondinformtoaverbthathasasimilarmeaningtothedelexicalstructure.Sometimesthereissuchaverb,buttheformisslightlydifferent.Workexperienceallowsstudentstomakemoreeffectivecareerdecisions.IdecidedIwouldn’tresignafterall.HemadetheshortestspeechI’veeverheard.lainspokecandidlyaboutthecrash.Inothercases,thereisnocorrespondingverbwithasimilarmeaningatallandsothereisnootherstructurethatcanbeused.Hehadbeenoutalldaytakingpicturesofthefighting.Thatisaveryfoolishattitudetotake.Shemadeanumberofrelevantpoints.Trynottomakesomuchnoise.

nounsusedwithhave

3.41 Inmostcases,onlyonedelexicalverbisusedwithanyparticularnoun.Thefollowingexamplesshownounsthatareusedafterhave.Theyhaveadesperateneedtocommunicate.Theyhadafundamentalbeliefintheirownsuperiority.Shehadagoodcry.Let’snothaveaquarrel.

Weshouldhaveatalk.Hereisalistofnounsthatareusedafterhave:

argumentbeliefchatcrydancedisagreementfallfightgrousegrumbleneedquarrelrespectsleeptalk

nounsusedwithtake

3.42 Thefollowingexamplesshownounsthatareusedaftertake.Hetakesnointerestinhischildren.…kidstakingturnstouseaplaygroundslide.Hewastakingnochances.Shewaspreparedtotakegreatrisks.Davistooktheleadinblamingthepilots.TheGovernmentfoughtagainstsuggestionsthatitshouldtakefullblamefortheaffair.Here is a list of nouns that are used after take. The first set of nouns are countable nouns; thesecondsetofnounsareuncountablenounsoralwayseithersingularorplural:

attitudechancedecisioninterestphotophotographpictureriskturn~blamecarechargeconsequencesformlead

offenceofficepowerresponsibilityshapetimetrouble

nounsusedwithgive

3.43 Manynounscanbeusedaftergive.Someof thesenouns refer tonoises thatpeoplemake,orexpressions theymakewith their face.Usinggivewith one of these nouns often suggests that the action is involuntary or that it is notnecessarilydirectedatotherpeople.Forexample,Shegaveascreamsuggeststhatshecouldnothelpscreaming.Theyoungcashiergaveapatientsigh.Rogergaveagrinofsheerdelight.Hegaveashrillgaspofshock.Bothofthemgaveaninvoluntarylittlegiggle.Hegaveasoftchuckle.Hereisalistofnounsthatrefertonoisespeoplemake,orexpressionstheymakewiththeirface:

chucklecrygaspgigglegringroanlaughscowlscreamshoutshrieksighsmilesniffsniggerwhistleyell

Anothergroupofnounsareoftenprecededbyanindirectobject(thatis,anobjectthatreferstotheperson or thing that received the action) because they describe activities that involve someoneelse,apartfromthesubject.Theygaveusawonderfullywarmwelcome.Elainegavehimahug.

Hegaveherhandasqueeze.Hegavehimagoodkick.Shegavehimalongkiss.Hereisalistofnounsthatcanbeprecededbyanindirectobject:

clueglancehinthugkickkisslookpunchpushringshoveslapsqueezewelcome

Athirdgroupofnounsrefertoactionsinvolvingsomethingbeingsaid.Thepoetryprofessorisrequiredtogivealectureeveryterm.LordYoungwill be giving a first-hand account of the economic difficulties the Russians arestrugglingtoovercome.SenatorBrownhasgivenwarning that conflict over the plans could lead to a constitutionalcrisis.Hereisalistofnounsthatrefertoactionsinvolvingsomethingbeingsaid:

accountadviceanswerexampleinformationinterviewlecturenewsreasonreportspeechsummarytalkthoughtwarning

nounsusedwithmake

3.44 Manynounscanbeusedaftermake.The delexical structures using a lot of these nouns are closely related to reporting structures,whichareexplainedinChapter7.Thereisusuallyarelatedverbthatcanbeusedfollowedbyareportedclause.Shemadearemarkabouttheweather.AllenremarkedthatattimeshethoughthewasbackinAmerica.Nowandthenshemakesacommentonsomething.Hecommentedthathewasonlydoinghisjob.Ihaven’tmadeafullconfession,sir.Foxconfessedthathehadstolenthemoney.Thecricketersmadeapublicprotestagainstapartheid.Sheprotestedthathiscommentsweresexist.Imadeasecretsignaltohim.TheBankofEnglandsignalledthattherewouldbenochangeininterestrates.Youmadetherightdecision.Onecandidateresigned,decidingthatbankingwasnotforher.Hereisalistofnounsthatareusedaftermakeandhavearelatedreportingverb:

arrangementclaimcommentconfessiondecisionpromiseprotestremarksignalsuggestion

Othernounsusedwithmakeexpressactionsinvolvingsomethingbeingsaid,ordescribechange,results,effort,andsoon.I’llmakesomeenquiriesforyou.Theyagreedtomakeafewminorchanges.Theymadeanemotionalappealfortheirdaughter’ssafereturn.Hemadeanattempttocalmdown.Hehasmadeasignificantcontributiontothesuccessofthebusiness.Hereisalistofothernounsthatareusedaftermake:

appealattemptchangechargecontribution

effortenquiryimpressionnoisepointprogressrecoverysoundspeechstartsuccess

Notethat,unliketheothernounsinthislist,progressisuncountable.

nounsusedwithhaveandtake

3.45 Therearesomenounsthatcanbeusedaftereitherhaveortake.Ingeneralhaveismorecommonwith these nouns in British English and take is more common in American English. There issometimesaslightdifferenceinemphasis:usinghaveputsmoreemphasisontheexperience,andusingtakeputsmoreemphasisontheperformeroftheaction.Onegroupofthesenounsrefertophysicalactivities.I’dratherhaveaswim.Haveadrink.Shedecidedtotakeastrollalongthebeach.Itookabath,mysecondthatday.Hereisalistofnounsthatrefertophysicalactivities:

bathbreakdrinkholidayjogpaddlerestrunshowerstrollswimvacation(American)walk

Anothergrouprefertoactionsthatinvolveusingoursenses.Sheshouldletadoctorhavealookatyou.EvenSallyhadalittlesipofwine.AHarvardscientistwasonceallowedintohaveapeep.

Marktookabiteofmeat.Hereisalistofnounsthatrefertosuchactions:

bitefeellookpeepsipsmellsnifftaste

Verbsthatcanbeusedbothwithandwithoutanobject3.46 Thereareseveralreasonswhyyoucanuseverbsbothwithandwithoutanobject.

differentmeanings

3.47 Oneimportantreasonforusingverbsbothwithandwithoutanobjectisthatmanyverbshavemorethanonecommonmeaning.Forexample,theverbrunisusedwithoutanobjectwhenitisusedinthe sense to move quickly. But run has an object when it is used in the sense to manage oroperate.Sherunsinordertokeepfit.Sherunsahotel.Shereflectedforamomentandthendecidedtobackout.Thefiguresreflectedthecompany’sattemptstoincreaseitsprofile.Icanmanageperfectlywellonmyown.Icannolongermanagemylife.Shemovedrathergracefully.Thewholeincidenthadmovedherprofoundly.

3.48 Here is a list of verbs that can be used both with and without an object, depending on whichmeaningyouareusing:

addaimbeatblowcallchangecheatcountdrawdressdriveescape

exercisefitflyfollowhangheadholdhurtleaklosemanagemeetmissmovepassplaypointpressproposereflectrunshootshowsinkspreadstandstretchstrikestudytendtouchturnwin

verbsthatdonotalwaysneedanobject

3.49 ManyverbsinEnglishcanbeusedwithorwithoutanobject,withthesamebasicmeaning.Theobjectisnotneededwhenitisobviouswhattypeofthingyouaretalkingabout.Forexample,youcouldsayeitherSheeatsfoodslowlyorSheeatsslowly. It isobvious in thiscontextthatwhatsheeatsisfood,andsoyouonlymentionfoodifyouwanttoemphasizethefact(whichisunlikely),orifyouwanttosaywhatkindoffoodsheeats.Withverbslikethese,younormallyuseanobjectonlywhenyouwanttobespecificorwhenyouwant to contrast what happened on one specific occasion with what happens normally. Forexample,youwouldsayI’vebeenstudyinghistory,asopposedtoI’vebeenstudying,onlyifyouwantorneedtomentionthesubjectspecifically,orifyounormallystudysomethingelse.…ahealthypersonwhoeatssensibly.Twiceaweekheeatsanappleforlunch.Heraisedhisownglassanddrank.Hedrankagooddealofcoffee.

Hehadwon,andshehadhelped.Shecouldhelphimtoescape.Icookedforabouteightdirectors.Shehadnevercookeddinnerforanyone.Iwashedandironedforthem.Sheironedmyshirt.Rudolphwavedandwentintothehouse.Shesmiledandwavedherhand.Shesatandtyped.Shetypedalettertothepaperinquestion.Youneedtogivetheobjectwhenitisdifferentfromtheonethatpeoplewouldnormallyassociatewith theverb.Forexample, towave isusually interpretedasmeaning towaveyourhand, so ifsomethingelseisbeingwaved,youhavetomentionit.Hewavedapieceofpaperinhislefthand.CharliewashedSusan’sfeet.Youalsomentiontheobjectwhenyouwanttosaysomethingspecificaboutit.Hewashedhissummerclothesandputthemaway.Bondwavedacheerfulhand.Icouldsavequitealotofmoney.

3.50 Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedwithoutanobjectwhenitisobviouswhatsortofthingisinvolved:

borrowchangecleancookdrawdrinkdrivedusteatfilmhelpironlearnlendmarrypaintparkpointreadridesavesingsmokespendsteal

studytypewashwavewrite

objectalreadymentioned

3.51 Thereisanothergroupofverbsthatusuallyhaveanobjectbutthatcanbeusedwithoutanobjectwiththesamemeaning.Theseareverbswheretheobjectisobviousbecauseithasalreadybeenmentioned.Forexample,ifyouhavealreadymentionedtheplacewheresomethinghappened,youcansayIleft,withoutnamingtheplaceagain.Atlastshethankedthemandleft.Heturnedawayandwalkedquicklyupthepassage.Ilockedthedoorandfollowed.Iwasinthemiddleofaquietmealwhenthetanksattacked.Shedidnotlookroundwhenheentered.Thesentryfiredatthedoctorandfortunatelymissed.OnlytwoorthreehundredmenbelongedtotheUnionbeforethewar,nowthousandsjoined.

3.52 Here is a list of verbs that can be used without an object when the object has already beenmentioned:

acceptaimanswerapproachaskattackbeginbiteblowboardcallcheckchooseconsiderdirectdryenterexplainfitfollowforgetgainguessimprovejoinjudgeknow

leadleavelosemindmissmovenoticeobserveofferorderpassphoneplayproducepullpushrememberringrulesearchservesharesignstriketelephoneunderstandwatchwin

3.53 Ifyouthinkthattheobjectmaynotbeobviousfromwhathasbeensaidorifyouparticularlywanttodrawattentiontoit,youmentionit.AllIknowisthatMichaelandIneverleftthehouse.MissLindleyfollowedRoseintotheshop.TheywereunawaretheyhadattackedaBritishwarship.Amanenteredtheshopanddemandedmoney.Shethrewthefirstdartandmissedtheboardaltogether.IhadjoinedanathleticclubinChicago.

speaker’sdecisions

3.54 Therearenotmanyverbsthatalwayshaveanobjectorneverhaveanobject.Thedecisionaboutwhether or not tomention an object is left to the users. If they think that the people reading orlistening to themwill have no difficulty inworking outwhat person or thing is affected by theaction,thentheycanleaveouttheobject.Iftheythinkthatthiswillnotbeclear,theywilluseanobjectinordertopreventmisunderstanding.Themainreasonsforomittingtheobjectarethatitisobviousfromthemeaningoftheverbitself,orthatitisobviousfromwhathasalreadybeensaid.

Verbsthatcantakeanobjectoraprepositionalphrase

3.55 Thereisasmallgroupofverbsthatcanbefollowedbyeitheranobjectoraprepositionalphrase.Theverbfightisoneoftheseverbs,sothat,forexample,youcansayHefoughttheenemyorHefoughtagainsttheenemy.ThePolishArmyfoughttheGermansfornearlyfiveweeks.Hewasfightingagainsthistory.TheNewZealandrugbyteamplayedSouthAfrica’sSpringboks.Inhisyouth,ThomasplayedagainstGlamorgan.

3.56 There isusually littledifference inmeaningbetweenusing theverbon itsownand following itwith a preposition. For example, there is very little difference in meaning between brush andbrushagainst,gnawandgnawat,andhissandhissatinthefollowingexamples.Herarmbrushedmycheek.Somethingbrushedagainstthebackoftheshelter.Rabbitsoftengnawthewoodworkoftheircages.Insectshadbeengnawingatthewood.TheyhissedtheMayorattheceremony.Fredericahissedathim.

3.57 Here is a list of verbs that can be used with an object or a prepositional phrase, with littledifferenceinmeaning:

boo(at)brush(against)check(on)distinguish(between)enter(for)fight(against)fight(with)gain(in)gnaw(at)hiss(at)infiltrate(into)jeer(at)juggle(with)mock(at)mourn(for)nibble(at)play(against)rule(over)sip(at)sniff(at)tug(at)twiddle(with)

verbsofmovement

3.58 Manyoftheverbsthatcantakeanobjectoraprepositionalphraseareverbs,suchaswanderandcross,thatdescribephysicalmovement.Theprepositionisonethatindicatesplace,andsoallowsyoutoemphasizethephysicalpositionofthesubjectinrelationtotheobject.

HewanderedthehallsoftheArtInstitute.HewanderedthroughthestreetsofNewYork.IcrossedtheMississippi.ThecarhadcrossedovertherivertoLongIsland.Weclimbedthemountain.Iclimbedupthetree.Hereisalistofverbsthatdescribemovement,andexamplesoftheprepositionsthatcanfollowthem:

chase(after)climb(up)cross(over)jump(over)leap(over)reach(across)roam(over)roam(through)run(across)skirt(round)walk(through)wander(through)

Changingyourfocusbychangingthesubject:Iopenedthedoor,Thedooropened3.59 Someverbsallowyoutodescribeanactionfromthepointofviewoftheperformeroftheaction

orfromthepointofviewofsomethingthatisaffectedbytheaction.Thismeansthatthesameverbcan be used with an object, or without an object, and without the original performer beingmentioned.Inthefirstexamplebelow,thedooristheobjectoftheverbopened,butinthesecondexamplethedooristhesubjectofopenedandthereisnomentionofwhoopenedthedoor.Iopenedthedoorandpeeredintotheroom.Suddenlythedooropened.Anexplosionshooktherooms.Thewholeroomshook.Note that the object of the transitive verb,which is the subject of the intransitive verb, usuallyreferstoathing,notaperson.Verbs that can have the same thing as their object, when transitive, or their subject, whenintransitive,arecalledergativeverbs.ThereareseveralhundredergativeverbsinregularuseincurrentEnglish.

changes

3.60 Manyergativeverbsdescribeeventsthatinvolveachangefromonestatetoanother.Hewasslowinghispace.Shewasawarethattheaircraft’staxiingpacehadslowed.Ishatteredtheglass.Winebottleshadshatteredalloverthepavement.Theyhaveclosedthetown’sonlypub.Thestreetmarketshaveclosed.Thefirmhaschangeditsname.Overthenextfewmonthstheirworkpatternchanged.Thedriverstoppedthecar.Abigcarstopped.

3.61 Hereisalistofergativeverbsthatdescribeeventsinvolvingachangeofsomekind:

agebeginbendbleachbreakburnburstchangeclosecontinuecrackdarkendecreasediminishdispersedoubledrowndryemptyendfadefinishgrowimproveincreaseopenquickenrotshattershrinkshutslowsplitspreadstartstickstop

stretchtearthickenwidenworsen

food,movement,vehicles

3.62 There are many other ergative verbs that relate specifically to certain areas of meaning. Forexample,somerelatetofoodandcooking,othersdescribephysicalmovement,andothersinvolveavehicleastheobjectofthetransitiveverborthesubjectoftheintransitiveverb.I’veboiledanegg.Theporridgeisboiling.I’mcookingspaghetti.Thericeiscooking.Thebirdsturnedtheirheadssharplyatthesound.Vorster’sheadturned.Sherestedherheadonhisshoulder.Herheadrestedontheedgeofthetable.Shehadcrashedthecartwice.Pollock’scarcrashedintoaclumpoftrees.

3.63 Hereisalistofverbsrelatingtofood,physicalmovement,andvehicles:

bakeboilcookdefrostfrymeltroastsimmerthicken~balancedropmoverestrockshakespinstandsteadyswingturn~backcrashdrive

flyparkreverserunsail

restrictionsonergativesubjects

3.64 Notethatsomeverbsareusedergativelywithoneortwonounsonly.Forexample,youcansayHefiredagunorThegunfired.YoucanalsosayHefiredabullet,butyouwouldnotnormallysayThebulletfired.Irangthebell.Thebellrang.Acarwassoundingitshorn.Ahornsoundedinthenight.Hehadcaughthissleeveonasplinterofwood.Thehatcaughtonaboltandtore.

3.65 Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedergativelywiththenoun,ortypeofnoun,thatisgiven:

catch(anarticleofclothing)fire(agun,rifle,pistol)play(music)ring(abell,thealarm)show(anemotionsuchasfear,anger)sound(ahorn,thealarm)

ergativeverbsthatneedextrainformation

3.66 Thereareafewergativeverbsthatusuallyhaveanadverborsomeotherphraseorclausewhentheyareusedintransitively.Thisisbecauseyouchoosethisstructurewhenyouwanttoemphasizehowsomethingbehaveswhenaffectedinsomeway,andsothepersonwhodoestheactionisnotimportant.IlikethenewRangeRover.Ithandlesbeautifully.Woolwasheswellifyoutreatitcarefully.Hereisalistofergativeverbsthatareusuallyfollowedbysomeextrainformationwhentheyareusedintransitively:

cleanfreezehandlemarkpolishsellstain

wash

comparisonofpassiveandergativeuse

3.67 Notethatergativeverbsperformasimilarfunctiontothepassivebecausetheyallowyoutoavoidmentioningwhoorwhatdoestheaction.Forexample,youcouldsayJanefrozealotofpeasfromthegarden.Ifyouwerenotinterestedinwhofrozethembutinwhatshefroze,youcouldsayAlotofpeaswerefrozen,usingthepassive.Ifyouwereinterestedinhowtheyfroze,youcouldsay,Thepeasfromthegardenfrozereallywell,makinguseofthefactthattheverbisergative.Forinformationaboutthepassive,see9.8to9.24.

Verbs that involvepeople affecting eachotherwith the sameaction:JohnandMaryargued3.68 Someverbs candescribeprocesses that involve twopeopleor twogroupsof peopledoing the

samethingtoeachother.Forexample,JohnandMaryarguedmeansthatJohnarguedwithMaryandMaryarguedwithJohn.Thepairofyouhavearguedaboutthatforyears.Hecameoutandwehugged.Theycompetedfuriously.Theseverbsarecalledreciprocalverbs.

reciprocalverbswithpluralsubject

3.69 Oneofthestructuresinwhichyouusereciprocalverbsiswherethetwogroupsareputtogetherinapluralsubjectandtheverbisthenusedwithoutanobject.Theirfacestouched.Theirchildrenarealwaysfighting.Theykissed.

emphasizingequalinvolvement

3.70 Whenyouwanttoemphasizethatbothparticipantsareequallyinvolvedintheaction,youputeachotheroroneanotheraftertheverb.Weembracedeachother.Theykissedeachotheringreeting.Theyfoughteachotherdesperatelyforit.Thetwoboysstartedhittingoneanother.Hereisalistofreciprocalverbsthatareusedtransitivelywiththepronounseachotherandoneanother:

consult

cuddleembraceengagefighthugkissmarrymatchmeettouch

Withsomeverbsyouneedtouseapreposition,usuallywith,infrontofeachotheroroneanother.You’vegottobeabletocommunicatewitheachother.ThirdWorldcountriesarecompetingwitheachotherforarestrictedmarket.Thetwoactorsbegantoengagewithoneanother.Hereisa listofreciprocalverbsthatmustbefollowedbywithbefore thepronounseachotherandoneanother:

agreealternatearguebalanceclashcoincidecollidecombinecommunicateconflictconsultcontendcontrastconverseco-operatedisagreeengageintegratematemergemixquarrelstruggle

Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedwithaprepositionotherthanwith:

compete(against)compete(with)correspond(to)

correspond(with)fight(against)fight(with)part(from)relate(to)separate(from)talk(to)talk(with)

Notethatconsult,engage,andfightcanbeusedeitherwithanobjectorwithapreposition.

showingunequalinvolvement

3.71 Intheexamplesgivenabove,thespeakerorwriterbelievesthatbothpeopleorgroupsareequallyinvolvedintheevent,becausebotharethesubject.However,theusermaywanttofocusononepersonmorethantheother.Inthiscase,anounthatreferstothatpersonisputinsubjectposition.Iftheverbcanbeusedwithanobject,anounreferringtotheotherparticipantisusedastheobjectoftheverb.Heembracedher.Shemarriedayoungengineer.Youcouldmeetmeatarestaurant.Heisresponsibleforkillingmanypeople.Iftheverbneedsaprepositionafterit,theothernounisusedastheobjectofthepreposition.Ourreturncoincidedwiththearrivalofbadweather.YouthsclashedwithpoliceinBelfast.Thedistributionofaidcorrespondstoneed.

3.72 Peoplesometimesmakeonepersonorgroupthesubjectwhentheeventisaviolentorunpleasantone, inorder tomake themappear aggressiveor responsible for theviolence.For example, theheadlinePolice clashwith youthsmight suggest that the policewere responsible for the clash,eventhoughtheyouthsalsoclashedwiththepolice.Paulcollidedwithalargemaninasweat-stainedshirt.Theroleofworkerconflictswiththeroleofparent.Shelikedhimevenwhenshewasquarrellingwithhim.

Verbsthatcanhavetwoobjects:givesomeonesomething3.73 Sometimesyoumaywanttotalkaboutaneventthatinvolvessomeoneinadditiontothepeopleor

thingsthatarethesubjectandobjectoftheclause.Thisthirdparticipantissomeonewhobenefitsfromtheactionorreceivessomethingasaresult.Theybecometheindirectobjectoftheclause.Thedirectobject,asusual,isthepersonorthingthatsomethingisdoneto.Forexample,inIgaveJohnabook,Johnistheindirectobjectandthebookisthedirectobject.Theindirectobjectisputimmediatelyaftertheverb,infrontofthedirectobject.Dadgavemeacar.

Canyoupassmethesugarplease?Shebroughtmeaboiledeggandtoast.HehadlentTimthemoney.Amanpromisedhimajob.Thedistractionprovidedusachancetorelax.(Am)

indirectobjectsinphrasesthatbeginwithapreposition

3.74 Insteadofputtingtheindirectobjectinfrontofthedirectobject,itispossibletoputitinaphrasebeginningwithtoorforthatcomesafterthedirectobject.Hehandedhisroomkeytothereceptionist.RalphpassedamessagetoJack.Hegaveittome.Thisstructureisusedparticularlyincaseswhereyouwanttofocusontheindirectobject.Youcanuseit,forexample,whentheindirectobjectissignificantlylongerthanthedirectobject.HehadtaughtEnglishtoalltheyouthofCeylonandIndia.Hecopiedthee-mailtoeverysingleoneofhisstaff.

pronounsasobjects

3.75 It isnormal touse thisprepositional structurewhen thedirectobject is apronoun suchas it orthem.ItookthebottleandofferedittoOakley.Woodwardfinishedthesecondpageandpassedittotheeditor.Itwastheonlypoundhehadandhegaveittothelittleboy.Godhassentyoutome.

Note that in informal spokenEnglish, somepeopleput the indirectobject in frontof thedirectobjectwhenbothobjectsarepronouns.Forexample,somepeoplesayHegavemeitratherthanHegaveittome.Bothpronounsareunstressedandbothrefertoinformationthatisalreadyknown,andsoitdoesnotmatterwhatordertheycomein.

indirectobjectswithto

3.76 If you want to put the indirect object in a phrase that begins with a preposition, you use thepreposition to with some verbs, especially ones where the direct object is something that istransferredfromonepersontoanother.MrSchellwrotealettertheotherdaytotheNewYorkTimes.Ihadlentmyapartmenttoafriendfortheweekend.Itookouttheblackboxandhandedittoher.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanhaveanindirectobjectintroducedbyto:

accord

advanceawardbringdealfeedforwardgivegranthandleaseleavelendloanmailofferowepasspayplaypostquotereadrentrepaysellsendserveshowsingtaketeachtellwrite

indirectobjectswithfor

3.77 If the action you are describing involves one person doing something that will benefit anotherperson,youcanusetheprepositionfortointroducetheindirectobject.Heleftanoteforheronthetable.Hepouredmorechampagneforthethreeofthem.Shebroughtpresentsforthechildren.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanhaveanindirectobjectintroducedbyfor:

bookbringbuildbuycashcook

cutdesignfetchfindfixgetguaranteekeepleavemakemixorderpaintpickplaypourpreparereservesavesecuresetsingsparetakewinwrite

USAGENOTE

3.78 Notethattheverbsbring,leave,play,sing,take,andwriteareinbothofthelists(3.76and3.77).Thatisbecausethereareafewverbsthatcantakeeithertoorforinfrontoftheindirectobject,dependingonthemeaningyouwanttoexpress.Forexample,Karenwrotealettertoherboyfriendmeansthattheletterwasaddressedtoherboyfriendandwasforhimtoread.KarenwrotealetterforherboyfriendmeansthatherboyfriendwantedtosendsomeoneelsealetterandKarenwasthepersonwhoactuallywroteit.

USAGENOTE

3.79 Therearesomeverbsthattaketwoobjectswheretheindirectobjectalmostalwayscomesinfrontofthedirectobjectratherthanbeingintroducedbytoorfor.Forexample,yousayHebegrudgedhisdaughter thebreadsheateandSheallowedher sononly twopoundsaweek. ItwouldbeveryunusualtosaySheallowedtwopoundsaweektoherson.Hereisalistofverbsthatdonotusuallyhavetheirindirectobjectintroducedbytoorfor:

allowaskbegrudgebet

causechargecostdenydrawenvyforgivegrudgepromiserefuse

Notethatwishcanbeusedasthissortofverbwhenitsdirectobjectisawordorphraselikeluck,goodluck,orhappybirthday.

3.80 Whenyouuseapassiveformofaverbwith twoobjects,either thedirectobjector the indirectobjectcanbecomethesubject.See9.20forfullinformation.

USAGENOTE

3.81 Whenthesubjectandtheindirectobjectrefertothesameperson,youcanuseareflexivepronounastheindirectobject.I’mgoingtobuymyselfsomenewclothes.Hehadgothimselfacar.Hecookedhimselfanomelette.Reflexivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.111to1.118.

verbsthatusuallyhavebothadirectobjectandanindirectobject

3.82 Mostoftheverbslistedaboveasverbsthattaketwoobjectscanbeusedwiththesamemeaningwithjustadirectobject.Heleftanote.Shefetchedajugfromthekitchen.However,thefollowingverbsalwaysorusuallyhavebothadirectobjectandanindirectobject:

accordadvanceallowdenygivehandlendloanshowtell

Afewverbscanbeusedwiththepersonwhobenefitsfromtheaction,orreceivessomething,as

thedirectobject.Ifedthebabywhenshewoke.Iforgiveyou.Hereisalistoftheseverbs:

askenvyfeedforgivepayteach

Phrasalverbs:Isatdown,Shewokemeup3.83 There is a special groupof verbs that consist of twoor threewords.These are calledphrasal

verbs.Theyconsistofaverbfollowedbyanadverb:

Hesatdown.Thenoisegraduallydiedaway.Thecoldweathersetin.averbfollowedbyapreposition(sometimescalledaprepositionalverb):

Shelookedafterherinvalidmother.Shesailedthroughherexams.Shefelldownthestepsandbrokeherankle.oraverbfollowedbyanadverbandapreposition:

Youmaycomeupagainstunexpecteddifficulties.Ilookforwardtoreadingit.Famehascreptuponheralmostbyaccident.Bycombiningaverbandanadverborprepositioninthisway,youcanextendtheusualmeaningofthe verb or create a newmeaning, different from any that the verb has on its own.You cannot,therefore,alwaysguessthemeaningofaphrasalverbfromtheusualmeaningsoftheverbandtheadverborpreposition.Forexample,ifsomeonesaysIgiveuptheydonotgiveanythingtoanyone,noristhereanyupwardmovementinvolved.In thecaseofa fewphrasalverbs, thefirstpart isnot found independentlyasaverbatall.Forexample,therearephrasalverbssumup,tamperwith,andzeroinon,butnoverbssum,tamper,orzero.Notethatphrasalverbsareneverwrittenasasinglewordorwithahyphen.

3.84 Mostphrasalverbsconsistoftwowords.Theseareexplainedbelowinparagraphs3.85to3.110.Three-wordphrasalverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.111to3.113.

intransitivephrasalverbswithadverbs

3.85 Some phrasal verbs are used without an object. These phrasal verbs are generally verb plusadverbcombinations.Rosamundwentawayforafewdays.Theboyswerefoolingaround.Shemusthavedozedoff.

3.86 Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthatconsistofaverbandanadverbwithnoobject:

backawaybackdownbackoffbalanceoutbargeinbearupboiloverbouncebackbowdownbowoutbranchoutbreakawaybreakoutbuttincampoutcastaboutcatchonchangedownchangeupcheckupchipinclimbdowncloseincloudoverclubtogethercomeaboutcomealongcomeapartcomeawaycomebackcomedowncomeforwardcomeincomeoncomeoutcomeroundcometocomeupcooloffcreepincropupcryoffcuddleup

curlupcutindieawaydiedowndieoutdineoutdoublebackdozeoffdragondropbackdropbydropouteaseupebbawayendupfadeawayfadeoutfallapartfallawayfallbackfallbehindfalloutfalloverfallthroughfightbackfizzleoutflareupfoolaroundforgeaheadgetaboutgetaheadgetalonggetbygetupgiveinglazeovergoaheadgoalonggoaroundgoawaygobackgodowngoongooutgoundergoupgrowuphangbackhangtogetherhitoutholdonlanduplashoutletup

lieback

liedownliveinlookaheadlookbacklookinloomupmakeoffmeetupmeltawaymountupmoveoffmoveovernodoffoptoutownuppassawaypayuppineawayplayaroundpopuppressaheadpressonpushaheadpushonrearuprideupringoffriseuprollaboutrollinrolloverrotawayrunawayrunoutrushinseizeupsellupsetinsettledownsettleinsettleupshoparoundsimmerdownsinkinsitaroundsitbacksitdownslipupspeakupsplashoutspringupstandbackstanddown

standinstandoutstartoutstayinstayonstayupsteamupstepasidestepbackstepdownstepinstickaroundstockupstopbystopoffstopovertagalongtailawaytailofftaperofftickovertouchdowntuneinwadeinwaitaboutwaitupwalkoutwasteawaywatchoutwearoffweighin

intransitivephrasalverbswithprepositions:lookafter,callon

3.87 Otherphrasalverbsusedinintransitiveclausesareverbplusprepositioncombinations.Thesearesometimescalledprepositionalverbs.Skitripsnowaccountfornearlyhalfofallschoolvisits.I’mjustaskingforinformation.…theargumentsthatstemfromgossip.Notethatthenounsattheendoftheaboveexamples(nearlyhalfofallschoolvisits,information,andgossip)areobjectsoftheprepositionsandnotdirectobjectsoftheverbs.

3.88 Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthatconsistofaverbwithnoobjectandapreposition:

abidebyaccountforallowforanswerforaskafteraskforbankonbargainforbreakintobreakwithbroodonbumpintoburstintocallforcalloncareforcomeacrosscomebetweencomebycomeforcomefromcomeintocomeundercomeuponcountoncutacrossdawnondealwithdisposeofdrawondrinktodwelloneatintoembarkonenterintoexpandonfallforfallintofallonfeelforflickthroughfrownupongetatgetintogetovergoaboutgoagainstgoforgrowonhangonto

headforhitonholdwithjumpatkeeptolaughatlaunchintolayintoleapatlevelwithliebehindliveforliveofflivewithlookafterlookintolooktomakeformeetwithpartwithpickatpickonpitchintoplanforplanonplayatplayonpokeatporeoverprovideforpuzzleoverrattlethroughreasonwithreckononreckonwithreckonwithoutriseaboverompthroughrunacrossrunintoruntosailthroughseetoseizeonsetaboutsettleforsettleonskateoversmileonstandforstemfromstickatstickbystumbleacross

stumbleontakeaftertakeagainsttamperwithtanglewithtriflewithtumbletowadethroughwaitonwalkintowatchforworryat

prepositionoradverb:Welookedaroundtheoldtown,Wouldyouliketolookaround?

3.89 Inthecaseofsomeintransitivephrasalverbs, thesecondword(across,around,down,etc) isaprepositionifthesecondthinginvolvedneedstobementioned,orcanbeanadverbifthesecondthinginvolvedisclearfromthecontext.Icouldhangaroundyouroffice.We’llhavetohangaroundforawhile.Theyallcrowdedaroundthetable.Everyonecrowdedaroundtoseehimjumpintothewater.

3.90 Hereisalistofintransitivephrasalverbswhosesecondwordisaprepositionif theotherthinginvolvedneedstobementioned,oranadverbifitdoesnot:

askaroundbendoverbreakthroughbustleaboutcomeacrosscomeaftercomealongcomebycomedowncomeincomeoffcomeoncomeovercomethroughcomeupcrossovercrowdarounddowithoutfallbehindfalldownfalloffgatheraroundgetingetoff

getongetroundgoaboutgoalonggodowngoingoroundgothroughgoupgowithouthangaroundjoininknockaboutlagbehindleanoverlieaboutlookroundlookthroughloungeaboutmoveaboutpassbypassoverpushbypushpastpushthroughrallyroundrunaroundrundownrunupscrapethroughseeroundshinethroughshowthroughsitaroundspilloverstandaroundstopbytripover

transitivephrasalverbs:looksomethingup,letsomeonedown

3.91 Somephrasalverbsarenearlyalwaysusedwithanobject.Weputourdrinksdownonthebar.IfinishedmymealoffasquicklyasIcould.Shereadthepoemoutquietly.

3.92 Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthatconsistofatransitiveverbandanadverb:

addonbeatupblotout

boardupbringaboutbringalongbringbackbringdownbringforwardbringinbringoffbringoutbringroundbringupbuyoutbuyupcalloffcallupcarryoffcarryoutcastasidecatchoutchaseupchatupcleanoutconjureupcountoutcrossoffcrossoutcutbackcutdowncutoffcutupdealoutdigupdoupdragindragoutdragupdreamupdrinkindriveoutdrumupeatawayeatupexplainawayfightofffillinfillupfilteroutfindoutfixupfollowupfrightenawaygatherupgiveawaygiveback

giveoffhammerouthanddownhandinhandonhandouthandoverhandroundhaveonhireoutholddownholduphuntdownhushupkeepbackkickoutknockdownknockoutknockoverlapuplaydownlayonlayoutleavebehindleaveoutletdownletinletoffletoutliftuplivedownmeltdownmessupmixupnaildownnotedownorderaboutpackoffpassdownpassoverpassroundpatchuppaybackpayoutphaseinphaseoutpickoffpickoutpiecetogetherpindownpinupplaybackplaydownplugin

pointout

printoutpullapartpulldownpushaboutpusharoundpushoverputaboutputacrossputaroundputawayputdownputforwardputoffputonputoutputthroughputtogetherputupreadoutreasonoutreeloffrinseoutripoffripupropeinropeoffrubinruboutruleoutrushthroughscaledownscreenoffsealoffseeoffseekoutselloffsendupsetapartsetasidesetbacksetdownshakeoffshakeupshootdownshrugoffshutawayshutinshutoffshutoutsizeupsmoothoversnapupsoakup

sortoutsoundout

spelloutspinoutstampoutstepupstickdownsummonupswitchontakeaparttakeawaytakebacktakedowntakeintakeontakeuptalkovertalkroundtearapartteardowntearuptellaparttelloffthinkoverthinkthroughthinkupthrashoutthrowawaythrowoffthrowonthrowouttidyawaytiedowntieuptipofftipuptireouttonedowntopuptrackdowntradeintryontryoutturndownturnonuseupwarnoffwashawayweedoutweighoutweighupwhipupwinbackwinover

wipeawaywipeout

wipeup

Phrasalverbsthatconsistofatransitiveverbandaprepositionareexplainedinparagraphs3.107to3.110.

phrasal

3.93 Alargegroupofphrasalverbscanbeusedbothwithandwithoutanobject.Oftenthisisbecauseaphrasalverbhasmorethanonemeaning.Forexample,break indoesnothaveanobjectwhenitisusedinthesenseofgetintoaplacebyforce.Butbreakindoestakeanobjectwhenitisusedinthesenseofgetsomeoneusedtoanewsituation.Ifthedoorislocked,Iwilltrytobreakin.Hebelievesinbreakinginhisstaffgradually.Aplanetookoff.Gretchentookoffhercoat.Theenginecutout.Shecutoutsomecolouredphotographsfromamagazine.

3.94 Here is a list of phrasal verbs that can be used bothwith andwithout an object, depending onwhichmeaningisbeingused:

addupbailoutblackoutbreakincallincarryonclearoutcutoutdrawondrawoutdrawupdressupdropoffdroproundfightbackfinishupgetdowngetingetoutgettogethergiveuphangoutholdoffholdout

joinupkeepawaykeepdownkeepinkeepoffkeeponkeepoutkeepupkickoffknockaboutknockofflayoffleaveofflookoutlookupmakeoutmakeupmessaboutmissoutpassoffpassonpayoffpickuppullinputinrolluprundownrunoffrunoversetforthsetoffsetoutshowoffshowupsplitupstickoutstickupstowawaystrikeoutstringalongsumupswitchofftakeofftearoffthrowuptuckinturnawayturnbackturninturnoutturnroundturnupwinddownwindup

workoutwrapup

3.95 There are a few phrasal verbs that have only onemeaning, but that can be used eitherwith orwithoutanobject.Itispossibletousethemwithoutanobjectbecausetheobjectiseitherobviousorcanbeguessedinaparticularcontext.Itwon’ttakemeamomenttoclearaway.I’llhelpyouclearawaythedishes.

3.96 Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthathaveonlyonemeaningbutthatcanbeusedwithorwithoutanobject:

answerbackbreatheinbreatheoutcallbackclearawayclearupcoverupdrinkuphelpoutopenuptakeovertidyawaywashup

ergativephrasalverbs

3.97 Justaswithordinaryverbs,somephrasalverbsareergativeverbs;thatis,youcanusetheobjectofthetransitiveverbasthesubjectoftheintransitiveverb.Theguerrillasblewuptherestaurant.Thegasworksblewup.Iwon’twakehimupjustyet.Hewokeupinthemiddleofthenight.Seeparagraphs3.59to3.67forinformationaboutergativeverbs.

3.98 Hereisalistofergativephrasalverbs:

backupblockupblowupbookinbreakoffbreakupbuckupbuildup

burnupcheckincheckoutcheerupclosedowndryupgetoffheatuphurryuplineupmoveonopenuppeeloffpullthroughruboffshutupsignupslowdownspreadoutstartoffthawoutwakeupwarmupweardownwearout

3.99 Inthecaseofsomeergativephrasalverbs,thesecondwordcanbeaprepositioniftheotherthinginvolvedneedstobementioned,orcanbeanadverbiftheotherthinginvolvedisclearfromthecontext.…leavesthathadbeenblownoffthetrees.Myhatblewoff.

3.100 Hereisalistofergativephrasalverbswhosesecondwordcanbeaprepositionoranadverb:

blowoffchipoffgetdowngetthroughgetupmovedownmoveuppeeloffpokethroughstickinstickon

positionoftheobject

3.101 Whenyouareusingaphrasalverbwithanobjectthatisashortnounphrase,youusuallyhavea

choiceastowhereyouputtheobject.Itcanbeplacedeitherafterthesecondwordofthephrasalverborafterthefirstwordandbeforethesecondword.Hefilleduphiscarwithpetrol.Shefilledmyglassup.Hehandedoverthebox.MrsKaulhandedtheflowersovertoJudy.

3.102 However,whentheobjectconsistsofalongnounphrase,itismorelikelytocomeafterthesecondwordofthephrasalverb,sothatthetwopartsofthephrasalverbarenotseparatedtoowidely.Inthisway,attention is focusedon the informationcontained in thenounphrase, rather thanon thesecondwordofthephrasalverb.Policehavebeentoldtoturnbackallrefugeeswhotrytocrosstheborder.

whentheobjectisapronoun

3.103 Whentheobjectisapronounsuchasme,her,orit,itusuallycomesbeforethesecondwordofthephrasal verb. This is because it is not new information, and so it is not put in a position ofprominenceattheendoftheclause.Iwaiteduntilhehadfilleditup.Hetiedherupandbundledherintothecar.

whentheobjectisanabstractnoun

3.104 Iftheobjectofaphrasalverbisanabstractnounsuchashope,confidence,orsupport,itusuallycomesafterthesecondwordofthephrasalverb.So,althoughyoucansayHebuilthisbusinessup,youusuallysayWearetryingtobuilduptrustwiththeresidents.Similarly,althoughyoucansayHeputmyparentsupfor thenight,younormallysayThepeasantsareputtingupa lotofresistance.Thenewspaperswhippedupsympathyforthem.Theyattemptedtodrumupsupportfromthestudents.Hedidn’tholdoutmuchhopeforthem.

caseswheretheobjectisalwaysplacedafterthefirstwordoftheverb

3.105 Withasmallnumberofphrasalverbs,theobjectisalwaysplacedbetweenthefirstandthesecondwordsoftheverb.Forexample,youcansayIcan’ttellyourbrothersapartbutnotIcan’t tellapartyourbrothers.CaptainDeanwasstillorderingeverybodyabout.Iansweredmyfatherbackandtookmychances.Notethatmostoftheseverbstakeahumanobject.Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthatalwaysbelonginthisgroupwhentheyareusedwithanobject:

answerback

askinbashaboutbindoverbookinbringroundbringtobrushoffcallbackcarrybackcatchoutchurnupcountindragdowndressdowndroproundfeeloutgetawayhearouthelpalonginviteininviteoutinviteoverjollyalongkeepunderknockaboutmessaboutmoveaboutmuckaboutorderaboutplayalongplaythroughpullaboutpulltopushaboutpusharoundpushtorunthroughseethroughsendaheadsendawaysendupshutupsitdownslaparoundstandupstareoutstringalongtalkroundtearaparttellaparttipofftrussupturfout

Somephrasalverbshavemore thanone transitivesense,butbelong in thisgroupwhen theyareusedwith one particularmeaning.For example, takeback belongs in this groupwhen itmeansremindsomeoneofsomethingbutnotwhenitmeansregainsomething.Thesmellofchalktookusallbacktoourschooldays.…hisambitionoftakingbackdisputedterritory.Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthatbelonginthisgroupwhenusedwithaparticularmeaning:

bowloverbringdownbringoutbuoyupcutoffdooverdrawoutgetbackgetoutgiveuphaveonhurryupkeepupkickaroundknockoutknockupnaildownpassonpindownpullapartpusharoundputdownputoutseeoutsetupshakeupshowaroundshowupstartoffstraightenouttakebacktakeintakeoffthrowabouttossabouttripupturnonwardoffwindup

objectswithprepositions

3.106 Rememberthatwhenaphrasalverbconsistsofanintransitiveverbfollowedbyapreposition,thenounphrasealwayscomesafterthepreposition,evenwhenitisapronoun.Anumberofreasonscanaccountforthischange.Theyhaddealtwiththeproblemintelligently.IfIwentawayandleftyouintheflat,wouldyoulookafterit?Thereisalistofphrasalverbsthatconsistofanintransitiveverbandaprepositioninparagraph3.88.

transitivephrasalverbswithprepositions:Shetalkedmeintobuyingit

3.107 Somephrasalverbsconsistofatransitiveverbandapreposition.Theyhaveonenounphraseafterthefirstword,as theobjectof theverb,andasecondnounphraseafter thesecondword,as theobjectofthepreposition.Theyagreedtolethimintotheirsecret.Thefarmerthreatenedtosethisdogsonthem.They’llholdthatagainstyouwhenyouapplynexttime.

3.108 Hereisalistofphrasalverbsthatconsistofatransitiveverbandapreposition:

buildintobuildondrawintodrumintofrightenintoholdagainstkeeptolaybeforeleaveoffletintolumberwithmakeofputonputontoputthroughreadintosetagainstsetbacksetontalkintothrustuponwriteinto

prepositionoradverb:I’llcrossyouoff,I’llcrossyouoffthelist

3.109 In the case of some transitive phrasal verbs, the secondword is a preposition if the third thinginvolvedneeds tobementioned,but it is anadverb if the third thing involved is clear from thecontext.

Rudolphshowedthemaroundthetheatre.Rudolphshowedthemaround.

3.110 Hereisalistoftransitivephrasalverbswhosesecondwordcanbeaprepositionoranadverb:

crossoffdabonhawkaroundhurlaboutkeepoffknockofflopoffpusharoundscruboffshowaroundshutinsinkin

intransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs:lookforwardto,catchupwith

3.111 Most phrasal verbs consist of twowords: a verb and an adverb, or a verb and a preposition.However,somephrasalverbsconsistofthreewords:averb,anadverb,andapreposition.Thistypeofverbissometimescalledaphrasal-prepositionalverb.Mostthree-wordphrasalverbsareintransitive.Theprepositionattheendisfollowedbyitsownobject.Hisgirlfriendwalkedoutonhim.You’renotgoingtogetawaywiththis!Shesometimesfindsithardtokeepupwithherclassmates.Thelocalpeoplehavetoputupwithalotoftourists.TerryHolbrookcaughtupwithme.

3.112 Hereisalistofintransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs:

beinforbeontobeardownonboildowntobreakoutofbrushuponbumpupagainstburstinoncalloutforcatchupwithchimeinwithclampdownoncleanupaftercomeacrossascomedownon

comedowntocomedownwithcomeinforcomeontocomeoutincomeoutofcomeoutwithcomeupagainstcomeuptocomeupwithcrackdownoncreepuponcrowdinoncryoutagainstcryoutforcutbackondatebacktodoawaywithdoublebackonfaceuptofallbackonfallinwithgetawaywithgetdowntogetinongetoffwithgetontogetonwithgetroundtogetuptogiveupongoalongwithgobackongodownwithgoinforgooffwithgoovertogothroughwithgrowoutofkeepinwithkeeponatkeepupwithkickoutagainstleaduptoliveuptolookdownonlookforwardtolookoutforlookuptomakeawaywithmakeoffwithmakeuptomatchuptomeasureupto

missoutonmonkeyaboutwithplayalongwithplayaroundwithputupwithreaduponrunawaywithrunoffwithrunupagainstshyawayfromsitinonsnapoutofstickoutforstickupforsuckuptotakeupwithtalkdowntotieinwithwalkawayfromwalkawaywithwalkoffwithwalkoutonwriggleoutofzeroinon

transitivethree-wordphrasalverbs:Hetalkedmeoutofbuyingthecar

3.113 Afew three-wordphrasalverbsare transitive.Thedirectobjectof theverbcomes immediatelyaftertheverb.Asecondnounphraseisputafterthepreposition,asnormal.I’llletyouinonasecret.Krooptriedtotalkheroutofit.Theyputtheirsuccessdowntohardwork.Hereisalistoftransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs:

dooutoffrightenoutofletinforletinonplayoffagainstputdownasputdowntoputuptotakeoutontakeupontalkoutof

BECAREFUL

3.114 InstandardwrittenEnglishitisnotpossibletohaveindirectobjectswithphrasalverbs.Theonlyobjectsyoucanhavearedirectobjectsof theverbandobjectsofprepositions.In informalspokenEnglish,however,afewphrasalverbsdohavebothadirectandanindirectobject.Insuchcases,theindirectobjectisplacedbetweentheverbandtheparticle,andthedirectobjectfollows.Wouldyoubreakmeoffapieceofchocolate,please?WebroughtherbacksomespecialcookiesfromGermany.

phrasalverbsinquestionsandrelativeclauses

3.115 Thereisonewayinwhichaprepositionthatispartofaphrasalverbbehavesdifferentlyfromanordinarypreposition.Normally,whentheobjectofaprepositionisputatthebeginningofaquestionorarelativeclause,itcanbeprecededbythepreposition,especiallyinformalspeechorwriting.Forexample,youcansayFromwhichstudentdidyougetthebook?andthedocumentonwhichheputhissignature.However, if the preposition is part of a phrasal verb, it cannot be put before its object in suchstructures. You have to sayWhat are you getting at? not At what are you getting?, and thedifficultieswhichheranupagainstnotthedifficultiesagainstwhichheranup.Whoweretheylaughingat?Thiswasonecomplicationhehadnotbargainedfor.

3.116 Mostphrasalverbsthatcontainatransitiveverbcanbeusedinthepassive.Socanafewphrasalverbsthatcontainanintransitiveverbandapreposition.Seeparagraphs9.17and9.23.

Compoundverbs:ice-skate,baby-sit3.117 Some verbs, such as cross-examine and test-drive, consist of two words. They are sometimes

calledcompoundverbs.Hewouldhavebeencross-examinedonanyevidencehegave.Heaskedtotest-driveatop-of-the-rangevehicle.Itisnotwisetohitch-hikeonyourown.

BECAREFUL

3.118 Itisimportanttorealizethatyoucannotalwaysguessthemeaningofacompoundverbifyouarenotalready familiarwith it.Forexample, tosoft-soapdoesnotmean touse soap that is soft; itmeanstoflattersomeoneinordertopersuadethemtodosomethingforyou.

writtenformsofcompoundverbs

3.119 Compoundverbsareusuallywrittenwithahyphen.Noonehadcross-referencedtheformsbefore.Childrenice-skatedonthesidewalks.

However,somecompoundverbsmaybewrittenwithaspacebetweenthewordsandsomemaybewrittenassinglewords.Forexample,bothroller-skateandrollerskateareused,asarebaby-sitandbabysit.

formsofcompoundverbs

3.120 Manycompoundverbsconsistofanounplusaverb.Itmaysoonbecomeeconomicallyattractivetomass-producehepatitisvaccines.Othersconsistofanadjectiveplusaverb.Somebodyhadshort-changedhim.

3.121 Afewcompoundverbsconsistofwordsthatseemstrangebecausetheyarenotnormallyusedassinglewordsontheirown,forexamplepooh-poohandshilly-shally.Theseverbsareusuallyusedininformalconversationratherthanformalwriting.Sallyhadpooh-poohedtheideaofthreegoodmealsaday.Comeon,don’tshilly-shally.Iwantananswer.Othercompoundverbslookstrangebecausetheyhavebeenborrowedfromforeignlanguages,forexamplead-libandkow-tow.Theyad-libbedsomuchthatthewritersdespairedofthem.Heresentshavingtokow-towtoanyoneoranything.

intransitivecompoundverbs

3.122 Somecompoundverbsdonothaveanobject.Manypeoplewindow-shoppedintheglassofthegreatstore.Ifyoukeeptotherules,youmayroller-skate.Hehaslearnedtolip-read.I’mlearningtowater-ski.Hereisalistofcompoundverbsthatdonothaveanobject:

baby-sitback-pedalhitch-hikeice-skatejack-knifekow-towlip-readname-dropplay-actroller-skateshilly-shallytouch-typewater-skiwindow-shop

wolf-whistle

transitivecompoundverbs

3.123 Othercompoundverbstypicallyhaveanobject:Youcanspin-dryitanditwillstillretainitsshape.Ididn’thavetimetoblow-drymyhair.Atfirstwecold-shoulderedhim.Theyill-treatedourancestors.Hereisalistofcompoundverbsthattypicallyhaveanobject:

back-combblow-drycold-shouldercourt-martialcross-checkcross-examinecross-questioncross-referencedouble-crossdouble-glazedry-cleanfield-testforce-feedfrog-marchghost-writeill-treatpooh-poohproof-readrubber-stampshort-changeshort-weightsoft-soapspin-dryspoon-feedstage-managetape-recordtoilet-trainwrong-foot

transitiveorintransitivecompoundverbs

3.124 Athirdgroupofcompoundverbsmaybeusedwithorwithoutanobject.Katehadtodouble-parkoutsidetheflat.Murraydouble-parkedhiscarandjumpedout.Itriedtoad-libajoke.Thecommentatordecidedtoad-lib.

Hereisalistofcompoundverbsthatcanbetransitiveorintransitive:

ad-libbottle-feedbreast-feedbulk-buychain-smokecriss-crossdeep-frydouble-checkdouble-parkmass-produceshort-circuitsight-readspring-cleanstir-frytie-dye

inflectingcompoundverbs

3.125 Onlythesecondpartofacompoundverbinflects.Ifthesecondpartisusedonitsownasaverb,thecompoundverbusuallyinflectsinthesamewayastheverbonitsown.SeetheReferencesectionforanexplanationofhowtoinflectverbs.

Linkingverbs3.126 Ifyouwanttodescribesomeoneorsomething,forexampletosaywhoorwhattheyareorwhat

qualitiestheyhave,youuseoneofaspecialsetofverbs.Theseverbsarecalledlinkingverbs.Cigarettesmokingisdangeroustoyourhealth.Thestationseemedaverysmallone.HelookedEnglish.Ibecameenormouslyfondofher.Themostcommonlinkingverbsarebe,become,look,remain,andseem.

adjectivesandnounsafterlinkingverbs

3.127 A linking verb links a subject and an adjective or a noun phrase (called a complement). Thesubject,asusual,comesfirstandtheadjectiveornounphrasecomesaftertheverb.Theadjectiveornounphrasedescribesoridentifiesthesubject.Hergeneralknowledgeisamazing.Thechildrenseemedfrightened.That’saverydifficultquestion.She’stheheadofalargeprimaryschool.SuleimanSallebecamethefirstPresidentofEritrea.

Linkingverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.132to3.154.Some other intransitive verbs are sometimes used in a similar way to linking verbs. Seeparagraphs3.155to3.160.

verbswithobjectcomplements:Thefilmmademesad

3.128 Someverbs,suchasmakeandfind,areusedwithanobjectcomplement, that is,bothanobjectandanadjectiveoranounphrase.Theadjectiveornounphrasedescribestheobject.Thelightsmademesleepy.Ifoundtheforestquitefrightening.Theseverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.161to3.171.

phrasesthatbeginwithapreposition

3.129 Youcanoftenuseaphrasebeginningwithaprepositionafteralinkingverb.Thefirst-aidboxisonthetopshelf.Ibegantogetinapanic.For more information about phrases and clauses that can be used after linking verbs, seeparagraphs3.172to3.181.

itwithbe

3.130 Be is oftenusedwith it as an impersonal subject.This structure is used to comment on places,situations,actions,experiences,andfacts.Itwasveryquietinthehut.ItwasawkwardkeepingmynewsfromTed.It’sstrangeyoushouldcometoday.Someotherlinkingverbsareoccasionallyusedinasimilarway.Theuseofitasanimpersonalsubjectisexplainedinparagraphs9.31to9.45.

therewithbe

3.131 Beisoftenusedwiththereasitssubjecttoindicatetheexistenceofsomething.Thereisanotherexplanation.Thereisarearbathroomwithapanelledbath.Thisuseofthereisexplainedinparagraphs9.46to9.55.

Adjectivesafterlinkingverbs:Heseemshappy,I’mtired3.132 Manyadjectivescanbeusedafterlinkingverbs.

Iamproudofthesepeople.Theyseemedhappy.

Youdon’twantthemtobecomesuspicious.TheyhaveremainedloyaltotheGovernment.Theycanbemodifiedinvariouswaysorhavevariousstructuresafterthem.Wewereveryhappy.Yoursuspicionsareentirelycorrect.Theirhallwaslargerthanhiswholeflat.Hewascapableofextraordinarykindness.Adjectivesusedafterlinkingverbs,andthestructuresusedwiththem,areexplainedinparagraphs2.41to2.53.

3.133 Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedaslinkingverbswithafollowingadjective:

be~appearfeellookproveseemsmellsoundtaste~becomecomefallgetgogrowkeepremainstayturn

Notethattheverbsinthirdgrouprefertochangingortostayingthesame.

USAGENOTE

3.134 Someverbsinthesecondgrouplistedabovehavespecialfeatures.Appear,prove,andseemareoftenfollowedby tobeandanadjective, insteadofdirectlybyanadjective.Marywasbreathingquietlyandseemedtobeasleep.Somepeopleappearedtobeimmunetothevirus.Seeparagraph3.192forinformationonusingato-infinitiveaftertheseverbs.

3.135 With some verbs in the second group, especially feel, look, and seem, you can use the -edparticipleofaverbasanadjective.

Theotherchildlookedneglected.Thequarrelofthenightbeforeseemedforgotten.

3.136 Whenyouareusingthesecondgroupofverbstosaywhatqualitiessomeoneorsomethingseemstohave,youmaywanttomentionthepersonwhoseviewpointyouaregiving.Youcandothisbyusingaphrasebeginningwiththeprepositionto.Itusuallycomesaftertheadjective.Theylookedallrighttome.Itsoundsunnaturaltoyou,Iexpect.

BECAREFUL

3.137 Youcannotusealladjectiveswithall linkingverbs.Someverbs,suchasbeand look, are usedwithawiderangeofadjectivesandsomeareusedwitharestrictedrange.Forexample,taste isusedonlywithadjectivesthatdescribethetasteofsomething;go isusedmainlywithadjectivesthatindicatecolouroranegativestate;andfallisusedmainlywithasleep,ill,andsilent.Seawatertastesnasty.Ittastedsweetlikefruitjuice.Jackwentred.Itallwenthorriblywrong.Theworldhasgonecrazy.Hefellasleepatthetable.Thecourtroomfellsilent.

Nounsafterlinkingverbs:Sheisateacher,Itremainedasecret3.138 Nounscanbeusedafterthefollowinglinkingverbs:

bebecomeremain~feellookproveseemsound~constitutemakerepresent~compriseform

qualities

3.139 Youcanusedescriptivenounsornounphrasesafterbe,become,remain,feel,look,prove,seem,

sound,constitute,andrepresenttosaywhatqualitiessomeoneorsomethinghas.Theirpolicyonhighereducationisanunmitigateddisaster.Healwaysseemedacontrolledsortofman.Ifeelabitofafraud.Theresultsoftheseexperimentsremainasecret.Anychangewouldrepresentaturnaround.Make is only used as a linking verb with a noun that indicates whether someone is good at aparticularjob.He’llmakeagoodpresident.

usingone:That’saniceone

3.140 Withbe,become,remain,feel,look,prove,seem,andsound,youcanuseanounphrasebasedonone.Thenounphraseconsistsofaoranfollowedbytheadjectiveandone, ifthesubjectissingular.Forexample,insteadofsayingTheschoolislarge,youcansayTheschoolisalargeone.Thesoundisafamiliarone.Theimpressiontheregiongivesisstillaruralone.Ifthesubjectisplural,youcanusetheadjectivefollowedbyones.MymemoriesofaLondonchildhoodarehappyones.Onecanalsobefollowedbyaprepositionalphraseorarelativeclause.Theirstorywasindeedoneofpassion.Theproblemisonethatalwaysfacesasocietywhenitfindsitselfthreatened.

size,age,colour,shape

3.141 Ifyouwanttomakeastatementaboutthesize,age,colour,orshapeofsomething,youcanuseanounphrasebasedonsize,age,colour,orshapeafterthelinkingverbsmentionedinthepreviousparagraph.Thenounphrasebeginswithadeterminerandhasanadjectiveinfrontofthenounortheprepositionofafterit.It’sjusttherightshape.Theopposingforcewouldbeaboutthesamesize.Thewallsareadelicatepalecreamcolour.Hisbodywasthecolourofbronze.Itisonlythesizeofamouse.

typesofpeopleandthings

3.142 Youcanusenounphrasesbeginningwitha oran, or plural nounphraseswithout a determiner,after be,become, remain, comprise, and form, to saywhat type of person or thing someone orsomethingis.

Heisageologist.I’mnotanunreasonableperson.Heisnowateenager.Theairmovedalittlefasterandbecamealightwind.Theybecamefarmers.PromisesbyMPsremainedjustpromises.Thesearchesformedabarriertothetide.

talkingaboutidentity

3.143 You can use names or noun phrases referring to a particular person or thing after be, become,remain,constitute,represent,comprise,andform totalkaboutexactlywhoorwhatsomeoneorsomethingis.ThisisDesiree,myfather’ssecondwife.He’snowtheDirectoroftheOfficeofManagementandBudget.ThewinnerofthecompetitionwasRossLambertofForestHillPrimarySchool.Thedownstairstelevisionroombecamemyroomforreceivingvisitors.…thefouryoungmenwhocomprisedtheTVcrew.

USAGENOTE

3.144 Whenyouuseanounindicatingauniquejoborpositionwithinanorganization,youdonothavetoputadeterminerinfrontofthenoun.AtonetimeyouwantedtobePresident.Hewentontobecomeheadofoneofthecompany’slargestdivisions.

pronounsafterlinkingverbs

3.145 Personalpronounsaresometimesusedafterlinkingverbstoindicateidentity.Notethattheobjectpronounsareused,exceptinveryformalspeechorwriting.It’smeagain.Possessive pronouns are also used after linking verbs, to indicate identity or to describesomething.Thisoneisyours.Thisplaceismine.Indefinitepronounsaresometimesusedtodescribesomething,usuallywithaqualifyingstructureafterthem.It’snothingserious.You’resomeonewhodoeswhatshewants.Whenpronounsareusedafterlinkingverbs,thelinkingverbisusuallybe.

otherstructuresthatfollowlinkingverbs

3.146 Theuseofnounphrasescontainingmeasurementnounsafterbeandotherverbsisexplainedinparagraphs2.252to2.254.

combinationsofverbsandprepositions

3.147 Someverbsfunctionaslinkingverbswhentheyarefollowedbyaparticularpreposition.Theobjectoftheprepositiondescribesorclassifiesthesubjectoftheverb.Hisfearturnedintounreasoningpanic.Taylor’sfascinationwithbeesdevelopedintoanobsession.Anautobiographyreallyamountstoawholeexplanationofyourself.Hereisalistofverbandprepositioncombinationsthatfunctionaslinkingverbs:

amounttochangeintochangetodevelopintogrowintomorphintoturnintoturnto

These all have the same basicmeaning as become, except foramount to, which has a similarmeaningtoconstitute.Thephrasalverbmakeupalsofunctionsasalinkingverb.Woodmadeup65%oftheCongo’sexports.

Commenting3.148 Thereareseveralwaysinwhichato-infinitivecanbeusedtocommentonsomeoneorsomething

inrelationtoanaction.

commentingonbehaviour:You’recrazytodothat

3.149 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneshowsaparticularqualitywhentheydosomething,youcanusethestructure:subject+linkingverb+adjectiveornounphrase+to-infinitive.MostpeoplethinkIambravetodothis.Ithinkmyfatherwasabravemantodowhathedid.

commentingonsuitability:She’stherightpersontodothejob

3.150 Youcanuseasimilarstructuretosaythatsomeoneorsomethingwoulddoaparticulartaskbetterthananyoneoranythingelse.HewasabsolutelytherightmantogotoParisandnegotiate.

Shemaybeanidealpersontolookafterthechildren.Heisjustthemantocalmeveryonedown.Youcannotuseadjectivesaloneinconstructionsofthiskind.Youuseanounphrasecontaininganadjectivesuchasright,ideal,orbest,orjustthefollowedbythenounperson,man,orwoman.Forexample,youcansayHewastheidealpersontoleadtheexpedition,butyoucannotsayHewasidealtoleadtheexpedition.Insteadofato-infinitive,youcansometimesuseaphrasebeginningwiththeprepositionfor.Inthisstructure,anadjectivecanbeusedalone.He’snottherightmanforit.Theyareidealforthisjob.

commentingonanevent:Thatwasanawfulthingtohappen

3.151 Ifyouwanttoexpressyourfeelingaboutanevent,youcanuseato-infinitiveafteranounphrasethatfollowsalinkingverb.Itseemedsuchaterriblethingtohappen.Theto-infinitiveconsistsoftoandanintransitiveverb,usuallyhappen.Youcannotuseanadjectivealoneinconstructionsofthistype.Forexample,youcansayItwasawonderfulthingtohappen,butyoucannotsayItwaswonderfultohappen.

commentingonwillingness:Chrisisanxioustomeetyou

3.152 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneiswillingorunwillingtodosomething,youcanuseato-infinitiveafteranadjectivethatfollowsalinkingverb.Theywerewillingtorisklosingtheirjobs.IamanxioustomeetMrsBurton-Cox.Sheiseagertosucceed.Heisunwillingtoanswerquestions.Iwasreluctanttoinvolvemyselfinthisprivatefight.Youcannotusenouns inconstructionsof this type.Forexample,youcansayHewaswilling tocome,butyoucannotsayHewasawillingpersontocome.

commentingonsomething:Thiscaseiseasytocarry

3.153 If you want to show your opinion of something by describing what the experience of doingsomethingtoitislike,youcanuseato-infinitiveafteranadjectiveornounphrasethatfollowsalinkingverb.Silkiscomfortabletowear.It’sanicethingtohave.Tellingsomeonetheysmellisahardthingtodo.Shewaseasytotalkto.

Note that the to-infinitivemustbe the to-infinitiveofa transitiveverborofan intransitiveverbfollowedbyapreposition.

commentingonanaction:Thatwasasillythingtodo

3.154 Ifyouwanttoshowyouropinionofanaction,youcanuseato-infinitivethathasanobject.Theythoughtthiswasasensiblethingtodo.Thisisaveryfoolishattitudetotake.Theto-infinitiveisusuallytodo,tomake,ortotake.Youcannotuseanadjectivealoneinconstructionsofthiskind.Forexample,youcansayItwasasillythingtodo,butyoucannotsayItwassillytodo.

Otherverbswithfollowingadjectives:Hestoodstill3.155 Someintransitiveverbscanbefollowedbyadjectivesinthesamewayaslinkingverbs.

Georgestoodmotionlessforatleastaminute.Pugindiedinsaneattheearlyageofforty.However,itisclearthattheseverbsarenotjustlinkingverbs.GeorgestoodmotionlessdoesnotmeanthesameasGeorgewasmotionless.InthesentenceGeorgestoodmotionless,theverbstandis performing two functions: it is tellingus thatGeorgewas standing, and it is also acting as alinkingverbbetweenGeorgeandtheadjectivemotionless.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway:

hangliesitstand~gazestare~emergeescapegopasssurvive~blushflamegleamglowrun~beborndiereturn

Waysinwhichtheseverbscanbeusedwithfollowingadjectivesarediscussedinthefollowingparagraphs.Adjectivesaresometimesusedincombinationwithotherverbs,butareseparatedfromthemainclausebyacomma.Thisuseisdealtwithinparagraph8.147.

USAGENOTE

3.156 Youcanuseadjectivesdescribingstatesafterhang,lie,sit,andstand.Iusedtolieawakewatchingtherainseepthroughtheroof.Asparrowliesdeadinthesnow.FrancisMarrouxsatashen-facedbehindthewheel.Shestoodquitestill,facinghim.Gazeandstarecanbeusedinasimilarwaywithalimitedsetofadjectives.Shestaredathimwide-eyed.

3.157 Youcanusesomecombinationsofverbsandadjectivestosaythatsomethingdoesnothappentosomeoneorsomething,orthatsomeonedoesnothavesomething.Go,pass,emerge,escape,andsurviveareoftenused incombinations like these.Theadjectivestheycombinewithareoftenformedbyaddingun-to-edparticiples.Youreffortswon’tgounnoticed.Theguiltywentunpunished.Somehow,hisreputationemergedunblemished.Fortunatelyweallescapedunscathed.Mostly,theygounarmed.Thechildrenalwayswentbarefoot.

3.158 Verbssuchasblush,flame,gleam,glow,andruncanbeusedwithcolouradjectivesafterthemtosaywhatcoloursomethingisorwhatcolouritbecomes.Theyblewintothecharcoaluntilitglowedred.Thetreesflamedscarletagainstthegrass.

3.159 Die,return,andthepassiveverbbeborncanbefollowedbyeitheradjectivesornounphrases.Shediedyoung.Hediedadisappointedman.Attheendofthewar,hereturnedaslightlydifferentman.Hewasbornaslave.

fixedphrases

3.160 Somecombinationsofverbandadjectivearefixedphrases.Youcannotusetheverbinfrontofanyotheradjective.Iwantedtotravellight.Thechildrenranwild.Thejokewaswearingthinwithuse.

Describingtheobjectofaverb3.161 You can put an adjective after the object of some transitive verbs.This adjective describes the

object,andisoftencalledanobjectcomplement.Willie’sremarksmadeheruneasy.IfindtheBritishlegalsystemextremelycomplicated.Someoftheseverbsareusedtosaythatsomeoneorsomethingischangedorthatsomeoneisgivenanewjob.Othersareusedtodescribeaperson’sopinionofsomeoneorsomething.Forinformationonhowtousetheseverbsinthepassive,seeparagraph9.21.

verbsthatrelatetocausingsomethingtohappen:Theircommentsmademeangry

3.162 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneorsomethingcausesapersonorthingtohaveaparticularquality,youcanuseoneofagroupoftransitiveverbs,followedbyanadjective.Hesaidwaltzesmadehimdizzy.They’redrivingmecrazy.Thenhiscaptorhadknockedhimunconscious.Shepaintedhereyelidsdeepblue.Hewipedthebottledry.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway:

cutdrivegetknockmakepaintpatpickplanerenderrubsendshootsweepturnwipe

Mostof theseverbscanbe followedbyonlyoneadjectiveoraverysmall rangeofadjectives.Howevermakeandrendercanbeusedwithawiderangeofadjectives.

keep,hold,leave

3.163 You can also use keep, hold, and leave with an object followed by an adjective, to say thatsomeoneorsomethingiscausedtoremaininaparticularstate.

Thelightthroughthethincurtainshadkeptherawake.Leavethedooropen.Holditstraight.

verbsthatrelatetogivingsomeoneajoborrole

3.164 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneisgivenanimportantjob,youcanusemake,appoint,crown,orelectwithanobjectfollowedbyanounphrasereferringtothejob.In1910Asquithmadehimajuniorminister.Thenounusedinthiswaydoesnotusuallyhaveadeterminerwhenitreferstoauniquejob.RamsayMacDonaldappointedhimSecretaryofStateforIndia.

verbsofopinion

3.165 Sometransitiveverbswith thegeneralmeaningconsider canbeusedwithanadjectiveornounphrasetosaywhatsomeone’sopinionofapersonorthingis.Theyconsiderhimanembarrassment.DoyoufindhisviewofAmericainteresting?Hereisalistoftheseverbs:

accountbelieveconsiderdeemfindholdjudgepresumereckonthink

Provecanalsobefollowedbyanobjectcomplement,althoughitmeansshow,notconsider.Hehadprovedthemwrong.

3.166 Theseverbsareoftenusedinthepassive.Believe,presume,reckon,andthinkarenearlyalwaysusedinthepassiveinthesestructures.Herbodywasneverfoundandshewaspresumeddead.30bomberswerebelievedshotdown.

3.167 Alltheverbslistedinparagraph3.165exceptaccountcanalsobeusedwithato-infinitiveclauseaftertheirobjectshowingwhatsomeonethinksapersonorthingislikeordoes.Webelievedhimtobeinnocent.See paragraph 3.206 for information about using a to-infinitive clause after the object of these

verbs.3.168 Youcanusetheverbslistedin3.165withitastheirobjectfollowedbyanobjectcomplementand

ato-infinitiveclausetoshowsomeone’sopinionofanaction.Forexample,insteadofsayingShefoundbreathingdifficult,youcansayShefounditdifficulttobreathe.Gretchenfounditdifficulttospeak.Hethoughtitrighttoresign.Heconsideredithisdutytogo.These are examples of it being used in an impersonal way. For more information about theimpersonaluseofit,seeparagraphs9.31to9.45.

describingandnaming

3.169 Ifyouwanttosaythatpeopleuseaparticularword,wordgroup,ornametodescribeorrefertosomeone or something, you can use the word, word group, or name after one of a group oftransitiveverbs.Peoplewhodidnotlikehimcalledhimdull.Theycalledhimanidiot.EveryonecalledherMolly.Hewasdeclaredinnocent.TheynamedtheplaceTumboKutu.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway.Thefirstgroupisfollowedbyanadjective;thesecondgroupisfollowedbyanounphrase;andthethirdgroupisfollowedbyaname.

callcertifydeclarelabelpronounceterm~brandcalldeclaredesignatelabelproclaimterm~callchristendubnamenickname

titles

3.170 Thepassiveverbsbeentitled,beheaded,andbeinscribedarefollowedbyatitleorinscription.Thedraftdocumentwasentitled‘Awayforward’.

describingstates

3.171 Afewtransitiveverbscanbefollowedbyanadjectivetosaythatsomeoneorsomethingisinaparticularstatewhensomethinghappenstothem,orispreferredtobeinthatstate.Morethanfortypeoplewereburnedalive.…asoupthatcanbeservedcold.Theyfounditdead.Doyouwantitwhiteorblack?Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway:

burneatfindleavelikepreferserveshowwant

Sometimesan-edparticipleoran-ingparticipledescribingastateisused.Shefoundherselfcaughtinastrongtidalcurrent.MaureencameinandfoundKatesittingonachairstaringatthewindow.

Usingaprepositionalphraseafteralinkingverb3.172 Whenyouwanttogiveinformationaboutsomeoneorsomethingbydescribingtheircircumstances,

youcansometimesuseaprepositionalphraseafteralinkingverb.

useafterbe

3.173 Youcanusemanykindsofprepositionalphraseafterbe.Hewasstillinastateofshock.IwalkedhomewithBill,whowasinaverygoodmood.Shehadanolderbrotherwhowasinthearmy.I’mfromDortmundoriginally.…peoplewhoareunderpressure.Yourcommentsareofgreatinteresttome.Thisbookisforanywomanwhohasachild.

useafterotherverbs

3.174 Someotherlinkingverbscanbeusedwithamorerestrictedrangeofprepositionalphrases.Heseemedinexcellenthealth.Wedoaskpeopletokeepintouchwithus.Thesemethodshavegraduallyfallenintodisuse.Hegotintotroublewiththepolice.Hereisalistofotherlinkingverbsthatareusedwithprepositionalphrases:

appearfallfeelgetkeepremainseemstay

referringtoplace

3.175 Someverbsthatarealwaysoroftenfollowedbyanadjectivecanalsobeusedwithprepositionalphrasesrelatingtoplace.She’sinCalifornia.I’llstayherewiththechildren.Thecatwasnowlyingonthesofa.Hereisalistoftheseverbs:

bekeepremainstay~hangliesitstand

Formore informationaboutprepositionalphrases andadverbs relating toplace, seeparagraphs6.73to6.92and6.53to6.72.

referringtotime

3.176 Becanbeusedwithtimeexpressionstosaywhensomethingtookplaceorwilltakeplace.

Thatfinalmeetingwason3November.Formoreinformationabouttimeexpressions,seeparagraphs4.85to4.111.

useintransitivestructures

3.177 Prepositionalphrasescanalsobeusedintransitivestructurestosaythatsomeoneorsomethingiscausedtobeinaparticularstate.They’llgetmeoutoftrouble.Thefearofbeingdiscoveredkeptmeonthealert.

Talking about what role something has or how it is perceived: theprepositionas3.178 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithascanbeusedaftersomeverbs.

useinintransitivestructures

3.179 Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwithasareusedaftercertainintransitiveverbstoshowwhatroleorfunctionthesubjecthas,orwhatidentitytheypretendtohave.Bleachremovescolourandactsasanantisepticanddeodoriser.HeservedasKennedy’sambassadortoIndia.Thesittingroomdoublesasheroffice.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbefollowedbyasinthisway:

actcomedoublefunctionpassposeserve

Workcanalsobeusedinthisway,whenithasahumansubject.SheworksasacounsellorwithanAIDScharity.

useintransitivestructures

3.180 Anumberoftransitiveverbscanbeusedwithasaftertheirobject.Withsome,anounphraseisusedafteras.Theasphrasedescribestheroleoftheobjectorwhatitisthoughttobe.Iwantedtousehimasanagent.Itreatedbusinessasagame.

Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsthatcanbeusedwithasandanounphrase:

brandcastcategorizecertifycharacterizechooseclasscondemnconsiderdefinedenouncedepictdescribediagnoseelectestablishgivehailidentifyintendinterpretlabelnameperceiverecognizeregardscornseesuggesttaketreatuseview

Withothers,anadjectiveisusedafteras.Theadjectiveindicateswhatqualityorcharacteristictheobjectisthoughttohave.Partymembersandofficialsdescribedhimasbrilliant.Theyregardedmanualworkasdegrading.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsthatcanbeusedwithasandanadjective:

brandcategorizecertifycharacterizeclasscondemn

definedenouncedepictdescribediagnoseestablishlabelperceiveregardscornseeview

3.181 Lookupon,referto,andthinkofarealsousedwithasinthisway.Asmustbefollowedbyanounwhenusedwithreferto.Insomehouseholdsthemanwasreferredtoasthemaster.

Talkingaboutcloselylinkedactions:usingtwomainverbstogether3.182 Thissectiondescribesthewaysinwhichyouusetwomainverbstogethertotalkabouttwoactions

orstatesthatarecloselylinked.Thesetwoactionsmaybeperformedbythesameperson.Seeparagraphs3.189to3.201.Shestoppedspeaking.Davislikestotalkabouthorses.Alternatively, theactionsmaybeperformedbydifferentpeople.If theyare, theperformerof thesecondactionistheobjectofthefirstverb.Seeparagraphs3.202to3.212.Idon’twantthemtofeelI’veslightedthem.Oneofthegroupbeganpumpingherchesttohelpherbreathe.

3.183 Notethatthefirstverbneedsthesecondverbafteritbecauseitdoesnotgiveenoughinformationonitsown.Forexample,Iwantdoesnotgiveenoughinformationtobeausefulstatement,butIwanttotalktoyoudoes.Someof theverbsdealtwithbelow, forexamplewantand like, can alsobeordinary transitiveverbs,withanounphraseafterthem.Transitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.14to3.25.

3.184 If youwant to talk about two actions that are less closely linked, you refer to each action in aseparateclause.WaysofcombiningclausesareexplainedinChapter8.

verbforms

3.185 Thefirstverbinvolvedinthistypeofstructureisthemainverbofthestructure.Itusuallyinflectsfortenseandagreesinnumberwiththesubject;itisfinite.Iwantedtocomehome.Lonniewantstosaysorry.Moreandmorepeoplearecomingtoappreciatethecontributionthatthesepeoplemaketoour

society.

3.186 Thesecondverbinthecombinationdoesnotinflectfortenseorchangeitsformatall;itisnon-finite.Shetriedtoread.Theyhadbeentryingtoread.Informationaboutfiniteandnon-finiteformscanbefoundintheReferencesection.

3.187 Therearefournon-finiteverbformsthatareusedforthesecondverbinthistypeofstructure:the-ingparticipletheto-infinitivetheinfinitivewithouttothe-edparticiple

Notethat theinfinitivewithout toandthe-edparticiple formof theverbareused inonlya fewcombinations.Otherkindsof-ingformandinfinitivearealsosometimesused.Thoseveryclosetotheblastriskbeingburnt.NeitherRitanorIrecalledeverhavingseenher.Shewantedtobereassured.Theyclaimedtohaveshotdown22planes.

3.188 Thepositionofnotinnegativestructuresofthistypeisexplainedinparagraphs5.59and5.60.

Talkingabouttwoactionsdonebythesameperson3.189 Whenyouaretalkingabouttwoactionsthataredonebythesameperson,youusethesecondverb

directlyafterthefirst.Childrenenjoyplayingalongsideeachother.Youdeservetoknowthetruth.

verbsfollowedbyan-ingparticiple

3.190 Someverbsarealwaysfollowedbyan-ingparticipleclauseinstructuresofthiskind.Sheadmittedlyingtohim.Haveyoufinishedreadingthepaper?Hemissedhavingsomeonetodislike.Irecallbeingveryimpressedwiththeofficialanthems.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedwithan-ingparticiple,butnotato-infinitive:

admitadoreappreciateavoid

celebratecommenceconsidercontemplatedeferdelaydenydescribedetestdiscontinuedislikedreadendureenjoyfancyfinishgoimaginekeeplieloathementionmindmisspostponepractiserecallreportresentresistrisksitstandstopsuggest

Theseverbsarealsosometimesusedwithapassive-ingform.Theyenjoybeingpraised.Admit,celebrate,deny,mention,andrecallarequiteoftenusedwithaperfect-ingform.Carmichaelhaddeniedhavingseenhim.

USAGENOTE

3.191 Notethatneedcanbeusedwithan-ingparticipleafterit,butthe-ingparticiplethenhasthesamemeaningasapassiveto-infinitive.Forexample,ThehouseneedscleaningmeansthesameasThehouseneedstobecleaned.Requireandwantarealsooccasionallyusedinthesameway,althoughsomepeopledonot likethisuseofwant.

verbsfollowedbyato-infinitive

3.192 Otherverbsareusedwithato-infinitive.MrsBabcockhadalwayslongedtogotoIreland.Sheforgottobringasuitcase.Shewishestoaskafavourofyou.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedwithato-infinitive,andrarelyorneverwithan-ingparticiple:

acheaffordagreeaimappeararrangeaskattemptcarechooseclaimconsentdaredecidedemanddeservedesiredisdainendeavourexpectfailfightforgetgrowhappenhelphesitatehopeintendlearnlivelongmanagemeanneedneglectofferoptpayplanpledgepreparepretend

promiseprovereckonrefuseresolvescornseekseemsurvivesweartendthreatentroubleventurevolunteervotevowwaitwantwish

Mostoftheseverbscanbeusedwithapassiveinfinitive.Sherefusedtobephotographed.Hedeservestobeshot.Thefollowingverbsfromtheabovelistarenotusuallyusedwithapassiveinfinitive,becauseoftheirmeanings:

claimdareforgetintendlearnmanagemeanneglectpretendthreatentroubleventure

Appear, claim, happen, pretend, prove, seem, and tend are quite often used with a perfectinfinitive.Theyseemedtohavedisappeared.Notethathelpisalsofollowedbytheinfinitivewithoutto.Coffeehelpedkeephimalert.

USAGENOTE

3.193 Notethataffordisalwaysprecededbyamodal,andthatcareisnormallyusedwithanegative.Canweaffordtoignorethissourceofpowerasothersourcesofenergyarediminishing?…akitchenforsomeonewhodoesn’tcaretocook.

3.194 Theuseofhavefollowedbyato-infinitiveclauseisexplainedinparagraph5.244.

verbsusedwitheitherform

3.195 A few verbs can be usedwith either an -ing participle or a to-infinitive without changing themeaningoftheverb.Itstartedraining.Averycoldwindhadstartedtoblow.Webothlovedancing.Helovestotalkabouthiswork.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbefollowedeitherbyan-ingparticipleorato-infinitivewithoutgreatlychangingthemeaning:

attemptbeginbotherceasecontinuedeservefearhatelikelovepreferstart

Notethatbotherisoftenusedwithanegativeorabroadnegative.Hedidn’tbothercomplainingaboutit.Wehardlyevenbothertocleanit.

USAGENOTE

3.196 Withafewverbs,themeaningisaltereddependingonwhetheryouusean-ingparticipleorato-infinitive.Theseverbsarecome,goon,remember,try,andregret.Ifsomeonecomesrunning,flying,orhurtlingsomewhere,theymoveinthatway.Ifyoucome todosomething,yougraduallystartdoingit.WhentheyheardIwasleaving,theybothcamerunningout.Peoplecametobelievethatallthingswerepossible.

Ifyoutrytodosomething,youattemptit,toseeifyoucandoit.Ifyoutrydoingsomething,youdoitinordertofindoutifitiseffective.Shetriedtothinkcalmly.Trylyingdowninadarkroomforawhile.Thatusuallyhelps.Withtheotherverbs,thedifferenceinmeaningrelatestothetimingoftheaction.If you go on doing something, you continue to do it, but if you go on to do something, yousubsequentlystartdoingit.Theywentonarguingintothenight.Shewentontotalkaboutthepoliticalconsequences.Ifyourememberdoingsomething,youdiditinthepast,butifyouremembertodosomething,youdoitatthepresenttime.IrememberpromisingthatIwouldtry.Wemustremembertosaythankyou.Similarly, if you regret doing something, you have already done it, but if you regret to dosomething,youhavetodoitatthepresenttime.Shedidnotregretacceptinghisoffer.Iregrettosayrentswentup.Regret is only usedwith the to-infinitive of a small number of verbs that share themeaning ofgivingorreceivinginformation.Theseverbsare:

announceinformlearnsayseetell

BECAREFUL

3.197 Whenyouhaveachoicebetweenan -ing participle and a to-infinitive, youdonot use the -ingparticipleifthefirstverbisinaprogressiveform.TheThirdWorldisbeginningtoexporttotheWest.Thebigcloudswerestartingtocoverthesun.Educationalbudgetsarecontinuingtoincrease.Withverbsthatcannotbefollowedbyato-infinitive,younormallyuseanounphraseinsteadofthe-ingparticiple.IknewMissHeadwouldjustbefinishinghercellopractice.

3.198 Notethatafewverbs,principallyneed,want,have,buy,andchoose,areusedwithanobjectandato-infinitivewhentalkingabouttwoactionsperformedbythesameperson.Theto-infinitivemustbetransitive.Itisunderstoodasrelatingtothenoun,ratherthanbeingcloselyconnectedwiththe

firstverb.Ineedacartodrivetowork.Shechosethecorrectonetoputinherbag.

to-infinitiveshowingpurpose

3.199 Note that verbs that refer to a deliberate action are sometimes followedby a clause expressingpurpose.Here,tomeansinorderto.Severalwomenmovedtohelpher.Thecaptainstoppedtoreloadthemachine-gun.Notethatthefirstverbhasacompletemeaningofitsown;thesecondverbisgivingareasonforthefirstaction,notcompletingtheinformationaboutit.Seeparagraphs8.43to8.46formoredetailsonexpressingpurpose.

USAGENOTE

3.200 Whenthebaseformoftryisused,forexampleasanimperativeorwithamodal,itissometimesusedwithandfollowedbythebaseformofthesecondverb,ratherthanwithato-infinitive.Thetwoactionsseemtobeseparate,becauseoftheand,butareinfactverycloselylinked.Tryandgetatorchoralight,it’sterriblydarkdownhere.I’lltryandanswerthequestion.Somespeakersconsiderthistobeinformalorincorrect.Comeandgoareoftenusedinasimilarwaywithand,insimpleformsaswellasinthebaseform.Theverbafterandcanalsoinflect.Comeandseemewheneveryoufeeldepressed.Iwentandfetchedanotherglass.

getwithan-edparticiple

3.201 IninformalspokenEnglish,getissometimesusedwithan-edparticipledirectlyafterit,inastructurewithapassivemeaning.Thenhegotkilledinaplanecrash.

Whengetisusedtoformpassivesinthepastandpresentperfect,AmericanEnglishnormallyusestheparticiplegotten,ratherthangot.Herfoothadgottencaughtbetweensomerocks.(Am)

Talkingabouttwoactionsdonebydifferentpeople3.202 Ifyouwant to talkabout twoclosely linkedactions that areperformedbydifferentpeople,you

followthefirstverbwithanobject.Thisobjectthenfunctionsasthesubjectofthesecondverb.Forexample,inSheaskedGinnytocollectthebook,Ginnyisthepersonwhoisasked,andsheisalsothepersonwhoperformstheactionofcollectingthebook.

Isawhimlookingatmynameonthedoor.Youcan’tstopmeseeinghim!

useofpossessivedeterminer

3.203 Notethatwhenthesecondverbisan-ingparticiple,apossessivedeterminerissometimesusedinfrontofit,insteadofapronoun.Thisisratherformal.Theseprofessionalethicspreventtheirdiscussingtheirclientswiththepublic.ShedidnotlikemylivinginLondon.Notethatapossessivedeterminerisonlyusedinthiswaywhenthesecondverbcanhaveahumansubject.

transitiveverbswithan-ingparticiple

3.204 Someverbsareusedwithanobjectandan-ingparticiple.HecaughtHooperlookingathim.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedwithanobjectandan-ingparticiple:

catchdescribefeelfindhearimaginekeepleavelikenoticeobservepicturepreventsaveseesendspotstopwantwatch

Listentoalsobelongsinthisgroup.Theobjectafteritistheobjectoftheprepositionto.IlistenedtoKaspartalking.Theseverbsaresometimesusedwithapassive-ingform,butnotusuallywithaperfect-ingform.Shefeltherselfbeingspunaround.

verbswithaninfinitivewithoutto

3.205 Someoftheverbsintheaboveparagraphcanalsobeusedwithaninfinitivewithoutto.ShefeltherhairriseonthebackofherneckDrHochstadtheardhergasp.There is a slight change of meaning depending on which form is used. If you choose the -ingparticiple,youemphasizethattheactioncontinuedhappeningforaperiodoftime.ButIstayedthere,listeningtohersinging.IlookedoverandsawJoestaringatme.Ifyouchoosetheinfinitivewithoutto,youemphasizethattheactionwascompleted.WelistenedtoJennyfinishthesonnet.Itwasthefirsttimeshehadheardhimspeakofhislife.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedwithan-ingparticipleoraninfinitivewithoutto,withthechangeofmeaningdescribedabove:

feelhearlistentonoticeobserveseewatch

Notethattheseverbscanbeusedintheactiveonlywhentheyarefollowedbyaninfinitivewithoutto.Seealsoparagraph3.208.

transitiveverbswithato-infinitive

3.206 Otherverbsareusedwithanobjectandato-infinitiveclause.Hissisterhadtaughthimtosew.Iencouragestudentstodotheseexercisesathome.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedwithanobjectandato-infinitive:

adviseallowaskbegcausechallengechoosecommandcompeldare

defyenableencourageexpectforbidforcegethelpinduceinspireinstructintendinviteleadleavelikemeanmoveobligeorderpaypermitpersuadepreferpressprogrammepromptrecruitremindteachtelltraintrusturgeusewantwarn

Notethatsomeoftheverbsintheabovelistareusedforreportingorders,requests,andadvice.Formoreinformationonthisuse,seeparagraph7.39.Here is a list of verbs that are always or usually used in the passivewhen followed by a to-infinitive:

allegeassumebelieveclaimconsiderdeemdiscover

estimatefeelfindknowlearnprovereckonreportrequirerumoursayseethinkunderstand

Theyrefertosaying,thinking,ordiscovering.Theto-infinitivethatfollowsthemismostcommonlybeorhave,oraperfectinfinitive.Thehousewasbelievedtobehaunted.Hewasprovedtobewrong.

usingthepassive

3.207 Ifyoudonotknowwhothesubjectofthesecondverbis,oryoudonotwanttomentionthem,youcanuseapassiveconstruction.Agardenerwasimmediatelysackedifhewascaughtsmoking.Iwasaskedtocomeforafewdaystohelpthem.Thefollowingverbsarenotusuallyusedinthepassivewhenfollowedbyan-ingparticiple:

feelimaginelikelistentopreventsavestopwant

Thefollowingverbsarenotusuallyusedinthepassivewhenfollowedbyato-infinitive:

defygetlikepreferwant

USAGENOTE

3.208 Hear,observe,andseearenotusedwithato-infinitivewhentheyareactivebuttheycanbeusedwitheitheran-ingparticipleorato-infinitivewhentheyarepassive.You use themwith an -ing participle when you want to show that the action described by thesecondverbtookplaceoveraperiodoftime.Aterroristwasseenstandinginthemiddleoftheroad.Hercompanionscouldbeheardplayinggames.Ifato-infinitiveisused,youareimplyingthattheactionwascompleted.Shecoulddistinctlybeseentohesitate.Thebabywasseldomheardtocry.Seealsoparagraph3.205.

verbsfollowedbyforandato-infinitive

3.209 There are some verbs used with another verb with a to-infinitive that are followed by theprepositionforanditsobject,ratherthanbyadirectobject.Theobjectofforistheperformerofthesecondaction.Theycalledforactiontobetakenagainsttheunions.Iwaitedforhimtospeak.Notethattheto-infinitiveisoftenapassiveone.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway:

appealapplyarrangeaskcallclamourlongoptpaypleadpressvotewaitwishyearn

transitiveverbswithaninfinitivewithoutto

3.210 Afewverbsarefollowedbyanobjectandaninfinitivewithoutto,notan-ingparticipleorato-infinitive.Theyarelet,make,andhaveinthesenseofcausetohappenorexperience.

Jennylethimtalk.Myfathermademegofortheinterview.Helayinadarkenedroomandhadherbringhimmealsontrays.Verbsthatcanbeusedeitherwithaninfinitivewithouttoorwithan-ingparticipleareexplainedinparagraph3.205.

haveandgetusedforshowingcause

3.211 Aspecialuseofhavewhenusedwithanotherverbistosaythatthesubjectcausessomethingtobedealtwithbysomeoneelse.Inthiscase,haveisfollowedbyanobjectreferringtothethingdealtwith,and thenby the -edparticipleofa transitiveverborofan intransitiveverbfollowedbyapreposition.Ihavemyhaircuteverysixweeks.Thisstructureisalsousedtosaythatsomethingbelongingtothesubjectofhaveisaffectedinsomeway.She’djustlostherjobandhadsomemoneystolen.Ifyouwanttomentiontheperformerofthesecondaction,youusebyfollowedbyanoun.Hehadtohavehislegmassagedbyhistrainer.Get canalsobeusedwithanobjectandan -edparticiple to talkaboutcausingsomething tobedealtwithoraffectedinsomeway.Wemustgetthecarrepaired.

wantandneedwithan-edparticiple

3.212 Wantisalsousedwithanobjectandan-edparticiple,toshowthatyouwouldlikesomethingtobedone.Iwantthewholeapproachchanged.Idon’twantyouhurt.Needisusedinasimilarway,usuallywhentheobjectissomethingthatbelongstothesubject.Youneedyoureyestested.

Chapter4Expressingtime:tensesandtimeadverbials

4.1–4.6 Introduction

4.7–25 Thepresent

4.8–16 Thepresentingeneral:thepresentsimple4.17–20 Thepresentprogressive4.21–25 Timeadverbialswithreferencetothepresent

4.26–51 Thepast

4.27–30 Statingadefinitetimeinthepast:thesimple4.31–32 Actionsinprogressinthepast:thepastprogressive4.33–36 Thepastinrelationtothepresent:thepresentperfect4.37–39 Eventsbeforeaparticulartimeinthepast:thepastperfect4.40–51 Timeadverbialswithreferencetothepast

4.52–63 Expressingfuturetime

4.53–57 Indicatingthefutureusingwill4.58–59 Otherwaysoftalkingaboutthefuture4.60–63 Timeadverbialswithreferencetothefuture

4.64–69 Otherusesofverbforms

4.65 Vividnarrative4.66–68 Forwardplanningfromatimeinthepast

4.69 Referringtostatesratherthanactivities

4.70–84 Usingtimeadverbialstoindicatepast,present,orfuture

4.76–84 Emphasizingtheunexpected:continuing,stopping,ornothappening

4.85–112 Timeadverbialsandprepositionalphrases

4.85–99 Specifictimes4.100–111 Non-specifictimes

4.112 Extendedusesoftimeadverbials

4.113–144 Frequencyandduration

4.114–122 Talkingabouthowfrequentlysomethinghappens4.123–134 Talkingabouthowlongsomethinglasts4.135–136 Talkingaboutthewholeofaperiod4.137–142 Showingthestart orendofaperiod4.143–144 Usingtimeexpressionstomodifynouns

4 Expressingtime:tensesandtimeadverbials

Introduction4.1 Whenyouaremakingastatement,youusuallyneedtomakeitclearwhetheryouaretalkingabouta

situationthatexistsnow,existedinthepast,orislikelytoexistinthefuture.Therearedifferentwaysofexpressingtime:tenseisone;theuseoftimeadverbialsisanother.Atenseisaverbformthatindicatesaparticularpointintimeorperiodoftime.Theformbelongingtoaparticulartenseisobtainedbytheadditionofinflectionstothebaseformoftheverb.InEnglish,timeisalsoindicatedbytheinclusionofauxiliariesormodalsintheverbphrase.smile…smiledwassmiling…hasbeensmiling…hadsmiledwillsmile…maysmileSomeverbshaveirregularformsforpasttenses.fight…foughtgo…wentForinformationaboutalltheseforms,seetheReferencesection.

4.2 Sometimes the point in time is clear from the tense of the verb, and no other time reference isrequired. However, if you want to draw attention to the time of the action, you use a timeadverbial.Atimeadverbialmaybe(i)anadverb(e.g.afterwards,immediately),(ii)aprepositionalphrase(e.g.ateighto’clock,onMonday),or(iii)anounphrase(e.g.thenextday,lastweek).She’smovingtomorrow.HewasbetterafterundergoingsurgeryonSaturday.Recordprofitswereannouncedlastweek.Formoregeneralinformationaboutadverbials,seethebeginningofChapter6.

positionoftimeadverbial

4.3 Timeadverbialsnormallycomeattheendofaclause,aftertheverborafteritsobjectifthereisone.Youcanputmorefocusonthetimebyplacingtheadverbialatthebeginningoftheclause.We’regettingmarriednextyear.Nextyear,themuseumisexpectingevenmorevisitors.Iwasplayinggolfyesterday.

Yesterdaytheatmosphereatthefactorywastense.Ifthetimeadverbialisanadverb,itcanalsocomeimmediatelyafterbeorafterthefirstauxiliaryinaverbphrase.Sheisnowprettywell-knowninthiscountry.Cooperhadoriginallybeenduetoretirelastweek.Publicadvertisementsforthepostwillsoonappearinthenationalpress.

durationandfrequency

4.4 Someverbformsareusedtosaythataneventtakesplacecontinuouslyoveraperiodoftime,orisrepeated several times. You may also want to say how long something lasts, or how often ithappens.Todothis,adverbialsofduration (e.g. fora long time)andadverbialsof frequency(e.g.often,everyyear)areused.Americahasalwaysbeenhighlyinfluential.Peoplearesometimesscaredtosaywhattheyreallythink.Hundredsofpeoplearekilledeveryyearinfires.Theywouldgoontalkingforhours.Adverbials of frequency are explained and listed in paragraphs 4.114 to 4.122. Adverbials ofdurationareexplainedandlistedinparagraphs4.123to4.144.

4.5 Thefollowingparagraphsdescribethewaysinwhichyoucantalkaboutthepresent,thepast,andthefuture.Aftereachofthese,thereisasectiononthewaysinwhichyouusetimeadverbialswitheachtense.Therearesometimeadverbialsthatareusedmainlywiththepasttenses.Theseareexplainedinparagraph4.41.Timeadverbialsthatareusedwithfutureformscanbefoundinparagraphs4.60to4.62.

subordinateclauses

4.6 Thischapterdealsonlywiththechoiceoftenseinmainclauses.Sometimes, thepoint in time isnot indicatedbya timeadverbial, butbya subordinate clause.Subordinateclausesoftimeareintroducedbyconjunctionsthatrefertotime,suchassince,until,before,andafter.Forinformationaboutthetenseoftheverbinthesubordinateclause,seeparagraph8.9.

Thepresent4.7 In situationswhere you are discussing an existing state of affairs, you use a verb that is in the

presenttense.Usually,theverbtenseissufficienttoshowthatyouarereferringtothepresent.Younormallyonlyuseatimeadverbialforemphasis,or torefer tosomethingthat isunrelatedtothepresentmoment.

Thepresentingeneral:thepresentsimple

thepresentmoment

4.8 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutyourthoughtsandfeelingsatthepresentmoment,oraboutyourimmediatereactionstosomething,youusethepresentsimple.I’mawfullybusy.Theybothtastethesame.Gosh,helooksawful.Iwantabreathoffreshair.Youcanalsousethepresentsimpletotalkaboutaphysicalfeelingthatisaffectingyouorsomeoneelse.Ifeelheavy.Ido.Ifeeldrowsy.Mystomachhurts.Note,however,thatifyouaretalkingaboutphysicalperceptionssuchasseeingandhearing,younormallyusethemodalcan,althoughthepresentsimpleisoccasionallyused.Icanseethefishingboatscomingin.Icansmellit.Can’tyou?Iseeaflatstretchofground.Ihearapproachingfeet.

generalpresentincludingpresentmoment

4.9 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutasettledstateofaffairs that includesthepresentmomentbutwheretheparticulartimereferenceisnotimportant,youusethepresentsimple.MydadworksinSaudiArabia.HelivesintheFrenchAlpsneartheSwissborder.Heisaverygoodbrother.Welovehim.She’sadoctor’sdaughter.Meanwhile,AtlanticCityfacesanotherdilemma.

generaltruths

4.10 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingisalwaysorgenerallytrue,youusethepresentsimple.Neartheequator,thesunevaporatesgreaterquantitiesofwater.Amoleculeofwaterhastwoatomsofhydrogenandoneofoxygen.Achemicalreactionoccursinthefuelcell.

regularorhabitualactions

4.11 Ifyouwant to talkaboutsomethingthataparticularpersonor thingdoesregularlyorhabitually,youusethepresentsimple.Doyousmoke?Igetupearlyandeatmybreakfastlisteningtotheradio.

usedinreviews

4.12 Youusuallyusethepresentsimplewhenyouarediscussingwhathappensinabook,play,orfilm.InthefilmheplaysthecentralcharacterofCharlesSmithson.Inthoseearlychapters,hekeepshimselfverymuchinthebackground.

USAGENOTE

4.13 Youcanusethepresentsimpleoftheverbsaywhenyouaredescribingsomethingyouhavereadinabook.Thecriminaljusticesystem,theauthorsays,hasfailedtokeeppacewiththedrugproblem.TheBiblesaysloveofmoneyistherootofallevil.

usedincommentaries

4.14 Onradioand television,commentatorsoftenuse thepresentsimplewhen theyaredescribinganeventsuchasasportsmatchoraceremonyatthetimethatitishappening.Heturns,heshoots,hescores!

usedinreporting

4.15 Whenyouare reportingwhat someone said toyouat apoint in the recentpast,youcanuse thepresentsimpleofareportingverbsuchashearortell.I’veneverbeenparaglidingmyself,buttheytellmeit’sareallyexcitingsport.Tamsin’sagoodcook,Ihear.Gracesaysyoutoldhertocomeoverhere.Formoredetailedinformationaboutreportingverbs,seeChapter7.

usedincommenting

4.16 Whenyouarecommentingonwhatyouaresayingordoing,youusethepresentsimpleofaverbsuch as admit, promise, reject, or enclose. For more information on this type of verb, seeparagraphs7.64to7.67.This,Iadmit,wasmyfavouriteactivity.Iencloseasmallchequewhichmaycomeinhandy.Ileaveitforyoutodecide.

Thepresentprogressive

themomentofspeaking

4.17 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutanactivitythatisinprogress,youusethepresentprogressive.We’rehavingameeting.Comeandjoinin.

WhatamIdoing?I’mlookingoutofthewindow.Myheadisaching.I’malreadyfeelingtense.

emphasizingthepresentmoment

4.18 Ifyouwanttoemphasizethepresentmomentortoindicatethatasituationistemporary,youusethepresentprogressive.Onlyonehospital,atAngal,isfunctioning.We’retryingtocreateamoredemocraticsociety.She’sspendingthesummerinEurope.I’mworkingasaBritishCouncilOfficer.

progressivechange

4.19 Youalsousethepresentprogressivetotalkaboutchanges,trends,development,andprogress.Thevillageischangingbutitisstillundisturbed.Hishandwritingisimproving.Worldenergydemandisincreasingatarateofabout3%peryear.

habitualactions

4.20 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutahabitualactionthattakesplaceregularly,especiallyonethatisnewortemporary,youusethepresentprogressive.You’regoingoutalotthesedays.Doyouknowifshe’sstillplayingthesedays?She’sseeingalotmoreofthem.

Timeadverbialswithreferencetothepresent4.21 Youdonotnormallyneedtouseanadditionaltimeadverbialwithpresentformsofverbs,butyou

canadd them inorder to emphasize the immediatepresentorgeneralpresent, or to contrast thepresentwiththepastorfuture.They’regettingonquitewellatthemoment.We’resafenow.What’sthematterwithyoutoday,Marnie?Ihaven’tgotagrantthisyear.

generaltruths

4.22 Ifyouareusingthepresentsimpletotalkaboutsomethingthatisalwaysorgenerallytrue,youcanreinforceorweakenyourstatementbyusinganadverb.Babiesnormallyloseweightinthebeginning.Theattitudeisusuallyoneofridicule.

Traditionally,theJapaneseprefergoodqualityclothes.Hereisalistofcommonadverbsthatcanbeusedtomodifyyourstatementinthisway:

alwaysgenerallymainlynormallyoftentraditionallyusually

Theuseofthepresentsimpletotalkaboutgeneraltruthsisexplainedinparagraph4.10.

regularactions

4.23 When you use the present simple to say that an action takes place regularly, you can use anadverbial of frequency such as often or sometimes to be more specific about how often ithappens.Severalgroupsmeetweekly.Ivisitheraboutonceeverysixmonths.Itseldomrainsthere.Ineverdrinkalone.Theuseofthepresentsimpletotalkaboutregularactivitiesisexplainedinparagraph4.11.Moreinformationaboutadverbialsoffrequency,includingalistofthemostcommonones,canbefoundinparagraphs4.114to4.122.

frequentactions

4.24 The present progressive is also used with words like always and forever when you want toemphasize how often the action takes place. This use expresses disapproval or annoyance. Theadverbisplacedaftertheauxiliaryverb.You’realwayslookingforfaults.It’salwaysraining.Andshe’salwaystalkingtohimonthetelephone.Theyareforeverbeingknockeddownbycars.Theuseofthepresentprogressivetotalkaboutfrequent,habitualactionsisexplainedinparagraph4.20.

timeadverbialswithpresentverbforms

4.25 Note that some adverbs that refer to the present time, such asnow and today, are also used toexpress past time.However, there are a few adverbs and other time adverbials that are almost

alwaysusedwithpresentverbforms.

I’mnotplanningonhavingchildrenatpresent.…thecampingcrazethatiscurrentlysweepingAmerica.Nowadaysfitnessisbecomingagenerallyacceptedprincipleoflife.Thefollowingisalistoftimeadverbialsthatarenormallyonlyusedwithpresentverbforms:

atpresentcurrentlyinthisdayandagenowadayspresentlythesedays

Notethatinthislistthewordpresentlymeansnow.

Thepast4.26 Whenyouaretalkingaboutthepast,atimeadverbialisnecessarytospecifytheparticulartimein

thepastyouarereferringto.Thetimereferencecanbeestablishedinapreviousclause,andtheverbsinthefollowingclausesarethereforeputinthepasttense.Itwasverycoldthatnight.Overmyheadwasagapinthereedmattingoftheroof.Thehousewasdamagedbyfireyesterday.No-onewasinjured.

Statingadefinitetimeinthepast:thepastsimple4.27 Ifyouwanttosaythataneventoccurredorthatsomethingwasthecaseataparticulartimeinthe

past,youusethepastsimple.TheIsraeliPrimeMinisterflewintoNewYorkyesterdaytostarthisvisittotheUS.OurregularwindowcleanerwentofftoCanadalastyear.On1February1968heintroducedtheIndustrialExpansionBill.Theygavememedicationtohelpmerelax.

pastsituations

4.28 Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationexistedoveraperiodoftimeinthepast,youalsousethepastsimple.HelivedinParisduringhislastyears.Throughouthislifehesufferedfromepilepsy

4.29 Ifyouaretalkingaboutsomethingthathappenedinthepast,andyoumentionasituationthatexistedatthattime,youusethepastsimple.Youcandothiswhetherornotthesituationstillexists.AllthestreetsinthispartofWatfordlookedalike.

About fiftymiles from theuniversity therewasoneof India’smost famousandancientHindutemples.

habitualandregularactions

4.30 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutanactivitythattookplaceregularlyorrepeatedlyinthepast,butthatnolongeroccurs,youusethepastsimple.WewalkedagreatdealwhenIwasaboy.Eachweekwetrekkedtothebighouse.Wouldandused to canalsobeused to say that somethinghappened regularly in thepastbutnolongerdoesso.Seeparagraphs5.114and5.255formoreinformation.

Actionsinprogressinthepast:thepastprogressive

repeatedactions

4.31 Ifyouwanttofocusonactioninprogressorrepeatedactionsthatoccurredinthepast,youusethepastprogressive.Hertoothwasaching,herburntfingerwashurting.Hewaslookingill.Everyonewasbeggingthecaptaintosurrender.Iwasmeetingthousandsofpeopleandgettingtoknownoone.

contrastingevents

4.32 Ifyouwanttocontrastasituationwithaneventthathappenedjustafterthatsituationexisted,youusethepastprogressivetodescribethefirstsituation.Youthenusethepastsimpletodescribeanddrawattentiontotheeventthatoccurredafterit.Wewereallsittingroundthefirewaitingformybrothertocomehome.Hearrivedaboutsixintheevening.IwaswaitingangrilyonMondaymorningwhenIsawMrs.Miller.

Thepastinrelationtothepresent:thepresentperfect4.33 Ifyouwanttomentionsomethingthathappenedinthepastbutyoudonotwanttostateaspecific

time,youusethepresentperfect.Theyhaveraised£180foraswimmingpool.Ihavenoticedthistraitinmanyphotographers.

BECAREFUL

4.34 Youcannotusetimeadverbialsthatplacetheactionatadefinitetimeinthepastwiththepresentperfect.Forexample,youcannotsayIhavedoneityesterday.

Youcan,however,useanadverbialofduration.Thesettlershaveleftthebayforever.Iatebrownrice,whichIhavealwayshated,andvegetablesfrommygarden.Adverbialsofdurationareexplainedandlistedinparagraphs4.123to4.142.Youcanalsousesinceandforwiththepresentperfectbecausewhentheyareusedinthiswaytheyrefertoadefinitetime.Theyhavebeenbackeveryyearsincethen.Shehasworkedforhimfortenyears.Formoreinformationonsinceseeparagraph4.137.Otherusesofforareexplainedinparagraphs4.125to4.128.

situationsthatstillexist

4.35 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutanactivityorsituationthatstartedatsometimeinthepast,continued,andisstillhappeningnow,youusethepresentperfectorthepresentperfectprogressive.AllmyadultlifeIhavewaitedfortheemergenceofastrongcentreparty.She’salwaysfeltthatfilmsshouldbeentertaining.Nationalproductivityhasbeendeclining.IhavebeendancingsinceIwasachild.

emphasizingdurationofevent

4.36 Ifyouwanttoemphasizethedurationofarecentevent,youusethepresentperfectprogressive.She’sbeencrying.SomepeoplewillsaythatwhatIhavebeendescribingisnotacrisisofindustry.The Department of Aboriginal Affairs has recently been conducting a survey of AustralianAborigines.

Eventsbeforeaparticulartimeinthepast:thepastperfect4.37 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutapasteventorsituationthatoccurredbeforeaparticulartimeinthepast,

youusethepastperfect.Onedayhenoticedthatacultureplatehadbecomecontaminatedbyamould.Beforethewar,hehadworkedasabankmanager.Shehadlostherjobasarealestateagentandwasworkingasawaitress.Idetestedgamesandhadalwaysmanagedtoavoidchildren’sparties.

emphasizingtimeandduration

4.38 Ifyouwant toemphasize the recentnessand thedurationofacontinuousactivity that tookplacebeforeaparticulartimeinthepast,youusethepastperfectprogressive.Untilnowtherumoursthathadbeencirculatingwereexaggeratedversionsofthetruth.

Thedoctorhadbeenworkingalone.Hediedinhospitalwherehehadbeenreceivingtreatmentforcancer.Theyhadbeenhittingourtrucksregularly.

expectationsandwishes

4.39 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingwasexpected,wishedfor,orintendedbeforeaparticulartimeinthepast,youusethepastperfectorthepastperfectprogressive.Shehadnaturallyassumedthatoncetherewasatheatreeverybodywouldwanttogo.Itwastheremainsofaten-rupeenotewhichshehadhopedwouldlasttilltheendoftheweek.ItwasnotasniceontheterraceasClarissahadexpected.Ihadbeenexpectingsomemiraculousobviouschange.

Timeadverbialswithreferencetothepast4.40 Whenyouareusingpastverb forms,younormallyusea timeadverbial to indicate thatyouare

talkingaboutthepast.Atonetimetheartsofreadingandwritingwereclassedamongthegreatmysteriesof lifeforthemajorityofpeople.I’vemadesomepoordecisionslately,butI’mfeelingmuchbetternow.Itwasverysplendidonce,butit’sonlyaruinnow.It’sMarkwholosthiswife.AyearlastJanuary.Itwasterriblyhotyesterday.

typesoftimeadverbial

4.41 Timeadverbialscanrefereithertoaspecifictime,ortoamoregeneralindefiniteperiodoftime.The listsbelowgive themostcommon indefinite timeadverbials thatareusedmainlywithpastverbforms.Withtheexceptionofsinceandeversince,whichcomeattheendofaclause,youputthemafter theauxiliaryormodal inaverbphrase thathasmore thanoneword; ifyouuse themwiththepastsimpleyouputtheminfrontoftheverb.Thewordsinthefollowinglistcanbeusedwithallpastverbforms:

againalreadyearliereversincefinallyfirstinthepastjustlastpreviouslyrecentlysince

Thewordsinthefollowinglistcanbeusedwithallpastverbformsexceptthepresentperfect:

afterwardsatonetimeeventuallyformerlyimmediatelynextonceoriginallysubsequently

Notethatonceheremeansatsometimeinthepast.For itsusesasanadverboffrequency,seeparagraph4.115.Fortheusesofsinceasaprepositionintimeadverbials,seeparagraph4.137.Some time adverbials used with past verb forms are more specific. They include words likeyesterday,ago,other,andlast.Notethatagoisplacedafterthenounphrase.Isawhimyesterdayevening.Weboughtthehousefromherthedaybeforeyesterday.ThreeweeksagoIwasstayinginSanFrancisco.Isawmygoddaughtertheotherday.Itallhappenedalongtimeago.

BECAREFUL

4.42 Yousaylastnight,notyesterdaynight.

usedforemphasis

4.43 Therearesomecaseswhereyouhavetospecifythetimereference.Inothercases,youmaysimplywanttomakethetimingoftheactionclear,oremphatic.Thesecasesaredescribedbelow.

usedwiththepastsimple

4.44 Whenyouusethepastsimpletodescribehabitualorregularactivities,youcanuseanadverbialoffrequencytoindicatetheregularityorrepetitionoftheactivity.Heoftenagreedtoworkquitecheaply.Sometimeshereadsomuchthathebecameconfused.EttaphonedGuppyeveryday.Theuseofthepastsimpletodescribehabitualactionsisexplainedinparagraph4.30.

usedwiththepastprogressive

4.45 If you are using the past progressive to talk about repeated actions, you can add an adverb offrequencysuchasalwaysorforeveraftertheauxiliarytoemphasizethefrequencyoftheactionortoexpressyourannoyanceaboutit.Intheimmenseshedwhereweworked,somethingwasalwaysgoingwrong.Shewasalwaysknitting–makingsweatersorbabyclothes.Ourbuilderwasforevergoingonskiingholidays.Theuseofthepastprogressivetodescriberepeatedactionsisexplainedinparagraph4.31.

usedwiththepresentperfect

4.46 Whenyouusethepresentperfecttomentionsomethingthatisstillrelevanttothepresent,youcanaddanadverboffrequencytoshowthattheactionwasrepeated.I’veoftenwonderedwhywedidn’tmoveyearsago.Politicaltensionshavefrequentlyspilledoverintoviolence.The use of the present perfect to talk about situations that are still relevant is explained inparagraph4.33.

4.47 Note that if you are talking about a quality, attitude, or possession that still exists or is stillrelevant,youneedtousethepresentperfectwithanadverbialofduration.We’vehaditforfifteenyears.He’salwayslikedyou,youknow.Ihaveknownhimforyears.Mypeoplehavebeenatwarsince1917.

4.48 Ifyouusethepresentperfectandthepresentperfectprogressivetomentionacontinuingactivitythatbeganinthepast,youcanaddanadverbialofdurationtoshowhowlongithasbeengoingon.Foraboutaweekhehadbeencomplainingofabadheadache.Theyhavebeenmeetingregularlyfortwoyears.Hehaslookedaftermewellsincehismotherdied.Theuseofthepresentperfectandthepresentperfectprogressivetotalkaboutactivitiesthatbeganinthepastisexplainedinparagraph4.35.

usedwiththepastperfect

4.49 Whenyouusethepastperfecttodescribearepeatedeventthattookplacebeforeaparticulartimeinthepast,youuseanadverbialoffrequencytoshowhowoftenitwasrepeated.Posyhadalwayssoughtherouteventhen.Thehousekeepermentionedthatthedoghadattackeditsmistressmorethanonce.Theuseofthepastperfecttodescribeeventsthatoccurredbeforeaparticulartimeinthepastareexplainedinparagraph4.37.

4.50 Ifyouareusingthepastperfecttotalkaboutasituationthatdidnotchangeinthepast,youuseanadverbialofdurationtoemphasizethelengthoftimeduringwhichitexisted.

Theyweren’treallyourauntanduncle,butwehadalwaysknownthem.Allthroughthosemanyyearshehadnevereverlosttrackofmyfather.Hisparentshadbeenmarriedfortwelveyearswhenhewasborn.

4.51 If you are using the past perfect progressive to mention a recent, continuous activity, you canspecifywhenitbegan.TheHomeOfficehaduntilnowbeen insistingongiving theofficersonly tendays toreachasettlement.Sincethen,themotherhadbeenlivingwithherdaughter.Adverbialsoffrequencyordurationcanalsobeaddedforemphasis.Thedriveincreasedthefatigueshehadbeenfeelingforhours.Therainhadbeenpouringallnight.Theuseof thepastperfectprogressivetotalkaboutarecent,continuousactivityisexplainedinparagraph4.38.

Expressingfuturetime4.52 Itisnotpossibletotalkwithasmuchcertaintyaboutthefutureasitisaboutthepresentorthepast.

Anyreferenceyoumaketofutureeventsisthereforeusuallyanexpressionofwhatyouthinkmighthappenorwhatyouintendtohappen.

Indicatingthefutureusingwill4.53 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingisplannedtohappen,orthatyouthinkitislikelytohappeninthe

future,youusethemodalwillinfrontofthebaseformoftheverb.Nancywillarrangeit.Thesewillbedealtwithinchapter7.‘Iwillcheck,’saidBrody.WhenwillIseethem?WhatdoyouthinkSallywilldo?Youwillcomeback,won’tyou?If the subject is I orwe, themodal shall is sometimes used instead ofwill to talk about futureevents.IshalldoeverythingIcantohelpyou.YouwillstayathomeandIshallgotoyouroffice.‘Weshallgivehimsometea,’Naomisaid.

ThisisnotcommoninmodernAmericanEnglish.Themodalswill and shall are used in several otherways, usuallywith some element of futuretime.Formoreinformation,seeChapter5.

generaltruths

4.54 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutgeneraltruthsandtosaywhatcanbeexpectedtohappenifaparticular

situationarises,youusewill.Whenpeaceisavailable,peoplewillgoforit.An attack ofmalaria can keep aman off work for three days.Hewill earn nothing and hisfamilywillgohungry.

indicatingcertainty

4.55 Ifyouaresurethatsomethingwillhappenbecausearrangementshavebeenmade,youcanusethefutureprogressive.I’llbeseeingthemwhenI’vefinishedwithyou.She’llbeappearingtomorrowandSundayattheRoyalFestivalHall.I’llbewaitingforyououtside.Iunderstandyou’llbemovingintoourareasoon.They’llspoilourpicnic.I’llbewonderingallthetimewhat’shappening.Ourpeoplewillbegoingtotheircountrymore.Note that a time adverbial or an adverbial of frequency is normally required with the futureprogressive.

4.56 Ifyouarereferringtosomethingthathasnothappenedyetbutwillhappenbeforeaparticulartimeinthefuture,youcanusethefutureperfect.Bythetimeyougettotheschool,theconcertwillhavefinished.Maybebythetimewegettherehe’llalreadyhavestarted.Bythen,maybeyou’llhaveheardfromyoursister.Notethatyoumustindicatethespecificfuturetimereferredtobyusingatimeadverbialoranotherclause.

indicatingduration

4.57 If youwant to indicate thedurationof an event at a specific time in the future, you canuse thefutureperfectprogressive.Bythetimetheseasonends,Iwillhavebeenplayingforfifteenmonthswithoutabreak.TheregisterwillhavebeenrunningforayearinMay.Notethatyouneedtouseatimeadverbialtoindicatethefuturetimeandanadverbialofdurationtostatehowlongtheeventwilllast.

Otherwaysoftalkingaboutthefuture

begoingto

4.58 Ifyouarestatinganintentionthatsomethingwillhappen,orifyouhavesomeimmediateevidencethatsomethingwillhappenfairlysoon,youcanusebegoingtofollowedbyaninfinitive.I’mgoingtoexploretheneighbourhood.Evansknowslotsofpeople.He’sgoingtohelpme.He’sgoingtotakemethere.

You’regoingtohaveaheartattackifyou’renotcareful.We’regoingtoseeachangeinthelawnextyear.

plannedevents

4.59 Youcanusebeduetoandbeabouttotorefertoplannedfutureeventsthatyouexpecttohappensoon.Theyarefollowedbyinfinitiveclauses.Heisduetostartasacouriershortly.Theworkisduetobestartedinthesummer.Another385peopleareabouttolosetheirjobs.Areweabouttobetakenoverbythemachine?

Timeadverbialswithreferencetothefuture

firmplansforthefuture

4.60 Thepresentsimpleisusedtotalkabouttimetabledorscheduledevents.Thepresentprogressiveisusedtostatefirmplansthatyouhaveforthefuture.Atimeadverbialisnecessaryunlessyouaresurethatthehearerorreaderknowsthatyouaretalkingaboutthefuture.MylasttrainleavesEustonat11.30.TheUNGeneralAssemblyopensinNewYorklaterthismonth.Tomorrowmorningwemeetuptoexchangecontracts.I’mleavingattheendofthisweek.Mymumiscomingtohelplookafterthenewbaby.

vaguetimereference

4.61 When youwant tomake a general or vague reference to future time, you use an adverbial thatreferstoindefinitetime.I’lldropbysometime.Soonerorlaterhe’llaskyoutojoinhimthere.Infutureshe’llhavetotakesedentaryworkofsomesort.Hereisalistofindefinitetimeadverbialsthatareusedmainlywithfutureforms:

infutureinthefutureoneofthesedayssomedaysometimesoonerorlater

tomorrow

4.62 Adverbialsthatincludethewordtomorrowaremainlyusedwithreferencestofuturetime.We’lltrysomewhereelsetomorrow.ShallIcometomorrownight?He’llbeherethedayaftertomorrow.ThistimetomorrowI’llbeinNewYork.

next

4.63 Someadverbialsthataremainlyusedwithreferencetofuturetimeincludethewordnext. IfyouareusingaspecificdayormonthsuchasSaturdayorOctober,youcanputnexteitherbeforeorafterthedayormonth.Otherwise,nextisplacedinfrontofthetimereference.NextweekMichaelHallwillbetalkingaboutmusic.Nextsummeryourcropswillbeverymuchbetter.Ithinkwe’lldefinitelybegoingnextyear.WillyouraccommodationbeavailablenextOctober?ThebootswillbereadybyWednesdaynext.ApostmortemexaminationwillbeheldonMondaynext.Shewon’tbeabletodoittheweekafternext.

InAmericanEnglish,nextisalwaysplacedinfrontofthetimereference.

Otherusesofverbforms4.64 Sofarinthischapter,thecommonestandsimplestusesofthevariousverbformshavebeendealt

with.However,therearealsosomelesscommonusesoftenses.

Vividnarrative

thepresent

4.65 Storiesarenormallytoldusingthepast.However,ifyouwanttomakeastoryseemvivid,asifitwere happening now, you can use the present simple for actions and states and the presentprogressiveforsituations.There’saloudexplosionbehindus.ThenIhearChrisgiggling.Sylviaisupset.Thehelicopterclimbsoverthefrozenwasteland.Chrisiscryinghardandotherslookoverfromtheothertables.Hesitsdownathisdeskchair,reachesforthetelephoneanddialsanumber.

Forwardplanningfromatimeinthepast4.66 Thereareseveralwaysoftalkingaboutaneventthatwasinthefutureataparticulartimeinthe

past,orthatwasexpectedtooccur.Thesearedescribedinthefollowingparagraphs.

eventsplannedinthepast

4.67 Thepastprogressivecanbeusedtotalkabouteventsplannedinthepast,especiallywithsomecommonverbssuchascomeandgo.FourofthemwerecomingforSundaylunch.Herdaughterwasgoingtoasummercamptomorrow.Mywifewasjoiningmelaterwiththetwochildren.

4.68 Thepastsimpleofbecanbeusedinstructuresusedtoexpressfutureevents,suchasbegoingto,beaboutto,andbedueto.Theimplicationisusuallythattheexpectedeventhasnothappenedorwillnothappen.Formoreinformationonbegoingto,seeparagraph5.233.Ithoughtforamomentthatshewasgoingtocry.Hewasabouttoraisehisvoiceatmebutstoppedhimself.Theshipwasduetosailthefollowingmorning.

Referringtostatesratherthanactivities4.69 Certain verbs are mainly used in the present simple or past simple rather than the present

progressiveorpastprogressive.Thesearecalledstativeverbs.Themostcommonstativeverbsare listed in theReferencesection.They includeverbs that refer to lastingemotionsandmentalstates,suchaslove,like,wantandknow;verbsthatrefertothesenses,suchasseeandhear;andverbsthatrefertopermanentstates,suchaskeep,fitandbelong.Doyoulikefootball?Iwanttocomewithyou.Wheredoyoukeepyourkeys?ThenIheardanoise.Generally, these sentences cannot be expressed as, for example,Are you liking football?, I’mwantingtocomewithyou,Whereareyoukeepingyourkeys?orThenIwashearinganoise.

However,afewoftheseverbsaresometimesusedwithpresentandpastprogressiveforms,particularlyininformalspokenEnglish.Youcanusetheprogressiveformwiththeseverbswhenyouwanttoemphasizethatastateisnewortemporary,orwhenyouwanttofocusonthepresentmoment.Rachelislovingonebenefitofthejob–thenewclothes.I’mlikinggrapesthesedaystoo.I’mwantingthefilmtobedeliberatelyold-fashioned.Somepeoplethinkthisusageisincorrect,anditisusuallyavoidedinformaltexts.Hereisalistofverbsthataretraditionallyconsideredtobestativeverbs,butthataresometimesusedwithpresentandpastprogressiveforms:

forgetguessimaginelacklikeloverememberwant

Youcanusethepresentperfectprogressiveorpastperfectprogressivewithsomestativeverbsinbothformalandinformalcontexts.I’vebeenwantingtospeaktoyouaboutthisforsometime.Johnhasbeenkeepingbirdsforaboutthreeyearsnow.Thensheheardit.Thesoundshehadbeenhearinginherheadforweeks.

Usingtimeadverbialstoindicatepast,present,orfuture4.70 Inmanystatements,itisthetimeadverbialratherthantheverbformthatcarriesthetimereference.

Forexample, acommonuse is toput timeadverbials thatnormally refer to future timewith thepresentsimpleorpresentprogressivewhenitisusedtorefertofutureactions.Theycanalsobeusedwithreferencestothefuturethataremadeinthepast.Thecompanycelebratesits50thanniversarythisyear.Afterall,you’recomingbacknextweek.Thefarmerjustlaughedandrodeaway.SothenextweekItriedmyluckatanotherfarm.Wearrangedtomeetinthreeweeks’time.The adverbsnow, today, tonight, and expressions involving this refer to a period of time thatincludesthepresentmoment.Theyareusedfairlycommonlywithallverbforms.Thisisbecauseaneventcanbelocatedbefore,during,orafterthetimespecifiedbytheverbform.IwasnowinaScottishregiment.Yourbosswillnowhavenoalternativebuttogotohissuperiorsandexplainthesituation.Oneofmychildrenwrotetometoday.Iwillskinomoretoday.It’sdarktoday.‘Iwenttothedoctorthismorning,’shesaid.Hewon’tbeabletofightthisFriday.I’mdoingmyironingthisafternoon.

referringtoanearlieroralatertime

4.71 Ifyouwant to refer to time that followsaparticulareventorperiodof time,youuseanadverbsuchassoonorlater.Youcanuseanadverbsuchasbeforehandorearlier to refer to time thatprecededaparticularperiodoftimeoranevent.Sitawasdelightedwiththehouseandsoonbegantolookonitashome.It’llhavetobereplacedsoon.HelatersettledinPeddle,asmalltownnearGrahamstown.I’llexplainlater.Iwasverynervousbeforehand.You’llbehavingabathandgoingtothehairdresser’sbeforehand.Shehadseenhimonlyfivehoursearlier.This type of time reference is common with past and future forms. It is sometimes used with

presentformswhentheyareusedtorefertopast,future,orhabitualactions.SometimesIknowbeforehandwhatI’mgoingtotalkabout.Irememberthenextdayatschoolgoingroundaskingtheboysifthey’deverseenaghost.Butafterwards,asyoureadon,yourelatebacktoit.Hereisalistofadverbialsthatareusedtorefertotimeinarelativeway:

afterwardsatoncebeforelongeventuallyfinallyimmediatelyinamomentinstantlylaterlateronpresentlyshortlysoonsuddenlywithinminuteswithinthehour~thenextdaythenextweekthenextmonththenextyearthefollowingdaythefollowingweekthefollowingmonththefollowingyearthedayaftertheweekafterthemonthaftertheyearafter~beforehandearlyearlierearlieroninadvancelateonedayontimepunctually

Notethatinthislistpresentlymeanssoon.Youcanuseearlytoshowthatsomethinghappensbeforetheexpectedorplannedtime,andlatetoindicate that ithappensafter that time.Ontimeandpunctually areused to show that something

happensattheplannedtime.Theseadverbscomeaftertheverborattheendoftheclause.Tiredout,hehadgonetobedearly.Ifyougettoworkearly,youcangetalotdone.Hehadcometothepoliticalarenalate,attheageof62.Wewentquitelateintheafternoon.IfAtkinsonphonedontime,he’dbeoutofthehouseinwellunderanhour.Hearrivedpunctually.Withearlyandlateyoucanalsousethecomparativeformsearlierandlater.Iwokeearlierthanusual.Later,thedealersawthatithadbeensold.Notethatearly,late,andontimearealsousedafterlinkingverbs.Thedoorbellrang.Barbarawasappalled.‘They’reearly.’TheParistrainwasslightlylate.Whattimeisitnow?Thisbusisusuallyontime.Formoreinformationonlinkingverbs,seeparagraphs3.126to3.181.

4.72 Youcanalsospecifyatimebyrelatingit toanevent,usingaqualifyingexpressionorarelativeclauseafterthetimeadverbial.Ididn’tsleepwellthenightbeforetheprosecution.IcalledhimthedayIgotback.

4.73 Youcanalsousesomeprepositionstorelateeventstoeachother,ortoparticularperiodsoftime.These prepositions are listed in paragraph 4.100, and there is a full explanation in paragraphs4.103to4.108.Afterthewar,hereturnedtoteaching.JosephhadbeenmarriedpriortohismarriagetoMary.Wageshavefallenduringthelasttwomonths.

necessarytime

4.74 Ifyouwanttorefertoanecessarytime,beyondwhichaneventwillnolongerberelevant,useful,orsuccessful,youcanuseintime.Ihadtowalkfasttoreachtherestaurantintime.Heleaptback,intimetododgethetrain.Ifsomethinghappensbeforethenecessarytime,youcanusetooearly,andifithappensafterthenecessarytime,youcanusetoolate.Todaytheygrowuptooearly.It’smuchtooearlytoassessthecommunityservicescheme.Theyarrivedtoolatefortheinformationtobeanygood.It’stoolatetochangethatnow.

previouslymentionedtime

4.75 If the timeyouarereferring to in thepastor futurehasalreadybeenmentioned,youcanuse theadverbthen.Wekeptthreemonkeysthen.Wewereallsopatrioticthen.It’llbetoolatethen.Tobemorespecific,youcanusethatwiththenameofaday,month,season,andsoon,orwithageneraltimeword.Williamdidn’tcomeinthatTuesday.Somanypeoplewillbepursuingotheractivitiesthatnight.

Emphasizingtheunexpected:continuing,stopping,ornothappening4.76 If you want to comment on the existence of the relationship between past, present, and future

situations,youcanuseoneofthefollowingadverbials:

alreadyanylongeranymoreasyetnolongersofarstilluptillnowuptonowyet

stillforexistingsituations

4.77 Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationexistsuptothepresenttime,youusestill.Ifyouusebeasamainverboranauxiliaryverb,youputstillafterbeortheauxiliary.Ifyouuseanysimpleverbexceptbe you put still in front of the verb.Still often suggests that the continuation of the situation issurprisingorundesirable.It’samarvelthatI’mstillalivetotellthetale.Maleprejudicestillexistsincertainquarters.Yearshadpassedandtheywerestillpayingofftheirdebts.Innegativestatementsthatusethen’tcontraction,stillisplacedinfrontofbeortheauxiliary.We’vebeenworkingonitforovertwoyearsnow.Anditstillisn’tfinished.Westilldon’tknowwherewe’regoing.

stillforexpectedsituations

4.78 Youcanalsousestillinfrontofato-infinitivetosaythatsomethinghasnothappenedyet,although

itisexpectedto,oryoufeelthatitshould.TheGovernmenthadstilltoagreeontheprovisionsofthebill.Theproblemswerestilltocome.Therearemanyotherquestionsstilltobeanswered.Stillisnotusedinnegativestatementsinthisway;seeparagraph4.79forasimilaruseofyet.

yetforexpectedsituations

4.79 If youwant to indicate that something has not happened up to the present time, but is likely tohappeninthefuture,youuseyetwithanegative.Yetusuallycomesattheendoftheclause.Wedon’tknowthetermsyet.Ihaven’tsetanyworkyet.IsupposeIshallsomeday.Theyhaven’theardyet.Ifyouwanttosoundmoreemphatic,youcanputyetbeforeasimpleverboraftertheauxiliaryandnegativeword.Nooneyetknowsexactlywhatitmeans.Herstylehadnotyetmatured.Yetcanalsobeusedinquestions,whereitisusuallyputattheendoftheclause.Hasshehadthebabyyet?HasMr.Harrisarrivedyet?InAmericanEnglish,whenaskingwhethersomethinghashappened,itismoreusualtousethepastsimplewithyet.Didyoueatyet?Didthekidsseethatmovieyet?

4.80 You can also use yet in affirmative statements to say that something that is expected has nothappeneduptothepresenttime.Inthiscase,yetisfollowedbyato-infinitiveclause.Thetruehistoryofartinpost-warAmericaisyettobewritten.Hehadyettoattempttoputprinciplesintopractice.

4.81 Yetisalsousedinaffirmativestatementswithsuperlativestoshowthatthestatementappliesuptothepresent,butmaynotapplyinthefuture.Yetnormallycomesattheendoftheclause.Thisisthebestmuseumwe’vevisitedyet.Mr.FowlersaidthatFebruaryhadproducedthebestresultsyet.Thisisthebiggestandbestversionyet.

likelychange

4.82 Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationthathasexisteduptothepresenttimemaychangeinthefuture,you can use as yet, so far, up to now, orup till now. They are normally placed either at thebeginningortheendoftheclause.Theyarealsooccasionallyplacedafteranauxiliaryverb.Asyet,nogrouphasclaimedresponsibilityfortheattack.

OnlyMotherknowsasyet.Sofar,thetermsofthetreatyhavebeencarriedoutaccordingtoschedule.You’vedonewellsofar,MrsRutland.Uptillnow,themostextraordinaryremarkIrememberwasmadebyyou.…somethinghehaduptonowbeenreluctanttoprovide.It’sbeenquietsofar.Youhaven’tonceuptillnowcomeintorealcontactwithourauthorities.Notethattheseexpressionscanbeusedinaffirmativeandnegativestatements.

apastsituationthathasstoppedexisting

4.83 Ifyouwant tosaythatapastsituationdoesnotexist in thepresent,youcanuseno longer,oranegativewithanylongeroranymore.Shewasnolongercontentwithahandfulofcoins.Theydidn’tknowanylongerwhatwasfunnyandwhatwasentertaining.Theydon’tlivetogetheranymore.

alreadyforemphasizingoccurrence

4.84 If you want to emphasize that a situation exists, rather than not yet having occurred, you usealready. It is usually put in front of any simple verb exceptbe, or afterbe as amain verb, orfollowinganauxiliaryverb.Theenergyalreadyexistsintheground.Senegalalreadyhasawellestablishedfilmindustry.HewasjustayearyoungerthanRudolph,butwasalreadyastallandmuchstockier.Mywatchsaysnineo’clock.Andit’salreadytoohottosleep.Britainisalreadyexportingalittlecoal.Wehavealreadyadvertisedyourpostinthepapers.InAmericanEnglish,when stating that somethinghashappened, it ismoreusual touse thepastsimplewithalready.Wealreadyadvertisedyourpostinthepapers.Thekidsalreadysawthatmovie.Youcanputalreadyatthebeginningortheendoftheclauseforemphasis.Alreadyrobberiesandlootingshaveincreased.Iwashappyforher;shelookedbetteralready.Alreadyisnotoftenusedwiththepastsimple,exceptwiththeverbsbe,have,andknow.Notethatalreadycannotnormallybeusedinnegativestatements,butcanbeusedinnegativeif-clauses,negativequestions,andrelativeclauses.Refercertaintypesofdeathtothecoronerifthishasnotalreadybeendone.Thosewhohavenotalreadyleftarebeingadvisedtodoso.Whatdoesitshowusthatwehaven’talreadyfelt?

Timeadverbialsandprepositionalphrases

Specifictimes4.85 Specifictimeadverbialsareusedaftertheverbbewhenyouwanttostatethecurrenttime,day,or

year.‘Wellwhattimeisitnow?’–‘It’soneo’clock’.ItwasaperfectMaymorning.Sixweeksisn’tallthatlongago,it’sJanuary.Theyarealsooftenusedinprepositionalphrasestosaywhensomethinghappened,orwhenitisexpectedtohappen.Igotthereatabout8o’clock.ThesubmarinecaughtfireonFridaymorning.Thattraingetsinat1800hours.

clocktimes

4.86 Clocktimesareusuallyexpressedintermsofhoursandpartsofanhourorminutes,forexampleoneo’clock,fiveminutespastone,onetwenty,halfpastone.Thedayisusuallydividedintotwosetsoftwelvehours,soitissometimesnecessarytospecifywhichsetyoumeanbyaddinga.m.,p.m.,oraprepositionalphrasesuchasinthemorningorintheevening.Inmanyofficialcontexts,atwenty-fourhoursystemisused.Ifthehourisknown,onlytheminutesarespecified:fivepast,tento,quarterto,halfpastandsoon.Middayandnoonareoccasionallyused.

timesoftheday

4.87 The most frequently used words for periods of the day aremorning, afternoon, evening, andnight.Therearealsosomewordsthatrefertotherisingandsettingofthesun,suchasduskandsunset,andothersthatrefertomealtimes.Onawarm,cloudyevening,Colinwentdowntotheriver.Theyseemtobeworkingfromdawntodusk.Mostofthetroublecomesoutsidetheclassroom,atbreak-timeanddinnertime.Hereisalistofwordsthatareusedtotalkaboutperiodsoftheday:

morningafternooneveningnight~dawndaybreakfirstlight

sunrisedusksunsetnightfall~daytimenight-timebreakfast-timebreak-timelunchtimeteatimedinnertimesuppertimebedtime

namingdays

4.88 Thesevendaysoftheweekarepropernouns:

MondayTuesdayWednesdayThursdayFridaySaturdaySunday

SaturdayandSundayareoftenreferredtoastheweekend,andtheotherdaysasweekdays.Afewdaysintheyearhavespecialnames,forexample:

NewYear’sDayValentine’sDayPresidents’DayGoodFridayEasterMondayFourthofJulyLaborDayHalloweenThanksgivingChristmasEveChristmasDayBoxingDayNewYear’sEve

Youcanalsonameadaybygivingitsdateusinganordinalnumber.‘Whendoesyourtermend?’–‘FirstofJuly’.

TheGrandPrixistobeheldhereonthe18thJuly.HerseasonoffilmscontinuesuntilOctobertheninth.Youcanomitthemonthifitisclearfromthecontextwhichmonthyouarereferringto.SoMondaywillbetheseventeenth.StValentine’sDayisonthefourteenth.ThereismoreinformationaboutordinalsintheReferencesection.

months,seasons,anddates

4.89 Thetwelvemonthsoftheyeararepropernouns:

JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecember

Thereare four seasons:spring, summer, autumn (usually fall inAmericanEnglish) andwinter.Springtime,summertime,andwintertimearealsoused.Someperiodsoftheyearhavespecialnames;forexample,Christmas,Easter,andtheNewYear.

years,decades,andcenturies

4.90 Years are referred to inEnglish by numbers.When you are speaking, you refer to years before2000asnineteensixty-seven(1967),orseventeenhundered(1700),forexample.…theeleventhofJanuary,1967.AsecondconferencewasheldinFebruary1988.Mymotherdiedin1945.Whenyouarespeaking,yourefertoyearsbetween2000and2009astwothousand(2000)ortwothousandandeight(2008),forexample.Yearsafter2009aresaidaseithertwothousandandten(2010),twothousandandeleven(2011),etc.orastwentyten(2010),twentyeleven(2011),etc.To refer to periods longer than a year, decades (ten years) and centuries (a hundred years) areused.Decades startwithayearending inzeroand finishwithayearending innine: the 1960s(1960to1969),the1820s(1820to1829).Ifthecenturyisalreadyknown,itcanbeomitted:the

20s,thetwenties,theTwenties.

Tobemorespecific,forexampleinhistoricaldates,ADisaddedbeforeorafterthenumbersforyearsor centuries after Jesus is believed tohavebeenborn:1650AD,AD1650,AD1650–53,1650–53AD.SomewriterswhoprefertoavoidreferringtoreligionuseCE,whichstandsfortheCommonEra:1650CE.BC(whichstandsforBeforeChrist)isaddedafterthenumbersforyearsorcenturiesbeforeJesusisbelievedtohavebeenborn:1500BC,15–1200BC.Analternativeabbreviation thatdoesnotrefertoreligionisBCE,whichstandsforBeforetheCommonEra.Centuries start with a year ending in two zeroes and finish with a year ending in two nines.Ordinalsareusedtorefertothem.Thefirstcenturywasfrom0ADto99AD,thesecondcenturywas100–199AD, and so on, so the period1800–1899ADwas thenineteenthcentury and thecurrentcenturyis the twenty-firstcentury (2000–2099AD).Centuriescanalsobewrittenusingnumbers:the21stcentury.

atforspecifictimes

4.91 Ifyouwanttosaywhensomethinghappens,youuseatwithclocktimes,periodsoftheyear,andperiodsofthedayexceptformorning,evening,afternoon,anddaytime.Ourtrainwentat2.25.Igotupateighto’clock.Thetrainshouldarriveataquartertoone.WegotochurchatEasterandChristmas.Iwentdownandfetchedherbackattheweekend.OnTuesdayevening,justatdusk,Brodyhadreceivedananonymousphonecall.Heregardeditashisdutytocomeandreadtomeatbedtime.Atnightwekeptthemshutupinawireenclosure.Letthefireburnoutnow.Whowouldseesmokeatnight-timeanyway?Youcanalsouseatwithtimeandsimilarwordssuchasmomentandjunctureandwithunitsofclocktimesuchashourandminute.GeneraldeGaulledulyattendedthemilitaryceremonyattheappointedtime.Itwasatthisjuncturethathislucktemporarilydesertedhim.IfIcouldhavedoneitatthatminuteIwouldhavekilledhim.Therewerenolightsatthishour,androads,bungalows,andgardenslayquiet.

atforrelatingevents

4.92 Youcanalsouseatwhenyouwanttorelatethetimeofoneeventtoanothereventsuchasaparty,journey,election,andsoon.IhadfirstmetKrugeratapartyattheBritishEmbassy.SherepresentedtheAssociationattheannualmeetingoftheAmericanMedicalAssociation inChicago.Itistobereopenedattheannualconferenceinthreeweeks’time.

4.93 Atisalsousedwithages,stagesofdevelopment,andpointswithinalargerperiodoftime.Attheageoftwenty,shemarriedanotherSpanishdancer.Heleftschoolatseventeen.At an early stage of the war the British Government began recruiting a team of topmathematiciansandelectronicsexperts.WewereduetoreturntotheUnitedKingdomatthebeginningofMarch.

inforperiodsoftime

4.94 Ifyouwanttomentiontheperiodoftimeinwhichsomethinghappens,youuseinwithcenturies,years,seasons,months,andtheperiodsofthedaymorning,afternoon,andevening.Youalsouseinwithdaytimeandnight-time.Inthesixteenthcenturytherewerethreetenniscourts.It’struethatweexpectedagreatdealinthesixties.AmericansvisitingSwedenintheearly1950swereastoundedbyitscleanliness.Ifyouweretogoonholidayonthecontinentinwintertimewhatsportcouldyoutakepartin?TobeinCornwallatanytimeisapleasure;tobehereinsummerisabonus.It’salotcoolerintheautumn.ShewillpresideovertheannualmeetingoftheCourtinDecember.InSeptemberItravelledtoCaliforniatoseethefinishedfilm.I’llringtheagentinthemorning.Well,shedoescomeintocleantheroomsintheday-time.Notethatifmorning,afternoon,andeveningareusedwithamodifierora followingphraseorclause,youuseon.Seeparagraph4.96fordetails.

inforspecifictime

4.95 Inisalsousedwhenyouwanttospecifyaperiodoftime,minutes,hours,days,andsoon,usinganordinal.Vehiclesalesinthefirsteightmonthsoftheyearhaveplungedby24.4percent.…intheearlyhoursofthemorning.Inisalsousedwithsomeothernounsreferringtoeventsandperiodsoftime.Myfatherwaskilledinthewar.Everyonedoesunusualjobsinwartime.Inwinter,wetendtogetuplater.Twopeoplecametocheckmyroominmyabsence.Ordinalsareexplainedinparagraphs2.232to2.239.

onforshortperiodsoftime

4.96 Ifyouwanttomentionthedaywhensomethinghappens,youuseon.Youcandothiswithnameddays, with days referred to by ordinals, and with days referred to by a special term such as

birthdayoranniversary.

I’llsendthechequeroundonMonday.EverybodywenttochurchonChristmasDay.IhearyouhavebingoonWednesday.PentonvillePrisonwassetuponBoxingDay,1842.Hewasbornon3April1925at40GrosvenorRoad.…thegreysuitElsahadboughtforhimonhisbirthday.Many of Eisenhower’s most cautious commanders were even prepared to risk attack on theeighthorninth.…addressingParliamentonthe36thanniversaryofhiscountry’sindependence.Youcanusethewithnameddaysforemphasisorcontrast,andatoindicateanydayofthatname.HediedontheFridayandwasburiedontheSunday.WegetalotofcallsonaFriday.Youalsouseonwithmorning,afternoon,evening,andnightwhentheyaremodifiedorwhentheyarefollowedbyextrainformationintheformofaphraseoraclause.…at2.30p.m.onacalmafternoon.Therewasanotherimportantopeningonthesameevening.Ticketswillbeavailableonthemorningoftheperformance.It’sterriblygoodofyoutoturnoutonanightlikethis.

onforlongerperiodsoftime

4.97 Onisalsousedwithwordsreferringtotravelsuchasjourney,trip,voyage,flight,andwaytosaywhensomethinghappened.Butonthatjourney,forthefirsttime,Luce’sfaithintheeventualoutcomewasshaken.Eileenwasaccompanyingherfathertovisitfriendsmadeonacampingtriptheyearbefore.

onforsubsequentevents

4.98 Oncanbeusedinaslightlyformalwaywithnounsand-ingformsreferringtoactionsoractivitiestoshowthatoneeventoccursafteranother.Ishallbringtheremainingsevenhundredpoundsonmyreturninelevendays.

orderingoftimeadverbials

4.99 Onthefewoccasionswhenpeoplehavetospecifya timeanddateexactly,forexamplein legalEnglishorformaldocuments,theusualorderis:clocktime,followedbyperiodofday,dayoftheweek,anddate.…ateighto’clockonthemorningof29October1618.…onthenightofThursdayJuly16.

Non-specifictimes

approximatetimes

4.100 Ifyouwanttobelesspreciseaboutwhensomethinghappened,youcanuseawordlikearoundorabout.Ataboutfouro’clockinthemorning,wewereawokenbyanoise.ThedevicethatexplodedataroundmidnightonWednesdayseverelydamagedthefourth-floorbar.Thesupplyofservantscontinueduntilabout1950,thenabruptlydriedup.Theattackbeganshortlybeforedawn.Hereisalistofwordsandexpressionsthatyoucanuseifyouwanttobelesspreciseaboutwhensomethinghappened:

aboutalmostaroundjustafterjustbeforenearlyroundaboutshortlyaftershortlybeforesoonafterthereabouts

About,almost,around,nearly,androundaboutareusuallyusedwithclocktimesoryears.Withabout,around,androundabout,theprepositionatcanoftenbeomittedininformalEnglish.Thenquitesuddenly,roundaboutmidday,mymoodbegantochange.Aboutnineo’clockhewentouttothekitchen.Itisalsopossibletouseprepositionstorelateeventstolessspecificpointsorperiodsoftime,forexample when the exact time of an event is not known, or when events happen gradually,continuously,orseveraltimes.Hedevelopedcentralchestpainduringthenight.For,alsooverthesummer,hisbookhadcomeout.Hereisalistofprepositionsthatareusedtorelateeventstoanon-specifictime:

afterbeforebyduringfollowingoverpriorto

BECAREFUL

4.101 Almostornearlycanonlybeusedaftertheverbbe.4.102 Youcanalsouseorthereaboutsafterthetimeadverbial.

Backin1975orthereaboutssomeonelentmeanarticleabouteducation.…atfouro’clockorthereabouts.

duringforperiodsoftime

4.103 During canbeused insteadof inwithperiodsof theday,months, seasons, years, decades, andcenturies.WetrytokeeppeopleinformedbypostduringSeptember.Sheheatedtheplaceduringthewinterwithahugewoodfurnace.During1973anAnti-ImperialistAlliancewasformed.DuringtheSixtiesvariouslevieswereimposed.Duringtheseventhcenturyincendiaryweaponswereinvented.TheyusedtospendthewholeSundayatchapelbutmostofthembehavedshockinglyduringtheweek.

4.104 During is used with most event nouns to show that one event takes place while another isoccurring.Duringhisstayinprison,hehaswrittenmanyessaysandpoems.…tryingtoboostpolicemoraleduringaheatedbattlewithrioters.Theyoungprinceswereprotectedfrompressintrusionduringtheireducation.Somefamiliesliveinthekitchenduringapowercut.DuringthejourneyIcametolikeandrespectthem.

BECAREFUL

4.105 Duringtheweekmeansonweekdays,incontrasttotheweekend.

overforevents

4.106 Over can be usedwithwinter, summer, and special periods of the year to show that an eventoccurredthroughouttheperiodoratanunspecifiedtimeduringit.…tohelpkeeptheirfamiliesgoingoverthewinter.MyfriendshadamarvelloustimeovertheNewYear.Over is also used when referring to a period of time immediately before or after the time ofspeakingorthetimebeingtalkedabout.Thenumberwillincreaseconsiderablyoverthenextdecade.Theyhavebeendoingalltheycanoverthepasttwenty-fourhours.WepackedupthethingsIhadaccumulatedoverthelastfouryears.Over canbeusedwithmeals and itemsof foodordrink to show that somethinghappenswhilepeopleareeatingordrinking.

Davissaidhewantedtoreaditoverlunch.Canwediscussitoveracupofcoffee?

relatingeventsandtimes

4.107 Youcanalsobemoregeneralbystatingtherelationshipbetweenaneventandaperiodoftimeorspecificpointintime.Before,priorto,andafterareusedtorelateeventstoatime.Shegetsupbeforesix.Ifyou’restuck,comebackandseemebeforeThursday.…theconstructionofwarshipsbythemajorpowerspriorto1914.CityMusicHallisgoingtoclosedownafterEaster.Hewillannouncehisplansaftertheholidays.Theycanalsobeusedtorelateoneeventtoanother.Iwasinabankforawhilebeforethewar.ShegavememuchhelpfuladvicepriortomyvisittoTurkey.Jackleftafterbreakfast.Hewaskilledinacaraccidentfouryearsaftertheirmarriage.Aftermuchdiscussion,theyhaddecidedtotakethecointoajeweller.Following,previoustoandsubsequenttocanalsobeusedwithevents.Hehasregainedconsciousnessfollowingastroke.HesuggeststhatRosswaspromptedprevioustotheparade.Thetestimonyanddescriptionofonewitnesswouldbesuppliedpriortotheinterview;thoseoftheothertwosubsequenttoit.

orderofevents

4.108 Beforeandafter can alsobeused to show theorderof eventswhen the samepersondoes twoactionsortwopeopledothesameaction.Ishouldhavetalkedaboutthatbeforeanythingelse.HeknewNellwouldprobablybehomebeforehim.Idothefloorafterthewashing-up.Youcanalsosometimesuseearlierthanorlaterthan.Smilingdevelopsearlierthanlaughing.

eventsthathappenatthesametime

4.109 To indicate that two or more events happen at the same time, the adverbs together andsimultaneously,ortheadverbialsatthesametimeandatoncecanbeused:Everythinghadhappenedtogether.Hisfearandhishategrewsimultaneously.

Canyoulovetwowomenatthesametime?Ican’tbeeverywhereatonce.

linkingadverbs

4.110 You can also showwhat order things happen in using adverbs such as first, next, and finally.Simultaneouslyandatthesametimeareusedinasimilarwaytolinkclauses.Thisisdealtwithinparagraph10.53.

byforspecifictime

4.111 Byisusedtoemphasizethataneventoccursatsometimebeforeaspecifictime,butnotlater.Byisalso used to indicate that a process is completed or reaches a particular stage not later than aspecifictime.Byeleveno’clock,Brodywasbackinhisoffice.ThetheorywasthatbyMondaytheirtemperswouldhavecooled.Bynextweek,therewillbenosuppliesleft.Doyouthinkwe’llgettothetopofthiscanyonbytomorrow?Bynowthemoonwasup.Butbythenhewasboredwiththeproject.

Extendedusesoftimeadverbials4.112 Timeadverbialscanbeusedafterthenounphrasetospecifyeventsorperiodsoftime.

I’mafraidthemeetingthisafternoonexhaustedme.Thesuddendeathofhisfatheron17November1960wasnotasurprise.…untilIstartedtorecalltheyearsaftertheSecondWorldWar.Noadmissionsarepermittedinthehourbeforeclosingtime.Clocktimes,periodsoftheday,daysoftheweek,months,dates,seasons,specialperiodsoftheyear, years, decades, and centuries can be used asmodifiers before the noun phrase to specifythings.Everymorninghewouldsetoffrightaftertheeighto’clocknews.Castlewasusuallyabletocatchthesixthirty-fivetrainfromEuston.Heboiledthekettleforhismorningtea.HelearnedthathehadmissedtheMondayflight.Ihadsummerclothesandwinterclothes.AshhadspenttheChristmasholidaysatPelhamAbbas.Possessiveformscanalsobeused.…adiscussionoftheday’sevents.ItwasJimGriffiths,whoknewnothingofthemorning’shappenings.Thestorywillappearintomorrow’spaper.Thisweek’sbatchofgovernmentstatisticsaddedtothegeneralconfusionoverthestateoftheeconomy.

Frequencyandduration4.113 Hereisalistofunitsoftimethatareusedwhenyouareshowinghowoftensomethinghappens,or

howlongitlastsortakes:

momentsecondminutehourdaynightweekfortnightmonthyeardecadecentury

Fortnightisusedonlyinthesingular.Momentisnotusedwithnumbersbecauseitdoesnotrefertoapreciseperiodoftime,soyoucannotsayforexampleIttookfivemoments.

FortnightisnotusedinAmericanEnglish,wheretwoweeksisusedinstead.Wordsforperiodsoftheday,daysoftheweek,monthsoftheyear,andseasonsarealsoused,suchasmorning,Friday,July,andwinter.Clocktimesmayalsobeused.

Talkingabouthowfrequentlysomethinghappens4.114 Someadverbialsshowapproximatelyhowmanytimessomethinghappens:

againandagainalotallthetimealwaysconstantlycontinuallycontinuouslyeverfrequentlyfromtimetotimehardlyeverinfrequentlyintermittentlymuchnevernormallyoccasionallyoften

overandoverperiodicallyrarelyregularlyrepeatedlyseldomsometimessporadicallyusually

Ineverdidmyhomeworkontime.SometimesIwishIwasbackinAfrica.Wewerealwaysbeingsenthome.Helaughedalot.Neverisanegativeadverb.Shenevergoesabroad.Everisonlyusedinquestions,negativeclauses,andif-clauses.Haveyoueverbeentoaconcert?Muchisusuallyusedwithnot.Themendidn’ttalkmuchtoeachother.Someadverbsoffrequencysuchasoftenandfrequentlycanalsobeusedinthecomparativeandsuperlative.Disasterscanbepreventedmoreoftenthaninthepast.Ipreachedmuchmoreoftenthanthat.Theycriedfortheirmotherslessoftenthanmighthavebeenexpected.…themistakesthatwemakemostfrequently.

USAGENOTE

4.115 To showhowmany times something happens, you can use a specific number, several, ormanyfollowedbytimes.Wehadtoaskthreetimes.It’sanexperienceI’verepeatedmanytimessince.Hecarefullyaimedhisrifleandfiredseveraltimes.Ifthenumberyouareusingisoneyouuseonce(notonetime)inthisstructure.Ifitistwoyoucanusetwice.I’vebeenoutwithhimonce,that’sall.Thecarbrokedowntwice.Ifsomethinghappensregularly,youcansayhowmanytimesithappenswithinaperiodoftimebyaddingaandawordreferringtoaperiodoftime.Thegroupmetonceaweek.Youonlyhaveamealthreetimesaday.

Thecommitteemeetstwiceayear.Youcanalsouseanadverboffrequencysuchasoncewithaunitoftimeprecededbyeverytosaythatsomethinghappensaspecifiednumberoftimesregularlywithinthatunitoftime.TheaverageBritonmoveshouseonceeverysevenandahalfyears.WemeettwiceeverySunday.Threetimeseveryday,hewouldcometothekiosktocheckthatwewereallright.If aneventhappens regularlyduringa specificperiodof theday,youcanuse theperiodofdayinsteadoftimes:Iusedtogointhreemorningsaweek.Hewasgoingoutfivenightsaweek.A regular rate or quantity can also be expressed by adding a and a general timeword.Per issometimesusedinsteadofa,especiallyintechnicalcontexts.Heearnsabout£1000aweek.Iwasonlygettingthreehoursofsleepanight.…risingupwardsattherateof300feetpersecond.Hehurtlesthroughtheairat600milesperhour.

estimatingfrequency

4.116 If youwant to be less precise about how frequently something happens, you can use one of thefollowingwordsorexpressions:almost,about,nearly,orso,orless,andormore.Youcanusealmostandaboutinfrontofevery.Inthelastmonthofherpregnancy,wewentoutalmosteveryevening.Youcanalsousealmostinfrontof-lytimeadverbsderivedfromgeneraltimewords,forexamplemonthly,weeklyanddaily.Smallscaleconfrontationsoccuralmostdailyinmanystates.Or so, or less, and or more are used after frequency expressions, but not after adverbs offrequency.Everyhourorso,myshoulderswouldtighten.Ifthedelayistwohoursormore,thewholecostofthejourneyshouldberefunded.

regularintervals

4.117 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethinghappensatregularintervals,youcanuseeveryfollowedbyeitherageneraloraspecificunitoftime.Eachissometimesusedinsteadofevery.We’llgohuntingeveryday.Yougetalumpsumandyougetapensioneachweek.SomepeoplewriteoutanewaddressbookeveryJanuary.Everycanalsobeusedwithanumberandthepluraloftheunitoftime.Everyfiveminutesthephonewouldring.

Theregularoraveragerateorquantityofsomethingcanalsobeexpressedusingeveryandeach.Onefighterjetwasshotdowneveryhour.…the300,000garmentsthefactoryproduceseachyear.

USAGENOTE

4.118 Ifsomethinghappensduringoneperiodoftimebutnotduringthenextperiod,thenhappensagainduringthenext,andsoon,youcanuseeveryotherfollowedbyaunitoftimeoraspecifictimeword.Everysecondissometimesusedinsteadofeveryother.Wewrotetoourparentseveryotherday.Theirlocalcommitteesareusuallyheldeveryothermonth.HeusedtocomeandtakethemouteveryotherSunday.Itseemedeasiertoshaveonlyeverysecondday.Prepositionalphraseswithalternateandapluraltimewordcanalsobeused.OnalternateSundaynights,Itelltheyoungerchildrenastory.Justdosomeexercisesonalternatedaysatfirst.

particularoccurrencesofanevent

4.119 Theadverbsfirst,next,andlastareusedtoshowthestageatwhichaneventtakesplace.First,thefirsttime,andforthefirsttimecanindicatethefirstoccurrenceofanevent.Hewas,Ithink,inhisearlysixtieswhenIfirstencounteredhim.Theyhadseeneachotherfirstaweekbefore,outsidethishotel.…thetacticalwargameswhichwerefirstfoughtinAncientGreece.ItrainedheavilytwicewhileIwasout.ThefirsttimeIshelteredundera tree,but thesecondtimeIwalkedthroughit.ForthefirsttimeAnneMariefeltfrightened.Therepetitionofaneventorsituation thathasnothappenedfora long timecanbe indicatedbyusingforthefirsttimewithinandthepluralformofageneraltimeword.Hewashappyandrelaxedforthefirsttimeinyears.Afutureoccurrenceisindicatedbynexttimeorthenexttime.Don’tdoitagain.Imightnotforgiveyounexttime.ThenexttimeIcomehere,I’mgoingtobebetter.Theuseofnextwithstatementsreferringtothefutureisdescribedinparagraph4.63.Themost recentoccurrenceofaneventcanbe indicatedbyusing last asanadverbor thenounphraseslasttimeorthelasttime.Heseemedtohavegrownalotsincehelastworeit.Hecouldnotrememberwhenhehadlasteaten.Whendidyoulastseehim?Youdidsowelllasttime.Thefinaloccurrencecanbeindicatedbyforthelasttime.

Forthelasttimehewavedtothethreefriendswhowatchedfromabove.Theuseoflastinstatementsaboutthepastisdescribedinparagraph4.41.Youcanalsousebefore,again,andnounphraseswithanordinalandtimetosaywhetheraneventisafirstoccurrence,oronethathashappenedbefore.Youcanusebeforewithaperfectformofaverbtoshowwhethersomethingishappeningforthefirsttimeorwhetheritisarepeatedoccurrence.I’veneverbeeninapoliceman’shousebefore.He’sdoneitbefore.Theadverbagain isused to talkaboutasecondorsubsequentoccurrenceofanevent.Ordinalscanbeusedwithtime,innounphrasesorinmoreformalprepositionalphraseswithfor,tospecifyaparticularoccurrenceofarepeatedevent.Someonerangthefrontdoorbell.Hestoodandlistenedandhearditringagainandthenathirdtime.Wehavenoreliableinformationaboutthatyet,hefoundhimselfsayingforthethirdtime.

-lytimeadverbs

4.120 Some general time words can be changed into adverbs by adding -ly and used to show thefrequencyofanevent.

hourlydailyweeklyfortnightlymonthlyquarterlyyearly

Notethespellingofdaily.Theadverbannuallyandtheadjectiveannualhavethesamemeaningasyearly.Itwassuggestedthatwegiveeachchildanallowanceyearlyormonthlytocoverallheorshespends.Shephonesmeuphourly.Thesamewordscanbeusedasadjectives.Tothis,weaddayearlyallowanceof£65.00towardsrepairs.Themediagaveushourlyupdates.Theyhadalong-standingcommitmenttomakingaweeklycashpaymenttomothers.

prepositionalphrases

4.121 Prepositional phrases with plural forms of specific time words can also be used to indicate

frequency.Forexample,onisusedwithdaysoftheweek;duringandatareusedwithweekends.

We’vehadteachingpracticeonTuesdaysandlecturesonThursdays.Shedoesnotneedhelpwiththechildrenduringweekends.Weseeeachotheratweekends.

InAmericanEnglish, and in informalBritish English, you can use the plural forms of specific timewordswithouton.SheonlyworksWednesdaysandFridays.ThursdaymorningsIvolunteeratthelocalseniorcenter.HisradioprogrambroadcastsFridaynightsatnine.Inisusedwithperiodsoftheday,exceptnight.Ican’tworkfulltime.Ionlyworkintheafternoons,Ihavelecturesinthemornings.HarryTrumanlovedtositinanoldrockingchairintheeveningsandfacethelawnsbehindtheWhiteHouse.

developmentandregularoccurrence

4.122 Toshowthatsomethingdevelopsgradually,orhappensatregularintervals,youcanuseageneraltimewordwithbyfollowedbythesamegeneraltimeword.Shewasgettingolderyearbyyear,andlonelier,andmoreridiculous.Millionsofcitizensfollow,daybyday,theunfoldingofthedrama.Gradualdevelopmentcanalsobeindicatedbytheadverbsincreasinglyandprogressively.…thecomputersandinformationbanksonwhichourworldwillincreasinglydepend.Hisconductbecameincreasinglyeccentric.Asdisposableincomerises,peoplebecomeprogressivelylessconcernedwithprice.

Talkingabouthowlongsomethinglasts4.123 Thefollowingsectionexplainswaysofshowinghowlongsomethinglastsortakes.

Someadverbsandadverbialexpressionsareusedtoshowhowlonganeventorstatelasts.Hereisalistofadverbsthatareusedtoshowduration:

alwaysbrieflyforeverindefinitelylongovernightpermanentlytemporarily

SheglancedbrieflyatLucasSimmonds.Youwon’tliveforever.

Thegatesarekeptpermanentlyclosed.Brieflyandpermanentlycanbeusedinthecomparative.Thisnewrevelationhadmuchthesameoutwardeffect,thoughmorebriefly.ThisissomethingIwouldliketodomorepermanently.Theformlongisonlyusedasanadverbinnegativesandquestions.Ihaven’tbeeninEnglandlong.Howlongdoesittakeonthetrain?Inaffirmativeclauses,itisusedinexpressionssuchasalongtimeandprepositionalphrasessuchas fora long time.However, thecomparativeand superlative forms longer and longest canbeusedinaffirmativeandnegativeclauses.Thenofcourseyou’llgowithParry.She’sbeenyourfriendlonger.I’vebeenthinkingaboutitalotlongerthanyou.Sheremainedthelongest.Inaffirmativeandnegativeif-clauses,youcanuseforlong.Ifshe’sawayforlongwewon’tbeabletowait.

prepositionalphrases

4.124 However,prepositionalphrasesaremorecommonlyused.Thefollowingprepositionsareusedinadverbialsofduration:

afterbeforeforfrominsincethroughouttountil

Theprepositionalobjectcanbeanounphrasereferringtoaspecificperiodoftime.Thiscanbeinthesingularafterthedeterminera(oroneforemphasis),orinthepluralafteranumberorquantityexpression.Thenounphrase can also refer to an indefinite period, for example expressions such asa longtime,ashortwhile,awhile,orages,orpluraltimewordssuchashours.

forforlengthoftime

4.125 Theprepositionforindicateshowlongsomethingcontinuestohappen.IshestillthinkingofgoingawaytoItalyforamonth?

Theinitialbattlecontinuedforanhour.Thisprecioushappytimelastedforamonthortwo.Forthenextweek,shedidnotcontacthim.Weweremarriedforfifteenyears.Ididn’tspeakforalongtime.Shewouldhavelikedtositforawhileandthink.Youusethe insteadofawhentheperiodof timeisalreadyknown,withseasons,periodsoftheday,andweekend,orwhenyoumodify the timewordwithwords likepast, coming, following,next,last,oranordinal.TellAuntElizabethyou’reofffortheday.We’vebeenlivingtogetherforthepastyear.ForthefirstmonthortwoIwasbulliedconstantly.Forthenextfewdayshehadtostayinbed.Putthemincoldstorageforthewinter.IsaidI’mofftoBrightonfortheweekend.Rememberthatyoudonotuseadeterminerwithspecialperiodsoftheyear.AtleastcomeforChristmas.

4.126 Forcanalsobeusedwithspecifictimeadverbialstoshowthetimewhensomethingistobeused,nothowlongittakesorlasts.EverythingwasplacedexactlywhereIwanteditforthemorning.

4.127 Forcanalsobeusedinnegativestatementswhenyouwanttosaythatsomethingneednotorwillnothappenuntilacertainperiodoftimehaspassed.Yetisoftenadded.Itwon’tbereadytosailforanotherthreeweeks.Idon’thavetodecideforamonthyet.

forforemphasis

4.128 Forisusedwithapluralnounphrasetoemphasizehowlongsomethinglasts.Settlershavebeencominghereforcenturies.Idon’tthinkhe’spractisedmuchforyears.I’vebeenaskingyouaboutthesedoorsformonths.

USAGENOTE

4.129 You can also use a general time word with after followed by the same general time word toemphasizethatastatecontinuesforalongtimeorthatanactionisrepeatedcontinuouslyforalongtime.IwonderedwhatkeptherinParisdecadeafterdecade.Theycangoonmakinglosses,yearafteryear,withoutfearingthattheywillgobust.

inandwithinforendofaperiod

4.130 Inisusedtoindicatethatsomethinghappensorwillhappenbeforetheendofacertainperiodoftime.InmoreformalEnglishwithinisused.Canwegettotheairportinanhour?ThatcoatmusthavecostyoumorethanIearninayear.Thefaceofacitycanchangecompletelyinayear.Theyshouldgetthejobfinishedwithinafewdays.

4.131 Inandwithinarealsousedtoshowthatsomethingonlytookortakesashorttime.Thecloudsevaporatedinseconds.Whatanexpertcandoinminutesmaytakeyouhourstoaccomplish.Withinafewmonths,thebarnyardhadbeenabandoned.

forandinwithgeneralorspecifictime

4.132 For and in can be used in negative statements to say that something does not happen during aperiodof time.Youcanuse themin thiswaywithspecificunitsof time,andwithmoregeneraltimereferences.Hehadn’thadapropernight’ssleepforamonth.Ihaven’tseenachartforfortyyears!TheteamhadnotheardfromStablerinamonth.Hehasn’tsleptinamonth.Ihaven’tseenhimforyears.Let’shaveadinnerparty.Wehaven’thadoneinyears.Ihaven’tfiredaguninyears.

nounphrasesthatexpressduration

4.133 Note thatwith the verbs last,wait, and stay,which have duration as part of theirmeaning, theadverbialcanbeanounphraseinsteadofaprepositionalphrasewithfor.Thecampaignlastsfourweeksatmost.Hisspeechlastedforexactly14andahalfminutes.‘Waitaminute,’thevoicesaid.Hestayedamonth,fiveweeks,sixweeks.Theverbstakeandspendcanalsoindicatedurationbuttheadverbialcanonlybeanounphrase.Ittookmeamonthtolosethatfeelingofbeingaspectator.Whatoncetookacenturynowtookonlytenmonths.Hespentfiveminuteswashingandshaving.

approximateduration

4.134 Ifyouwant tobe lesspreciseabouthowlongsomething lasts,youcanuseoneof thefollowingwordsorexpressions:about,almost,nearly,around,morethan,lessthan,andsoon.They’velivedthereformorethanthirtyyears.

Theyhavenotbeenallowedtoformunionsforalmostadecade.Thethreeofustravelledaroundtogetherforaboutamonththatsummer.Inlessthanayear,IlearnedenoughLatintopasstheentranceexam.HehadbeenincommandofHMSChurchillfornearlyayear.Whenyoumakeageneralstatementaboutthedurationofsomething,youcanindicatethemaximumperiodoftimethatitwilllastortakebyusingupto.Refreshertrainingforuptoonemontheachyearwastheruleforall.You can also use expressions such asor so, ormore, or less, andor thereabouts tomake thedurationlessspecific.Hehasbeenwritingabouttennisandgolfforfortyyearsorso.Ourspeciesprobablypractiseditforamillionyearsormore.…hopeswhichhaveprevailedsostronglyforacenturyormore.Almost, about, nearly, and thereabouts are also used when talking about when an event takesplace;seeparagraph4.100fordetailsofthis.

Talkingaboutthewholeofaperiod4.135 Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatsomethinglastsforthewholeofaperiodoftime,youcanuseallasa

determinerwithmanygeneraltimewords.‘I’vebeenwantingtodothisallday,’shesaid.I’vebeenhereallnight.Theysaidyouwereoutallafternoon.We’venotseenthemallsummer.Youcanalsousewholeasamodifierinfrontofageneraltimeword.Ittookmethewholeofmyfirstyeartoadjust.…scientistswhoaremonitoringfoodsafetythewholetime.…peoplewhohavenotworkedforawholeyear.You can also use all through, right through, and throughout with the and many general timewords,orwithaspecificdecade,year,month,orspecialperiod.Discussionsandargumentscontinuedallthroughtheday.Rightthroughthesummermonthstheyarerarelyoutofsight.ThroughouttheSixties,man’sfirstvoyagetootherworldscamecloser.Words referring to events are sometimes used instead of the time words to emphasize thatsomethinghappenedfortheentiredurationoftheevent.Heworeanexpressionofangrycontemptthroughouttheinterrogation.Apatientreportedadreamthathadrecurredthroughoutherlife.Allthroughthecruellylongjourneyhome,helayutterlymotionless.

4.136 Ifyouwant toemphasize that somethinghappensall the time,youcan listperiodsof thedayorseasonsoftheyear,ormentioncontrastingones.…peoplecominginmorning,noon,andnight.I’vewornthesamesuitsummer,winter,autumnandspring,forfiveyears.

Thousandsofslavelabourersworkednightanddaytobuildthefortifications.Tengardenersusedtoworkthisland,winterandsummer.Eachfamilywasfilmed24/7forsixweeks.24/7 isanabbreviationof24hoursaday,7daysaweek. It isused in informalEnglishand injournalism.

Showingthestartorendofaperiod

starttime

4.137 Youcanalsoshowhowlongasituationlastsbyusingprepositionalphrasestogivethetimewhenitbeginsorthetimewhenitends,orboth.Ifyouwanttotalkaboutasituationthatbeganinthepastandiscontinuingnow,ortoconsideraperiod of it from a time in the past to the present, you use the preposition since with a timeadverbialoraneventtoshowwhenthesituationbegan.Theverbisinthepresentperfect.I’vebeenheresincetwelveo’clock.Ihaven’thadanewcustomerinheresinceSunday.SinceJanuary,therehasn’tbeenanymoretrouble.Ihaven’tbeenoutsinceChristmas.Thesituationhasnotchangedsince2001.Therehasbeennowordofmyfriendsincetherevolution.Sinceisalsousedtoindicatethebeginningofsituationsthatendedinthepast.Theverbisinthepastperfect.I’dbeenworkinginLondonsinceJanuaryatafirmcalledKendalls.Hehadn’tprayedoncesincethemorning.I’donlyhadtwosandwichessincebreakfast.Sincecanalsobeusedwithotherprepositionalphrasesthatindicateapointintime.Ihaven’tseenyousincebeforethesummer.Thenounphraseaftersincecansometimesrefertoapersonorthingratherthanatimeorevent,especiallywhenusedwithasuperlative,first,oronly,orwithanegative.Theyhadn’tseeneachothersinceMajorca.IhaveneverhadanotherdogsinceJonnie.EversinceLondon,I’vebeenworkingtowardsthis.

4.138 Thetimewhenasituationbegancanalsobeshownbyusingtheprepositionfromandaddingtheadverbonoronwards.Thenounphrasecanbeadate,anevent,oraperiod.Theverbcanbeinthepastsimpleorinaperfectform.…thehistoryofBritishindustryfromthemidsixtieson.Fromtheeighteenthcenturyon,greatprivatepalaceswentup.Butfromthemid-1960sonwardstherateofpublicwelfarespendinghastendedtoaccelerate.Thefamilysizestartstoinfluencedevelopmentfrombirth.Theyneverperceivedthattheythemselveshadforcedwomenintothisrolefromchildhood.

…theguidewhohadbeenwithusfromthebeginning.4.139 Youcanalsousetheprepositionaftertogivethetimewhenasituationbegan.

Theydon’tletanybodyinaftersixo’clock.After1929Iconcentratedoncanvaswork.He’dhaveanumberofboys tohelphim through the summertimebutafterOctoberhe’d justhavetheone.

endtime

4.140 Similarly, if you want to say that a situation continues for some time and then stops, you canindicatethetimewhenitstopsbyusingtheprepositionuntilwithatimeadverbialoranevent.Theschoolwaskeptopenuntilteno’clockfivenightsaweek.Theydancedandlaughedandtalkeduntildawn.Shewalkedbackagainandsatinherroomuntildinner.I’vejustdiscoveredshe’sonlyhereuntilSunday.Hehadbeenwillingtowaituntilthefollowingsummer.Untiltheendofthe18thcenturylittlehadbeenknownaboutPersia.Untilthatmeeting,mostofusknewverylittleabouthim.Untilcanalsobeusedinnegativeclausestosaythatsomethingdidnotorwillnothappenbeforeaparticulartime.Wewon’tgetthemuntilSeptember.Myplanedoesnotleaveuntiltomorrowmorning.Untilisalsousedwithotherprepositionalphrasesthatindicateapointintime.IdecidedtowaituntilafterEastertovisitJohn.Somepeopleusetillinsteadofuntil,especiallyininformalEnglish.SometimesIlieinbedtillnineo’clock.Uptoanduptillarealsosometimesused,mainlybeforenowandthen.Uptonow,Ihavebeenhappywithhiswork.Itwassomethinghehadneverevenconsidereduptillnow.Ihadathree-wheelbikeuptoafewyearsagobutitgotharderandhardertopushitalong.Upto1989,growthaveraged1percent.

4.141 Youcanalsousetheprepositionbeforetoindicatewhenasituationends.Before1716Cheltenhamhadbeenasmallmarkettown.

startandendtimes

4.142 Thedurationofasituationoreventcanbeshownbysayingwhenitbeginsandwhenitends.Youcanusefromtoshowwhenitbeginsandto,till,oruntiltoshowwhenitends.TheBlitzonLondonbeganwithnightlybombingsfrom7Septemberto2November.TheyareactiveinthelinefromaboutJanuaryuntilOctober.

Theyseemtobeworkingfromdawntilldusk.Youcanalsousebetweenandandinsteadoffromandto.ThecarisusuallyinthegaragebetweenSundayandThursdayinwinter.

InAmericanEnglish,throughisoftenplacedbetweenthetwotimes:Thechatshowgoesoutmidnightthroughsixa.m.Ifyouareusingfigurestorefertotwotimesoryears,youcanseparatethemwithadash,insteadofusingfromandto.…open10–5weekdays,10–6Saturdaysand2–6Sundays.

Usingtimeexpressionstomodifynouns4.143 Youcanalsousetimeexpressionsinvolvingacardinalnumberandageneraltimewordtomodify

nouns.Notethatanapostropheisaddedtothetimeword.Fourofthoseweresentencedto15days’detention.Theywanttotakeonstaffwithtwoyears’experience.Thisuseofcardinalnumbersisdescribedinparagraph2.231.

4.144 Timeexpressionsarealsousedascompoundadjectivestomodifycountablenouns.Theyallhavetostartoffwithasix-monthcourseinGerman.IarrivedattheUniversityforathree-monthstintasavisitinglecturer.Compoundadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.94to2.102.

Chapter5Varying the message: modals, negatives, and ways offormingsentences

5.2–48 Statements,questions,orders,andsuggestions

5.6–9 Makingstatements:thedeclarativeform5.10–11 Askingquestions:theinterrogativeform5.12–14 Yes/no-questions

5.15 Makingaquestionmorepolite5.16–21 Makingastatementintoaquestion:questiontags

5.22 Either/orquestions5.23–36 Wh-questions5.37–41 Directingotherpeople’sactions:theimperative5.42–48 Otherusesofthedeclarative,theinterrogative,andtheimperative

5.49–93 Formingnegativestatements

5.82–89 Broadnegatives:hardly,seldom ,etc.5.90–93 Emphasizingthenegativeaspectofastatement

5.94–258 Usingmodals

5.96–100 Themainusesofmodals5.101–108 Specialfeaturesofmodals5.109–116 Referringtotime

5.117 Talkingaboutpossibility5.118–121 Talkingaboutability5.122–141 Talkingaboutlikelihood5.142–145 Talkingaboutpermission5.146–153 Sayingthatsomethingisunacceptable5.154–155 Interactingwithotherpeople5.156–172 Givinginstructionsandmakingrequests5.173–181 Makinganofferoraninvitation5.182–189 Makingsuggestions5.190–195 Statinganintention5.196–201 Expressingunwillingnessorrefusal5.202–210 Expressingawish5.211–215 Indicatingimportance5.216–222 Introducingwhatyouaregoingtosay5.223–247 Expressionsusedinsteadofmodals5.248–258 Semi-modals

5 Varying the message: modals, negatives, and ways offormingsentences

5.1 Thischapterdealswiththreedifferentwaysinwhichthemeaningofasentencecanbevaried,byalteringtheorderofwordsorbyaddingotherwordstotheverbphrase.Paragraphs5.2to5.48explainhowtoformstatements,questions,orders,andsuggestions.Paragraphs 5.49 to 5.93 explain how negative words are used to talk about the opposite ofsomethingortheabsenceofsomething.Paragraphs5.94 to5.258explainhowmodals areused to talk aboutpossibility, or to show theattitudeofthespeaker.

Statements,questions,orders,andsuggestions5.2 Sentencesareusedtodomanydifferentthings.

Themostcommonuseistogiveinformation.IwenttoGlasgowUniversity.Carolwasoneofmysister’sbestfriends.Sometimesyouuseasentencetoobtaininformation,ratherthantogiveit.Whereismyfather?WhatdidyousaytoMyra?Howlonghaveyoubeenoutofthiscountry?At other times you want to express an opinion, give an order, make a suggestion, or make apromise.That’sanexcellentidea.Goaway,allofyou.Shallwelistentothenews?Ifyouhaveanyquestions,I’lldomybesttoanswerthem.Whensomeonesaysorwritesasentence,theyneedtoshowwhattheyaretryingtodowithit,sothatitwillbeclear,forexample,thattheyareaskingaquestionandnotmakingastatement.

wordorder

5.3 Oftenitistheorderofwordsthatindicateswhichwayasentenceisbeingused.Forexample,ifyousayHeisNorwegian,thewordordermakesitclearthatyouaremakingastatement.IfyousayIsheNorwegian?,thewordorderindicatesthatyouareaskingaquestion.

Anotherwayofshowingwhichwayasentenceisbeingusedistobeginitwithaverb,ratherthanwiththesubject.Forexample,ifyousayGivethisbooktoMichael,itisclearthatyouaregivinganorderorinstruction,ratherthanmakingastatementoraskingaquestion.

Statements,questions,andorders

5.4 There are three main ways of showing what type of sentence is being used in English. Thesesentence-typesareusedforformingstatements,questions,andorders.Thedeclarativeformisusedinmostmainclauses.Statementsarealmostalwaysmadeusingthedeclarativeform.Whenaclauseisinthedeclarative,thesubjectisplacedinfrontoftheverb.Thedeclarativeissometimescalledtheindicative.IwanttotalktoMrCastle.GertrudelookedatAnne.We’llgiveyoufifteenpoundsnow.Theinterrogativeformisusuallyusedinquestions.Inclauses,thesubjectisoftenplacedafterthemainverborafteranauxiliaryverb.Issheveryupset?Whereismyfather?HaveyoumetHarry?Didyougivehimmyletter?Theimperativeisusedtotrytodirectsomeone’sactions.Inclauses,thesubjectisusuallyomittedandthebaseformoftheverbisused.Comebackthisminute.Showmethecompletemanuscript.There isa fourth formcalled thesubjunctive.This isa featureofEnglishverbs that sometimesoccursinsubordinateclauses.Thesubjunctiveisnotusedtodistinguishbetweendifferentusesoflanguage,andis thereforenotdealtwithinthischapter.Clausesinwhichthesubjunctiveoccursareexplainedinparagraphs7.43,8.41,and8.48.

5.5 Thewaysinwhichthesedifferentstructuresareusedareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.Paragraphs5.6to5.9explainhowthedeclarativeisusedtomakestatements.Paragraphs5.10to5.36explainhowtheinterrogativeisusedtoaskquestions.Paragraphs5.37to5.41explainhowtheimperativeisusedtotrytodirectsomeone’sactions.Other uses of thedeclarative, interrogative, and imperative are explained in paragraphs5.42 to5.48.

Makingstatements:thedeclarativeform

givinginformation

5.6 Whenyouaregivinginformation,youusethedeclarativeform.Weatedinneratsix.

Ilikereadingpoetry.Officialshaverefusedtocomment.

expressingopinions

5.7 Whenyouareexpressinganopinion,youusuallyusethedeclarativeform.Ithinksheisabrilliantwriter.It’sagoodthingFatherisdeaf.Heoughttohaveletmeknowhewasgoingout.

makingpromises

5.8 Whenyoumakeapromise,youusethedeclarativeform.IshalldoeverythingIcantohelpyou.I’llhaveitsentdownbyspecialdelivery.

emphasis

5.9 Youcanemphasizeastatementbyputtingdo,does,ordidinfrontofthebaseformoftheverb.IdofeelsorryforRoger.Alittleknowledgedoesseemtobeadangerousthing.Hehadnotimetospendtimewithhisfamily,buthedidbringhomearegularsalary.

Askingquestions:theinterrogativeform5.10 Whenyouaskaquestion,youusuallyusetheinterrogativeform.

typesofquestion

5.11 Therearetwomaintypesofquestion.Questionsthatcanbeansweredbyyesornoarecalledyes/no-questions.‘Isheyouronlychild?’–‘Yes.’‘Areyouplanningtomarrysoon?’–‘No.’‘CanIhelpyou?’–‘Yes,I’dliketobookasingleroom,please.’‘Areyouinterestedinracing?’–‘Yes,Iloveit.’‘Areyouasingeraswellasanactress?’–‘No,I’mnotasingeratall.’‘Doyoulikeit?’–‘Yes,Ireallylikeit.’Theactualanswertoayes/no-questionisnotalwaysyesorno.Forexample,ifyouasksomeoneDoyoureadinbed?,theymightsaySometimesorNever.IfyousaytosomeoneDoyoulikejazz?,theymightsayIthinkit’sgreat.ButthequestionsDoyoureadinbed?andDoyoulikejazz?arestill yes/no-questions, because yes and no are the type of answers the questioner expects.Sometimeswillbeinterpretedasaweakyesanswer,neverasastrongnoanswer,andIthinkit’sgreatasastrongyesanswer.

Yes/no-questionsarefullyexplainedinparagraphs5.12to5.22.Theothermaintypeofquestionbeginswithawh-wordsuchaswhat,where,orwhen.Whenyouaskaquestionofthistype,theanswercannotbeyesorno.‘Whogaveyoumynumber?’–‘Yourmotherdid.’‘Whydidn’tyouaskme?’–‘Iwasafraidto.’‘Whereishenow?’–‘He’satuniversity.’Thistypeofquestioniscalledawh-question.Whenwh-wordsareusedaspronounsoradverbsatthebeginningofawh-question,theyarecalledinterrogativepronounsorinterrogativeadverbs.Wh-questionsareexplainedinparagraphs5.23to5.36.

Yes/no-questions

positionofauxiliaryverbs

5.12 Inayes/no-question,ifthereisanauxiliaryverb,theauxiliaryverbcomesfirst,followedbythesubject,thenthemainverb.Areyoustayinghere,byanychance?Willtheywinagain?Willtheylikemygarden?Canhereadyet?If there is more than one auxiliary verb, the first auxiliary verb comes at the beginning of theclause,followedbythesubject,followedbytheotherverbs.Hadhebeenmurdered?Hasitbeenthrownaway,perhaps?Forinformationaboutauxiliaries,seetheReferencesection.

5.13 Ifthereisnoauxiliaryverb,youputdo,does,ordidatthebeginningoftheclause,infrontofthesubject,followedbythebaseformofthemainverb.DoyouunderstandwhatI’msaying?Doesithurtmuch?DidyoumeetGeorgeinFrance?Notethatifthemainverbisdo,youstillputdo,does,ordidatthebeginningoftheclause,infrontofthesubject.Dotheydotheworkthemselves?DoesDaviddothissortofthingoften?

beandhaveasmainverbs

5.14 If the verb is be, you do not use do. You simply put the verb at the beginning of the clause,followedbythesubject.Areyouokay?

IssheRicky’ssister?AmIright?Wasitlonelywithoutus?Iftheverbishave,youusuallyputdo,does,ordidat thebeginningoftheclause,infrontofthesubject.Dopassengershaverights?Doesanyonehaveaquestion?Didyouhaveagoodflight?However,whenyouusehaveinthesenseofownorpossess,youdonotneedtousedo,does,ordid.Youcansimplyputhave,has,orhadatthebeginningoftheclause.Thisisaslightlyformaluse.Haveweanythingelseweoughttotalkaboutfirst?Hasheanyideawhatit’slike?Ifyouusehavegotorhasgot inayes/no-question,youputhaveorhasat thebeginningof theclause,followedbythesubject,followedbygot.HaveyougotanybrochuresonHolland?Hasshegotacar?Havegotandhasgotareexplainedinparagraph3.15.

Makingaquestionmorepolite5.15 YoucanmakeaquestionorrequestsofterormorepolitebybeginningwithanexpressionlikeDo

youknow…orCouldyoutellme….Thistypeofquestioniscalledanindirectquestion.Herearesomeexpressionsyoucanusetomakequestionsmorepolite:

Couldyoutellme…Doyouknow…Doyouhaveanyidea…Wouldyoumindtellingme…

Whenoneoftheseintroductoryexpressionsisused,thewordorderoftherestofthesentenceisthesameasinanaffirmativestatement.Couldyoutellmewhattimethetrainleaves?Doyouknowwherehelives?Doyouhaveanyideawhat’shappening?Wouldyoumindtellingmehowoldyouare?When you answer a question of this type, the answer is usually yes or no, followed by theinformationaskedfor.‘Couldyoutellmewhattimethetrainleaves?’—‘Yes,itleavesatthreeo’clock.’‘Doyouknowwherehelives?’—‘Yes,inthefarmuponthehill.’‘Doyouhaveanyideawhat’shappening?’—‘No,I’mafraidnot!’

‘Wouldyoumindtellingmehowoldyouare?—‘Notatall.I’m52.’Notethatthe‘positive’answertoaquestionbeginningWouldyoumindtellingme…isNoorNotatall.ItmeansNo,Iwouldn’tmind(=Yes,that’sfine).

Makingastatementintoaquestion:questiontags5.16 Youcanaskforconfirmationthatsomethingistruebymakingastatementinthedeclarative,

then adding an expression such as isn’t it? or was she? Constructions like these are calledquestiontags.QuestiontagsaremostoftenusedinspokenEnglish.

formingquestiontags

5.17 Questiontagsareformedusinganauxiliaryoraformofbeordo,followedbyapersonalpronounreferringtothesubject.Ifthemainclauseisintheaffirmative,youuseanegativetag.Negativetagsarealwayscontracted,exceptinold-fashionedorveryformalEnglish.Itisquitewarm,isn’tit?Ifthemainclauseisinthenegative,youuseanaffirmativetag.Youdidn’tknowIwasanartist,didyou?Ifthemainclauseofyourstatementhasanauxiliaryinit,youusethesameauxiliaryinthetag.Youwillstayintouch,won’tyou?Ifthemainclausehasthepastsimpleorpresentsimpleformofbeasthemainverb,youusethisinthetag.Theyare,aren’tthey?Ifthemainclausedoesnothaveanauxiliaryortheverbbe,youusedo,does,ordidinthetag.Afteracoupleofyearstheheatgetstoomuch,doesn’tit?HeplayedforIreland,didn’the?Note that thenegative tagwith I isaren’t I,even thougham is theauxiliaryormainverb in themainclause.I’mcontrollingit,aren’tI?

checkingstatements

5.18 Ifyouhaveanopinionorbeliefaboutsomethingandyouwanttocheckthatitistrue,ortofindoutifsomeoneagreeswithyou,youcanmakeastatementandaddaquestiontagafterittomakeitintoaquestion.Ifyouaremakinganaffirmativestatementandyouwanttocheckthatitistrue,youuseanegativequestiontag.YoulikeRalphalot,don’tyou?Theyarebeautifulplaces,aren’tthey?

Ifyouaremakinganegativestatementandwanttocheckthatitistrue,youuseanaffirmativetag.Itdoesn’twork,doesit?Youwon’ttellanyoneelseallthis,willyou?Youcanalsouseanaffirmativetagifyourstatementcontainsabroadnegative,anegativeadverb,oranegativepronoun.Thathardlycounts,doesit?You’veneverbeentoBenidorm,haveyou?Nothinghadchanged,hadit?

replyingtotags

5.19 Thepersonyouarespeakingtorepliestothecontentofyourstatementratherthantothetag,andconfirmsanaffirmativestatementwithyesandanegativestatementwithno.‘Itbecamestronger,didn’tit?’–‘Yesitdid.’‘Youdidn’tknowthat,didyou?’–‘No.’

otherusesofquestiontags

5.20 Ifyouaremakingastatementaboutyourselfandyouwanttocheckifthepersonyouaretalkingtohasthesameopinionorfeeling,youcanputatagwithyouafteryourstatement.Ithinkthisisthebestthing,don’tyou?Ilovetea,don’tyou?Questiontagscanalsobeusedtoshowyourreactiontosomethingthatsomeonehasjustsaidorimplied,forexampletoshowinterest,surprise,oranger.Notethatyouuseanaffirmativetagafteranaffirmativestatement.Youfellonyourback,didyou?You’vebeentoNorthAmericabefore,haveyou?Oh,hewantsustomakefilmsaswell,doeshe?Whenusinglet’stosuggestdoingsomething,youcanaddthetagshallwetocheckthatthepeopleyouaretalkingtoagreewithyou.Let’sforgetit,shallwe?Ifyouaresuggestingthatyoudosomethingandyouwanttocheckthatthepersonyouarespeakingtoagrees,youcanaddthetagshallI?I’llcallthedoctor,shallI?Ifyouaretellingsomeonetodosomethingandyouwanttomakeyourordersoundlessforceful,youcandosobyaddingaquestiontag.Thetagisusuallywillyou,butwon’tyouandcan’tyouarealsoused.Comeintothekitchen,willyou?Lookatthat,willyou?Seethatshegetssafelyback,won’tyou?

Whenyouareusinganegativeimperative,youcanonlyusewillyouasatag.Don’ttellHoward,willyou?Youcanalsoaddanaffirmative tag suchasareyou? to an affirmative statement if youwant toshowinterestinapieceofinformation.So,you’releavingus,areyou?He’safriendofyours,ishe?

all-purposequestiontags

5.21 IninformalspokenEnglish,youcanuseaone-wordall-purposequestiontagsuchasright?oreh?You’reAmerican,right?He’salawyer,right?Let’stalkaboutsomethingelse,eh?Notgood,eh?InsomevarietiesofEnglish,particularlythosespokeninIndia,SingaporeandMalaysia,isn’t it?isusedasanall-purposequestiontag.We’veseenthatfilmalready,isn’tit?They’rearrivingtomorrow,isn’tit?InformalmulticulturalBritishEnglishusesthecommonall-purposequestiontaginnit(ashortenedformofisn’tit),bothwithandwithoutarisingquestionmark.Itmakesyouthinkthough,innit?It’salljustabitoffun,innit?Soeventuallyhegavemethesack,innit.

Either/or-questions5.22 Yousometimesaskaquestioninwhichyoumentiontwoormorepossibleanswers.Youlinkthe

possibleanswerswithor.Forexample,youmightsayIsheawakeorasleep?orDoyoulikeyourcoffeewhiteorblack?Youexpecttheactualanswertoyourquestiontobeoneoftheanswersyouhavementioned.Words,phrases,andclausescanallbelinkedinthisway.Questionslikethesearesometimescalledeither/or-questions.‘Isitaboyoragirl?’–‘Abeautifulboy.’‘Wasithealthyordiseased?’–‘Diseased,I’mafraid.’‘Shallwetakethebusordoyouwanttowalk?’–‘Let’swalk,shallwe?’

Wh-questions5.23 Whenyouasksomeoneawh-question,youwantthemtospecifyaparticularperson,thing,place,

reason,method,time,oramount.Youdonotexpectthemtoansweryesorno.

wh-words

5.24 Wh-questionsbeginwithawh-word.Wh-wordsareasetofpronouns,adverbs,anddeterminerswhichall,withtheexceptionofhow,beginwithwh-.Hereisalistofthemainwh-words:

howwhatwhenwherewhichwhowhomwhosewhy

wh-wordassubject

5.25 Whenawh-wordisthesubjectofaverb,orwhenitformspartofthesubject,thewordorderoftheclauseisthesameasthatofaclauseinthedeclarative,i.e.thesubjectisputfirst,followedbytheverb.Whoinvitedyou?Andthenwhathappened?Whichmattressisbest?

wh-wordasobjectoradverb

5.26 Whenawh-word is theobject of a verbor preposition, orwhen it formspart of theobject, orwhenitisanadverb,thepositionofthesubjectistheusualoneintheinterrogativeform;thatis,itcomesafterthefirstverbintheclause.WhatamIgoingtodowithoutyou?Whichgraphareyougoingtouse?WhywouldStephenlietome?Whenwouldyoubecomingdown?Ifyouareusingthepresentsimpleorthepastsimpleofanyverbexceptbe,youputdo,does,ordidinfrontofthesubject.Whatdoyoureallythink?Whichdepartmentdoyouwant?Wheredoesshelive?Howdoyouknowwhatit’slike?WhendidyoulastseeJohnCartwright?If you are using the present simple or the past simple ofbe, themain verb goes in front of thesubject.Youdonotusedo,does,ordid.

Whereisthestation?Howwasyourmeeting?Whenwasthelasttimeyoucleanedthegarage?

questionswithoutaverb

5.27 Inconversation,awh-questionsometimesconsistsofawh-wordonitsown.

Forexample, ifyousaytosomeoneI’mlearningtotype, theymightsayWhy?,meaningWhyareyoulearningtotype?‘Hesawasnake.’–‘Where?’‘IhavetogotoGermany.’–‘When?’‘Iknewyouwerelandingtoday.’–‘How?’Awh-questioncanalsoconsistofanounphrasecontainingawh-word.Forexample,ifyousaytosomeoneIgaveyourbooktothatgirl,theymightsayWhichgirl?,meaningWhichgirldidyougivemybookto?‘Heknewmycousin.’–‘Whichcousin?’‘Whowasyourfriend?’–‘Whatfriend?’

whoandwhom

5.28 Thepronounwho is used to ask questions about a person’s identity.Who can be the subject orobjectofaverb.Whodiscoveredthis?Whowereherfriends?WhoisMichaelHoward?Whodidhemarry?InmoreformalEnglish,whomissometimesusedinsteadofwhoastheobjectofaverb.Whomshallwecall?Whomdidyousee?Whoandwhomcanalsobetheobjectofapreposition.Whenwhoistheobjectofapreposition,theprepositionisputattheendoftheclause.Whodidyoudancewith?WhodoIpaythisto?Whenwhomistheobjectofapreposition,theprepositionisputatthebeginningoftheclause,infrontofwhom.ForwhomwasheworkingwhileinBaghdad?Towhomisabroadcasterresponsible?

IninformalspokenEnglish,whoissometimesusedafterapreposition.Soyoureporttowho?Thisuseisespeciallycommonwhenyouleaveoutpartofthequestion.

‘Theyweresayinghorriblethings.’–‘Really?Towho?’‘Itcouldbedifficult.’–‘Forwho?’

whose

5.29 Whose is used as a determiner or pronoun to ask which person something belongs to or isassociatedwith.Whosechildrendidyouthinktheywere?Whosecoatwasit?Whoseisthat?

which

5.30 Whichisusedasapronounordeterminertoasksomeonetoidentifyaspecificpersonorthingoutofanumberofpeopleorthings.Whichisthebestrestaurant?Whichisherroom?Whichdoyoulikebest?Whichdoctordoyouwanttosee?Whenwhichisadeterminer,itcanbepartoftheobjectofapreposition.Theprepositionisusuallyputattheendofthequestion.Whichstationdidyoucomefrom?Whichcharacterdidyoulikemost?

whenandwhere

5.31 Whenisusedtoaskquestionsaboutthetimesomethinghappened,happens,orwillhappen.Whendidyoufindher?Whendowehavesupper?Ginny,whenareyoucominghome?Whereisusedtoaskquestionsaboutplace,position,ordirection.Wheredoesshelive?Whereareyougoing?Wheredoyougotocomplain?

why

5.32 Whyisusedtoaskaquestionaboutthereasonforsomething.Whyareyouhere?WhydoesAmywanttogoandseehisgrave?Whydoesshetreatmelikethatwhenwe’resucholdfriends?Whyissometimesusedwithoutasubjectandwiththebaseformofaverb,usuallytoaskwhyan

actionisorwasnecessary.

Whywakemeup?Whybotheraboutme?Whymakeapointofit?Whynotcanbeusedwiththebaseformofaverb,inordertomakeasuggestionortoaskwhyaparticularactionhasnotbeentaken.Whynotenditnow?Whynotreadabook?Ifyouhavemoneyinthebank,whynotuseit?

how

5.33 Howisusuallyusedtoaskaboutthemethodusedfordoingsomething,oraboutthewayinwhichsomethingcanbeachieved.Howdoweopenit?Howareyougoingtogetthat?Howcouldheexplainittoher?Howdidheknowwhenyouwerecoming?How is also used to ask questions about the way a person feels, about the way someone orsomethinglooks,oraboutthewaysomethingsounds,feels,ortastes.Howareyoufeelingtoday?‘HowdoIlook?’–‘Verynice.’Howdidyoufeelwhenyoustoodupinfrontoftheclass?

howwithotherwords

5.34 Howcanbecombinedwithotherwordsatthebeginningofquestions.Howmany andhowmuch are used to ask what number of things there are or what amount ofsomethingthereis.Howmanyisfollowedbyapluralcountablenoun.Howmanypeoplearethere?Howmanylanguagescanyouspeak?Howmanytimeshaveyoubeen?Howmuchisfollowedbyanuncountablenoun.Howmuchmoneyhavewegotinthebank?Justhowmuchtimehaveyoubeendevotingtothis?Howmanyandhowmuchcanbeusedwithoutafollowingnounwhenyoudonotneedtomakeitclearwhatsortofthingyouaretalkingabout.Howmanydidyoufind?Howmuchdidhetellyou?

Howmuchdoesitcost?Howmuchdotheyreallyunderstand?Howlongisusedtoaskaboutthelengthofaperiodoftime.Howlonghaveyoulivedhere?Howlongwillittake?Howlongcanshelivelikethis?Howlongagowasthat?Howlongisalsousedtoaskquestionsaboutthelengthofsomething.Howlongisthisroad?Howfarisusedinquestionsaboutdistanceandextent.Howfarcanwesee?HowfarisittoMontrealfromhere?Howfarhaveyougotwithyourhomework?You can combine how with an adjective when you are asking to what extent something has aparticularqualityorfeature.Howbigisyourflat?Howoldareyourchildren?

Howcome?isaninformalwayofaskingwhy?Itisnormallyusedonlyinspeech.HowcomeyouknowsomuchaboutLinda?

what

5.35 Whatcanbeapronounordeterminer,oritcanbeusedincombinationwithiforfor.Whatisusedasapronountofindoutvariouskindsofspecificinformation,forexampledetailsofanevent,themeaningofawordorexpression,orthereasonforsomething.What’swrongwithhismother?Whathashappenedtohim?Whatisobesity?Whatkeepsyouhangingaroundhere?Whatcanbeusedtoasksomeone’sopinionofsomething.Whatdoyouthinkaboutthepresentpoliticalsituation?What isoftenusedas theobjectofapreposition.Theprepositionusuallygoesat theendof thequestion.Whatareyouinterestedin?Whatdidhedieof?Whatdoyouwanttotalkabout?Whatisusedasadeterminertofindouttheidentityofsomethingortoaskwhatkindofthingitis.Whatbooksdoessheread?Whatchurchdidyousayyouattend?

What if goes in front of a clause in the declarative. It is used to askwhat should be done if aparticulardifficultyoccurs.Whatifit’sreallybadweather?Whatiftheydidn’twanttopartwithit,whatwouldyoudothen?Youputwhat at thebeginningofaquestionand for at theendof itwhenyouwant toknow thereasonforsomethingorthepurposeofsomething.Whatareyoustaringfor?meansthesameasWhyareyoustaring?Whatisthishandlefor?meansWhatisthepurposeofthishandle?Whatareyougoingfor?Whatarethoselightsfor?

In informal spokenEnglish,youcanalso sayWhat for?when someone sayswhat theyhavedone,orwhattheyintendtodo,andyouwanttoknowthereasonfortheiractions.‘I’veboughtyouapresent.’–‘Whatfor?’Whatcanalsobeusedincombinationwithaboutorof.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph5.47.

whatever,wherever,andwhoever

5.36 Ifyouwantaquestiontosoundmoreemphatic,youcanusewhatever insteadofwhat,whereverinsteadofwhere,orwhoeverinsteadofwho.Whateveristhematter?Whereverdidyougetthis?Whoeverheardofabishopresigning?

Directingotherpeople’sactions:theimperative

ordersandinstructions

5.37 Whensomeonegivesaveryclearorderorinstruction,theyusuallyusetheimperative.Discardanyclothesyouhavenotwornformorethanayear.Putthatgundown.Tellyourmotherassoonaspossible.Writteninstructionsaregivenintheimperative.Boilupalittlewaterwithwashingupliquidinit.Frythechoppedonionandpepperintheoil.

USAGENOTE

Whentheyarefollowedbyasecondverb,theimperativeformsofcomeandgoareusedwithand,followedbythebaseformofthesecondverb,ratherthanato-infinitive.Thetwoactionsseemtobeseparate,becauseoftheand,buttheyareinfactverycloselylinked.Comeandseemewheneveryouneedhelp.

InspokenAmericanEnglish,theimperativeformsofcomeandgocanbefolloweddirectlybythe

baseformoftheverb.Comeseewhatthedogdidtothecouch.(Am)Gogetsomesleep.(Am)Anordercanbemademoreforcefulbyputtingyouinfrontoftheverb.Yougetinthecar.Youshutup!

adviceandwarnings

5.38 Youcanusetheimperativewhenyouaregivingadviceorawarning.Besensible.Youbecareful.Often advice or awarning is expressed in a negative form.You form a negative imperative byputtingdon’tordonotinfrontofthebaseformoftheverb.Don’tbeafraidofthem.Don’tbediscouraged.Donotapproachthismanunderanycircumstances.Youcanalsoformanegativeimperativebyputtingneverinfrontofthebaseformofaverb.Nevermakeasocialphonecallafter9.30p.m.Anotherwayofgivingadviceorawarning is touseoneof themodalsshouldorought to in adeclarativesentence.Youshouldgettoknowhimbetter.Youshouldn’tkeepeggsintherefrigerator.Thisuseisexplainedindetailinparagraph5.215.

appeals

5.39 Youusetheimperativewhenyouaretryingtogetsomeonetodosomething.Comequickly…Comequickly…Hurry!Youcanmakeanappealmoreforcefulbyputtingdoinfrontoftheverb.Ohdostopwhining!DocomeandstaywithusinBarbadosforthewinter.

explanations

5.40 Youcanusetheimperativewithsomeverbswhenyouareexplainingsomethingandyouwantthelistenerorreadertothinkaboutaparticularthingorpossibility,ortocomparetwothings.Take,forinstance,thenewproposalsforstudentloans.Imagine,forexample,anassemblylineworkerinafactorymakingchildren’sblocks.But suppose for a moment that the automobile industry had developed at the same rate as

computers.Forexample,compareatypicalpoorcountrylikeIndonesiawitharichonelikeCanada.Consider,forexample,thecontrastbetweenthewayschoolstodaytreatspaceandtime.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedinthisway:

compareconsidercontrastimaginelookatnotepicturesupposetake

let

5.41 Letisusedinimperativesentencesinfourdifferentways:itisusedtogiveanorderorinstruction

LetPhilliphavealookatit.youuseitfollowedbyuswhenyouaremakingasuggestionaboutwhatyouandsomeoneelse

shoulddo.LetusisalmostalwaysshortenedtoLet’sLet’sgooutside.Let’screepforwardonhandsandknees.youuseitfollowedbymewhenyouareofferingtodosomething

Letmetakeyourcoat.inveryformalEnglish,itisusedtoexpressawish.

Letthejoybeuniversal.Letconfusionlive!Letthebestmanorwomanwin.TomakeanegativesuggestionyouuseLet’snotor,ininformalAmericanEnglish,Let’sdon’t.Let’snotstaytilltheend.Let’sdon’taskaboutthemissingbooks.(Am,informal)

Otherusesofthedeclarative,theinterrogative,andtheimperative

confirming

5.42 Youcanconfirmthatsomethingistruebyaskingaquestionusingthedeclarativeform.Soyouadmitsomethingiswrong?

Thenyouthinkwecankeepit?Whenyouaskaquestionusingthedeclarativeform,youexpectayes-typeanswer,unlessyouuseanegativeconstruction,inwhichcaseyouexpecttheanswerno.‘Youmeanit’sstillhere?’–‘Ofcourse.’‘Yourparentsdon’tmindyoubeingoutsolate?’–‘No,theydon’t’.Questionsexpressedinthedeclarativeformoftenbeginwithaconjunction.Soyou’resatisfied?Andyouthinkthat’sagoodidea?

instructing

5.43 IninformalspokenEnglish,youcangiveaninstructionbyusingadeclarativesentencewithyouasthesubject.Youputthemonthandthetemperatureonthetopline.Youtakethebusuptothelandingstageattwelve-thirty.Youjustputitstraightintheoven.

offersandinvitations

5.44 Whenyouaremakinganofferoraninvitation,youusuallyuseayes/no-questionbeginningwithamodalsuchascanorwould.Thisuseisexplainedindetailinparagraphs5.173to5.178.CanIhelpyou?CanIgiveyoualift?Wouldyoulikemetogetsomethingforyou?Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?WouldyouliketogotoErnie’sfordinner?Youcanalsomakeanofferor invitation inamore informalwaybyusing the imperative form.Notethatyoucanonlydothiswhenitisclearthatyouarenotgivinganorder.Haveacigar.Cometomyplace.Comein,MrsKintner.Youaddemphasisbyputtingdoinfrontoftheverb.Dohaveachocolatebiscuit.Dohelpyourselves.

requests,orders,andinstructions

5.45 When you are making a request, you usually use a yes/no-question beginning with one of themodalscould,can,orwould.CouldIaskyouafewquestions?CanIhavemyhatback,please?

Wouldyoumindhavingawordwithmyhusband?Youcanalsogiveanorderorinstructionusingayes/no-questionbeginningwithamodal.WillyoutellWatsonIshallbeinalittlelate?Theseusesareexplainedindetailinparagraphs5.156to5.166.

questionsthatdonotexpectananswer

5.46 Whenyouuseayes/no-questiontoofferhelportomakearequest,youstillexpecttheansweryesorno.However,peoplesometimessaythingsthatseemlikeyes/no-questions,althoughtheydonotexpect an answer at all. They are using the yes/no-question form to express a strong feeling,opinion,orimpression.For example, instead of sayingThat’s an ugly building, someonemight say Isn’t that an uglybuilding?OrinsteadofsayingYouneverseemtogetupset,someonemightsayDon’tyouevergetupset?Questionslikethesearecalledrhetoricalquestions.Istherenothingshewon’tdo?Can’tyouseethatI’mbusy?Hasn’tanyoneroundheregotanysense?Doesnothingeverworryyou?Anotherkindofrhetoricalquestionconsistsofastatementfollowedbyaquestiontagsuchasareyou? or is it? For example, someonemight say So you are the new assistant, are you? orSothey’recomingtotea,arethey?Soyouwanttobeanactress,doyou?Sothey’removinghouseagain,arethey?Rhetorical questions can also begin with how. They usually express a feeling of shock orindignation.Forexample,insteadofsayingYouareverycruel,someonemightsayHowcanyoubesocruel?Howcanyousaysuchthings?Howdareyouspeaktomelikethat?Rhetoricalquestionsaredealtwithfullyinparagraph9.94.

questionswithoutaverb

5.47 Youcanaskaquestionconsistingofwhataboutorwhatof in frontofanounphrase,withoutaverb.Youaskaquestion like this to remindsomeoneofsomething,or todraw theirattention tosomething.Withthistypeofquestion,youoftenexpectanaction,ratherthanareply.Whatabouttheothersonthelist?Whataboutyourbreakfast?Butwhatofthewomenthemselves?

suggestions

5.48 Thereareseveralwaysinwhichyoucanmakeasuggestion:youcanusethemodalcouldinadeclarativesentence(seeparagraph5.183)

Wecouldhavetea.Youcouldgetsomeonetodressupasapirate.youcanuseanegativewh-questionbeginningwithwhy

Whydon’twejustgivethemwhattheywant?Whydon’tyouwritetoheryourself?youcanuseaquestionconsistingofwhataboutorhowaboutinfrontofan-ingform

Whataboutbecominganactor?Howaboutusingmakeuptodramatizeyourfeatures?youcanusetheimperative.

‘Givethemarewardeach,’Isuggested.Youcanalsomakeasuggestionaboutwhatyouandsomeoneelsemightdobyusinglet’s.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph5.41.

Formingnegativestatements5.49 Whenyouwanttosaythatsomethingisnottrue,isnothappening,orisnotthecase,younormally

useanegativestatement.Negativestatementscontainwordslikenot,never,ornowhere.Thesearecallednegativewords.HereisthelistofnegativewordsinEnglish:

neithernevernonobodynonenoonenornotnothingnowhere

Negativewordsindicatetheoppositeofsomethingoranabsenceofsomething.5.50 Another group of words such as scarcely and seldom can be used to make a statement almost

negative.Thesewordsarecalledbroadnegatives.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs5.82to5.89.5.51 Ifastatementabouttheexistenceofsomethinghasanegativewordinit,youuseany(notno)asa

determinerinfrontofthefollowingnounphrase.Youcanalsouseawordbeginningwithany-suchasanyoneoranywhere.Wedidn’thaveanymoney.

Hewritespoetryandnevershowsittoanyone.Itisimpossibletoparkthecaranywhere.Foranotheruseofanyseeparagraph2.163.

BECAREFUL

5.52 In standard English, it is almost always unacceptable to use two negative words in the sameclause.Forexample,youdonotsay,Idon’tnevergothere,orIdon’tknownothing.

5.53 Theuseofnegativesinreportedspeechisexplainedinparagraph7.13.Theuseofnegativeswithmodalsisexplainedinparagraph5.104.

not

5.54 Themostcommonlyusednegativewordisnot.Itsusewithdifferentverbscorrespondstothewaytheseverbsareusedinyes/no-questions(seeparagraphs5.12to5.14).

positioninverbphrases

5.55 Whennotisusedwithaverbphrasethatcontainsanauxiliaryverb,itcomesafterthefirstverbinthephrase.Theycouldnotexistintheirpresentform.Theymightnotevennotice.TheWhiteHousehasnotcommentedonthereport.Hehadnotattendedmanymeetings.Iwasnotsmiling.Herteacherswerenotimpressedwithherexcuses.

addingdo

5.56 If there isnoauxiliaryverb,youputdo,does,ordid after the subject, followedbynot or -n’t,followedbythebaseformofthemainverb.Theydonotneedtotalk.HedoesnotspeakEnglishverywell.Ididn’tknowthat.Beandhaveareexceptions to this; this isexplained in the followingparagraphs5.57 and5.58.Theshorteningofnotto-n’tisexplainedinparagraphs5.61and5.62.

notwithbe

5.57 Iftheverbisbe,youdonotusedo.Yousimplyputnotor-n’taftertheverb.Itisnotdifficulttoseewhytheywereunsuccessful.Thereisnotmuchpointinheadingsouth.Thisisn’tmyfirstchoiceofrestaurant.

notwithhaveandhavegot

5.58 If the verb ishave, you usually put do,does, ordid after the subject, followed by not or -n’t,followedbythebaseformhave.Theorganizationdoesnothaveagoodtrackrecord.Hedidn’thaveaverygrandsalary.

Youcansimplyputnotor -n’t after theverb,but thisuse is less common, andalmostneverused inmodernAmericanEnglish.Hehadn’tenoughmoney.Ihaven’tanypaperstosaythatIhavebeentrained.Ifyouusehavegot,youputnotor-n’tafterhave,followedbygot.Ihaven’tgotthelatestfigures.Hehasn’tgotadaughter.Havegotisexplainedinparagraph3.15.

positionwith-ingformsandto-infinitives

5.59 Whennotisusedwithan-ingformorato-infinitiveclause,itisplacedinfrontofthe-ingformorto-infinitive.Westoodthere,notknowingwhatwasexpectedofus.Helostoutbynottakingadegreeatanotheruniversity.Trynottoworry.Ittookavastamountofpatiencenottostranglehim.

withaninflectedformandan-ingformorto-infinitive

5.60 Whenaclausecontainsaninflectedverbandan-ingformorto-infinitive,youputnoteitherwiththe inflected formorwith the -ing formor to-infinitive, depending on themeaning youwant toexpress.Forexample,youcansayeitherMary triednot tosmileorMarydidnot try tosmile,but theyexpressdifferentmeanings.The firstmeans thatMary tried toavoid smiling.The secondmeansthatMarydidnoteventrytosmile.However,withsomeverbsthatareusedwithto-infinitives,themeaningisthesamewhethernotisplacedwiththemainverborwiththeto-infinitive.Shedidnotappeartohavedoneanything.Henryappearsnottoappreciatemyexplanation.Itdidn’tseemtobotherthematall.Theyseemednottonoticeme.Hereisalistofverbsthatareusedwithto-infinitives.Withallofthese,themeaningoftheclauseisthesame,whethernotisputinfrontoftheverborinfrontoftheto-infinitive:

appearexpecthappenintendplanseemtendwantwish

Theuseof twoverbs inaclause to talkabout twoactionsor states isdealtwith inparagraphs3.182to3.212.Notethatwithsomereportingverbs themeaningisthesamewhetheryouputnot infrontofthereportingverborinfrontofthemainverb.Thisisexplainedinparagraph7.13.

contractionsofnot

5.61 InspokenEnglishandininformalwrittenEnglish,notisoftenshortenedto-n’tafterbeorhaveorafteranauxiliary.-n’tisattachedtotheendoftheverb.Mariaisn’treallymyauntatall.Hedoesn’tbelieveinanything.Ihaven’theardfromherrecently.Notethatcannotisshortenedtocan’t,shallnotisshortenedtoshan’t,andwillnotisshortenedtowon’t.Hereisacompletelistoftheshortenedformsyoucanuse:

aren’tisn’twasn’tweren’tdidn’tdoesn’tdon’thadn’thasn’thaven’tcan’tcouldn’tmightn’tmustn’toughtn’tshan’tshouldn’twon’twouldn’t

USAGENOTE

5.62 Notethatiftheverbisalreadyshortenedandaddedtoitssubject,youcannotshortennotto-n’t.Thismeans,forexample,thatyoucanshortensheisnottosheisn’torshe’snot,butnottoshe’sn’t.Itisn’teasy.It’snoteasy.Ihaven’thadtime.I’venothadtime.Notethatyoucannotadd-n’ttoam.YoucanonlyuseI’mnotastheshortenedform.I’mnotexcited.Theformaren’tIisusedinquestions.Inquestions,notisusuallyshortenedto-n’tandaddedtothefirstverbintheverbphrase.Didn’tshewinattheOlympics?Hasn’theputonweight?Aren’tyoubored?However,informalEnglish,itisalsopossibletoputnotafterthesubject.Didhenothavebrothers?Wasitnotratherabsurd?

otherusesofnot

5.63 Youcanalsousenotwithalmostanywordorwordgroupinaclause.Forexample,youcanuseitwithnouns,adjectives,adverbs,prepositionalphrases,andsomequantityexpressionssuchasalotof. You usually do this in order to be more forceful, careful, polite, hesitant, and so on. Thefollowingparagraphs5.64and5.65describesomeoftheseuses.

5.64 Veryisoftenusedafternottosoftenthenegativemeaningofaclause.Thissoundsmorepoliteorhesitantthanusingnotwithoutvery.Hisattitudeisnotverylogical.It’snotverystrongtea;itwon’tstain.Hewasn’taverygoodactor.Sheshookherhead,butnotveryconvincingly.Youcanusenotwithabsolutely,altogether,entirely,ornecessarilyinasimilarway.Youdothisinordertosoundmorepoliteorlesscritical.Previousexperienceisn’tabsolutelynecessary,butithelps.Iwasnotaltogethersure.Theyarenotentirelyreliable.Scienceisnotnecessarilyhostiletohumanvalues.You use not to show that the thing you are describing does in fact have some good qualities,althoughyoudonotwanttomakethemsoundbetterthantheyreallyare.Thisstructureisoftenusedwithwordsthathaveanegativeprefixsuchasun-or-less.

She’snotanunattractivewoman.It’snotabadstart.It’sasmallpoint,butnotanunimportantone.Americaisverywelldeveloped,butnotlimitless.

notusedforcontrast

5.65 Not is sometimes used to contrast one part of a clause with another. Using not in this wayemphasizesthepositivepartofastatement.Heheldherarminhishand,nothard,butfirmly.Wemovesteadily,notfast,notslow.‘Weretheystillinterested?’–‘Notjustinterested.Overjoyed.’Iwillmoveeventually,butnotfromSuffolk.It’snotahugehotel,butit’sverynice.

never

5.66 Neverisusedtosaythatsomethingwasnotorwillnoteverbethecase.Whenitisusedwithaverbphrasethatcontainsanauxiliaryverb,neverisputafterthefirstverbintheverbphraseandinfrontofthemainverb.Iwouldnevertrustmyjudgementagain.…atypeofglassthatisrareandisneverused.Thenumberofpeoplewhodiedwillneverbeknown.Fiftyyearsago,menwereneverexpectedtowashthedishesorhelpwiththechildren.Ihadneverbeentothisbigtownbefore.I’veneverdonesomuchworkinallmylife.However,youcanputneverinfrontofthefirstwordintheverbphraseinordertoemphasizethenegativeaspectofastatement.Ineverwouldhaveguessedifhehadn’ttoldme.Therewasnosuchperson–thereneverhadbeen.

withsimpleformsofbe

5.67 Ifthemainverbisthepresentsimpleorpastsimpleofbe,neverusuallycomesaftertheverb.Shewasnevertooproudtolearn.I’mneververykeenonkeepingacarformorethanayear.Therewereneveranypeopleinthehouse.However,youcanputneverinfrontofasimpleformofbeforemphasis.Thereneverwasenoughhotwaterathome.Itneverwasveryclear.Thereneverisanygreatchange.

withsimpleformsofotherverbs

5.68 Ifthemainverbisthepresentsimpleorpastsimpleofanyverbexceptbe,nevercomesinfrontoftheverb.Ineverwanttoseeyouinmyclassesagain.Shenevergoesabroad.Heneverwenttouniversity.Heneverdidanyhomework.

emphasis

5.69 Youcanmakeanegativestatementmoreemphaticbyusingneverfollowedbydo,does,ordid infrontofthebaseformoftheverb.Forexample,insteadofsayingInevermethim,youcansayIneverdidmeethim.Theyneverdidgettheirmoneyback.Sheneverdidfindherrealmother.Somepeopleneverdoadjusttolifehere.

neverinimperatives

5.70 Nevercanbeusedatthebeginningofimperativestructures.Neverchangeawheelnearadrain.Neverdryclothesinfrontofanopenfire.Imperativestructuresareexplainedinparagraph5.4andinparagraphs5.37to5.41.

no

5.71 No is an indefinite determiner that is used in front of singular and plural nouns to say thatsomethingdoesnotexistorisnotavailable.Therewasnomoneyforanoperation.Wehadnoparents,nobodytolookafterus.Hehasnoambition.Icouldseenotracks.Indefinitedeterminersareexplainedinparagraphs1.223to1.250.

5.72 InspokenEnglish,-n’tisoftenusedwithanyinsteadofno.Forexample,insteadofsayingIhadnomoney,youcansayIdidn’thaveanymoney.Theyhadn’tmeantanyharmtoher.Ican’tseeanyhopeinit.

none

5.73 Thepronounnone is used to say that there is not a single thing or person, or not even a small

amountofaparticularthing.

Iwaitedforcommentsbutnonecame.Theentireareaiscoveredwithshallowlakes,nonemorethanafewyardsindepth.Wehavebeenseeingdifficultieswherenoneexist.Foranotheruseofnoneseeparagraph1.155.

noneof

5.74 Noneofisaquantityexpression.Noneofthetownspeoplehadeverseensuchweather.Noneofthishashappenedwithoutourconsent.Foranexplanationofnoneofseeparagraphs2.179and2.185.

wordsbeginningwithno-

5.75 Therearefourwordsbeginningwithno-thatareusedinnegativestatements.Nothing,noone,andnobodyareindefinitepronouns.Nowhereisanindefiniteplaceadverb.There’snothingyoucando.NobodyinherhouseknowsanyEnglish.There’salmostnowherelefttogo.Indefinitepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.128to1.141.Indefiniteplaceadverbsareexplainedinparagraphs6.61and6.71.

followedbybut

5.76 Nothing,noone,nobody,andnowherecanbefollowedbybuttomeanonly.Forexample,Therewasnothingbutcheesemeansthattherewasonlycheese.Ilookbackonthisperiodwithnothingbutpleasure.Heheardnoonebuthisuncles.Indefinitepronounsandadverbsthatbeginwithanycanbeusedinsimilarstructures.However,inthesestructuresbutmeansexcept,ratherthanonly.IcouldneverspeakaboutanythingbutbusinesstoIvan.Heneverspoketoanyonebuthiswife.

neitherandnor

5.77 Neither and nor are used together to say that two alternatives are not possible, likely, or true.Neithergoesinfrontofthefirstalternativeandnorgoesinfrontofthesecondone.NeitherMargaretnorJohnwasthere.Theyhadneitherfoodnormoneyuntiltheendoftheweek.

neitherinreplies

5.78 Neither can be used on its own as a reply, to refer to two alternatives that have already beenmentioned.‘Doesthatmeanyesorno?’–‘Neither’.

5.79 If a clause contains a negative word, particularly not, you can use neither or nor to negate asecondclause.Inthesecondclause,youputneitherornorfirst,followedbytheverb,followedbythesubject.Thisisn’tadazzlingachievement,butneitherisitanegligibleone.Thesepeoplearenotinsane,noraretheyfools.Ifthereisanauxiliary,itisplacedinfrontofthesubjectinthesecondclause.Theorganizationhadbrokennorules,butneitherhaditactedresponsibly.Idon’tfeelanyshame.NeitherdoIthinkIshould.

neitherwithsingularnouns

5.80 Neithercanbeusedonitsowninfrontofasingularnounreferringtoeachoftwothingswhenyouaremakinganegativestatementaboutbothofthem.Forexample,Neitherpartnerbenefitedfromtheagreementmeans that therewere twopartners and thenegative statement applies tobothofthem.NeitherreportmentionedtheAmericans.Neitherfilmwasparticularlygood.Neithersexhasamonopolyonthoughtoremotion.Neitherparentisthegoodoneorthebadone.Notethatinthisstructureneitherisusedwithasingularverb.

neitherof

5.81 Whenneitherisfollowedbyof,itmakesasetoftwothingsnegative.Neitherofisfollowedbyapluralnounphrase.Neitherofuswashavinganyluck.Neitheroftheboysscreamed.Neitherofthemwasmakinganysound.Neitherofisnormallyusedwithasingularverb.Neitheroftheseextremesisdesirable.Neitheroftheseopinionsprovesanything.However,itisalsopossibletouseapluralverb.Neitherofthechildrenwerethere.

Broadnegatives:hardly,seldom,etc.

5.82 Anotherway inwhich you canmake a statement negative is by using abroad negative. Broadnegativesareadverbslikerarelyandseldom,whichareusedtomakeastatementalmost totallynegative.Theestimatedsaleswillhardlycoverthecostofmakingthefilm.Wewerescarcelyabletomove.Kuwaitliesbarely30milesfromtheIraniancoast.Hereisalistofthemostcommonbroadnegatives:

barelyhardlyrarelyscarcelyseldom

positioninclause

5.83 Thepositionofabroadnegativewithinaclauseissimilartothatofnever(seeparagraphs5.66to5.68).

5.84 Whenyouuseabroadnegativewithaverbphrasethatcontainsanauxiliaryverb,youputitafterthefirstwordintheverbphraseandinfrontofthemainverb.Icouldscarcelybelievemyeyes.Religionwasrarelydiscussedinourhouse.Hiseyeshadhardlyclosed.

withsimpleformofbe

5.85 If theverbisthepresentsimpleorpastsimpleofbe, thebroadnegativeusuallycomesafter theverb.Changeisseldomeasy.Thenewpressuregroupisbarelysixmonthsold.Theofficewashardlyeverempty.Thelagoonsarerarelydeep.Theresultswerescarcelyencouraging.

withotherverbs

5.86 Iftheverbisthepresentsimpleorpastsimpleofanyverbexceptbe,thebroadnegativeusuallycomesinfrontoftheverb.Heseldombathed.Marshararelyfelthungry.JohnhardlyeverspoketothePress.Itisalsopossibletoputabroadnegativeaftertheverb,butthisislesscommon.

Suchmomentshappenrarelyinlife.Theymetsoseldom.

asfirstwordintheclause

5.87 InformalorliteraryEnglish,abroadnegativeissometimesplacedatthebeginningofaclauseforemphasis. If you are using a verb phrasewith an auxiliary, the firstword in the verb phrase isplacedafterthebroadnegative,followedbythesubjectandthentheremainderoftheverbphrase.Seldomhassocietyofferedsowidearangeofleisuretimeactivities.HardlyhadhesettledintohisseatwhenAdamchargedin.If there isnoauxiliary,youput thepresentsimpleorpastsimpleofdoafter thebroadnegative,followedbythesubject,followedbythebaseformofthemainverb.Seldomdidaweekpasswithoutarequestforassessment.Rarelydolocalmatchesliveuptoexpectations.Notethatbarelyandscarcelyarenotoftenusedinthisway.

USAGENOTE

5.88 Ifyoumakeaquestiontagoutofastatementthatcontainsabroadnegative,thetagontheendofthe statement is normally in the affirmative, as it is with other negatives. Question tags areexplainedinparagraphs5.16to5.20.She’shardlytherightpersonforthejob,isshe?Youseldomseethatsortofthingthesedays,doyou?Youcanmodifyrarelyandseldombyputtingso,very,too,orprettyinfrontofthem.Youcanalsomodifyrarelybyusingonly.Ithappenssorarely.Womenwereveryseldomconvicted.Hetooseldommakesthefirstgreeting.Mostpeoplegotochurchonlyrarely.Ifyouwanttosaythereisverylittleofsomething,youcanuseabroadnegativewithanyorwithawordthatbeginswithany-.Thebondsshowbarelyanyinterest.Hardlyanybodycame.Infact,itisseldomanyofthese.Withscarcelyanywarning,thesoldierscharged.Sometimestwoorthreerelativesareadmitted,butrarelyanyfriends.

almost

5.89 Insteadofusingabroadnegative,youcanusealmostfollowedbyanegativewordsuchasnoornever.Forexample,TherewasalmostnofoodleftmeansthesameasTherewashardlyanyfoodleft.

They’vealmostnomoneyforanything.Thecarsthinnedouttoalmostnone.Theywereveryprivatepeople,withalmostnofriends.Childrenalmostneverbeganconversations.

Emphasizingthenegativeaspectofastatement

atall

5.90 Youcanaddatalltoanegativestatementinordertomakeitmoreemphatic.Youuseatallwithanynegativeword,withwithout,orwithabroadnegative.Shehadnowritingabilityatall.‘There’snoneed,’saidJimmie.‘Noneatall’.Hediditwithoutanyhelpatall.Hehardlyreadanythingatall.Broadnegativesareexplainedinparagraphs5.82to5.88.

whatsoever

5.91 You can putwhatsoever afternone andnothing in order to emphasize the negative aspect of astatement.‘Youdon’tthinkhehasanychanceofwinning?’–‘Nonewhatsoever.’Thereisabsolutelynoenjoymentinthat,nonewhatsoever.You’llfindyourselfthinkingaboutnothingwhatsoever.Ifnoisusedasadeterminerinanounphrase,youcanputwhatsoeverafterthenounphrase.Thereisnoneedwhatsoevertoteachchildrenhowtobehave.Therewasnodebatewhatsoever,noteveninParliament.Youcanalsousewhatsoever innegativestatements thatcontainany or aword thatbeginswithany-.Youarenotentitledtoanyaidwhatsoever.Hewasdevoidofanytalentwhatsoever.IknewIwasn’tlearninganythingwhatsoever.

ever

5.92 Youcanputeverafternegativewordsinordertoemphasizethenegativeaspectofastatement.Ican’tsayIeverhadmuchinterestinfishing.Nobodyeverleavestheairport.Inevereverbelievedwewouldhavesuchsuccess.

otherexpressions

5.93 Thereare several expressions that areused toemphasizeanegative statement that containsnot.Theseincludeintheleast,theleastbit,intheslightest,andabit.Idon’tmindintheleast,Ireallydon’t.Neitherofthemanagerswastheleastbitrepentantafterwards.Idon’treallyenvyyouintheslightest.They’renotabitinterested.Ifintheleastandintheslightestareusedwithverbs,theyareplacedeitherimmediatelyaftertheverboraftertheobject,ifthereisone.Iwouldn’thaveobjectedintheleast.ShedidnotworryBillyintheleast.Theweatherhadn’timprovedintheslightest.Ifintheleastisusedwithanadjective,itisputinfrontofit.Intheslightestusuallycomesafteranadjective.Iwasn’tintheleastsurprised.Shewasn’tworriedintheslightest.Theleastbitandabitareusedonlywithadjectivesandareplacedinfrontoftheadjective.I’mnottheleastbitworried.They’renotabitinterested.

Usingmodals5.94 Languageisnotalwaysusedjusttoexchangeinformationbymakingsimplestatementsandasking

questions.Sometimeswewanttomakerequests,offers,orsuggestions,ortoexpressourwishesorintentions.Wemay want to be polite or tactful, or to indicate our feelings about what we aresaying.Wecandoall these thingsbyusingasetofverbscalledmodals.Modalsarealwaysusedwithotherverbs.Theyareaspecialkindofauxiliaryverb.HereisalistofthemodalsusedinEnglish:

cancouldmaymightmustoughttoshallshouldwillwould

Insomegrammars,dare,need,andusedtoarealsoreferredtoasmodals.Inthisgrammar,wecallthesewordssemi-modals.Theyaredealtwithseparatelyinparagraphs5.248to5.258.

Ought issometimesregardedasamodal,ratherthanoughtto.Fora furthernoteabout this,seeparagraph5.101.Modalsaresometimescalledmodalverbsormodalauxiliaries.

5.95 Themainusesofmodalsareexplainedinparagraphs5.96to5.100.Specialfeaturesofmodalsaredescribedinparagraphs5.101to5.108.Waysofreferringtotimewhenusingmodalsareexplainedinparagraphs5.109to5.116.Waysofusingmodals to saywhether something is possible are explained in paragraphs 5.117 to 5.153.Ways of usingmodalswhen interactingwith other people are explained in paragraphs 5.154 to5.222.Expressionsthatcanbeusedinsteadofmodalsaredescribedinparagraphs5.223to5.247.Semi-modalsareexplainedinparagraphs5.248to5.258.

Themainusesofmodals5.96 Modals aremainly usedwhen youwant to showyour attitude towardswhat you are saying, or

whenyouareconcernedabouttheeffectofwhatyouaresayingonthepersonyouarespeakingorwritingto.

attitudetoinformation

5.97 Whenyouaregivinginformation,yousometimesusemodalstoshowhowcertainyouarethatwhatyouaresayingistrueorcorrect.Forexample,ifyousayMrWilkinsistheoldestpersoninthevillage,youaregivingadefinitestatementoffact.IfyousayMrWilkinsmustbetheoldestpersoninthevillage,themodalmustshows thatyou thinkMrWilkins is theoldestperson,becauseyoucannot thinkofanyone in thevillagewho isolder thanMrWilkins. IfyousayMrWilkinsmightbe theoldestperson in thevillage,themodalmightshowsthatyouthinkitispossiblethatMrWilkinsistheoldestperson,becauseheisveryold.

attitudetointentions

5.98 Youcanusemodalstoshowyourattitudetowardsthethingsyouintendtodo,orintendnottodo.Forexample,ifyousayIwon’tgowithoutSimon,youareexpressingstrongunwillingnesstogowithoutSimon.IfyousayIcan’tgowithoutSimon,youaresayingthatthereisaspecialreasonfor not goingwithout him. If you say I couldn’t gowithout Simon, you are saying that you areunwilling togowithoutSimon,because todosowouldbewrong,or impossiblebecauseof thecircumstances.

attitudetopeople

5.99 When you use language, you are affecting and responding to a particular person or audience.Modalsareoftenusedtoproduceaparticulareffect,andthemodalyouchoosedependsonseveralfactors, such as the relationship you havewith your listener, the formality or informality of thesituation,andtheimportanceofwhatyouaresaying.

Forexample,itwouldnormallyberudetosaytoastrangerOpenthedoor,althoughyoumightsayitinanemergency,oryoumightsayittoaclosefriendorachild.Normally,youwouldsaytoastrangerWill you open the door?,Would you open the door?, orCould you open the door?,dependingonhowpoliteyouwanttobe.

useinsentencescontainingmorethanoneclause

5.100 Modalshavespecialusesinthreekindsofsentencecontainingmorethanoneclause:theyareusedinreportedclauses

Wilsondroppedahintthathemightcome.IfeltthatIwouldliketowakeherup.FormoreinformationaboutreportedclausesseeChapter7.theyareusedinconditionalstatements

Ifhehaddiedwhenhewas50,hewouldhavediedhealthy.Ifonlythingshadbeendifferent,shewouldhavebeenfarhappierwithGeorge.Formoreinformationaboutconditionalsseeparagraphs8.25to8.42.theyareusedinpurposeclauses.

He stole under the very noses of the store detectives in order that hemight be arrested andpunished.Heresignedsothathecouldspendmoretimewithhisfamily.Formoreinformationaboutpurposeclausesseeparagraphs8.47and8.48.

Specialfeaturesofmodals

formoffollowingverb

5.101 Modalsarefollowedbythebaseformofaverb.Imustleavefairlysoon.Ithinkitwillberathernice.Theyoughttogiveyouyourmoneyback.Notethatoughtissometimesregardedasamodal,ratherthanoughtto.Ought isthensaidtobefollowedbyato-infinitive.

5.102 Sometimes a modal is followed by the base form of one of the auxiliary verbs have or be,followedbyaparticiple.Whenamodalisfollowedbybeandan-ingparticiple,thisshowsthatyouaretalkingaboutthepresentorthefuture.Peoplemaybewatching.Yououghttobedoingthis.Theplaywillbestartingsoon.Whenamodalisfollowedbyhaveandan-edparticiple,thisshowsthatyouaretalkingaboutthe

past.Youmusthaveheardofhim.Shemayhavegonealready.Ioughttohavesentthemoney.Inpassivestructures,amodalisfollowedbybeorhavebeenandan-edparticiple.Thenameofthewinnerwillbeannounced.Theyoughttobetreatedfairly.Suchchargesmayhavebeenjustified.Amodalisneverfollowedbytheauxiliaryverbdo,orbyanothermodal.

noinflections

5.103 Modalsdonotinflect.Thismeansthereisno-sforminthethirdpersonsingular,andthereareno-ingor-edforms.There’snothingIcandoaboutit.Iamsurehecandoit.Imustleavefairlysoon.Couldissometimesthoughttobethepasttenseofcan.Thisisdiscussedinparagraphs5.112and5.113.

negatives

5.104 Negativesare formedbyputtinganegativeword suchasnot immediatelyafter themodal.Cannotisusuallywrittenasoneword,cannot.Youmustnotworry.Icannotgoback.Inthecaseofoughtto,youputthenegativewordafterought.Heoughtnottohavedoneso.

InAmericanEnglish,thetoofoughttoisoptionalinnegativestatements.Newsorganizationsoughtnottreatthemsopoorly.(American)Aftercould,might,must,ought,should,andwould,notisoftenshortenedto-n’tandisaddedtothemodal.Youmustn’ttalkaboutRonlikethis.PerhapsIoughtn’ttoconfessthis.Heoughtn’tturnawayfromthosewhohavesupportedhim.(American)Shallnot,willnot,andcannotareshortenedtoshan’t,won’t,andcan’t.Maynotisnotshortenedatall.Ishan’tgetmuchworkdonetonight.Hewon’tbefinishedforatleastanotherhalfanhour.Ican’tgowithyou.

questions

5.105 Questionsareformedbyputtingthemodalinfrontofthesubject.Inthecaseofoughtto,youputoughtinfrontofthesubjectandtoafterit.Couldyougivemeanexample?Oughtwetotellsomeoneaboutit?Mightn’titbebettertoleavethingsastheyare?Whycouldtheynotleaveheralone?Mustweexplaineverythingwedoinsuchdetail?

questiontags

5.106 Modalsareusedinquestiontags.Theycan’tallberight,canthey?Youwon’ttellanyone,willyou?Withanegativetag,theshortenedformofthenegativeisused.Itwouldbehandy,wouldn’tit?It’llgiveyoutimetothinkaboutit,won’tit?Questiontagsareexplainedinparagraphs5.16to5.20.

contractions

5.107 InspokenEnglish,whenwillandwouldareusedafterapronoun,theyareoftenshortenedto-’lland-’dandaddedtothepronoun.Ihopeyou’llagree.She’llbeallright.They’dbothcalleachotherhorriblenames.IfIwentbackonthetrain,it’dbebetter.Willandwouldcannotbeshortenedlikethiswhentheyareusedontheirown,withoutafollowingverb.Forexample,youcansayPaulsaidhewouldcome,andIhopehewill,butyoucannotsayPaulsaidhewouldcome,andIhopehe’ll.

USAGENOTE

5.108 You sometimes use a modal on its own, without a following verb. You do this when you arerepeatingamodal.Forexample,ifsomeonesaysIexpectMargaretwillcometonight,youcansayIhopeshewill,meaningIhopeshewillcome.‘Imustgo.’–‘Isupposeyoumust.’‘Youshouldhavebecomeanarchaeologist.’–‘You’redeadright,Ishould.’Ifyoucan’tdoit,we’llfindsomeonewhocan.Youalsoomittheverbfollowingamodalwhenthisverbhasjustbeenusedwithoutamodal,orwithadifferentmodal.Forexample,ifsomeonesaysGeorgehasfailedhisexam,youcansayI

thoughthewould,meaningIthoughthewouldfailhisexam.IlovehimandIalwayswill.Theyhadcometobelievethatitnotonlymustgoonforeverbutthatitshould.Howeveryoucannotomittheverbbeafteramodalwhenyouhavejustuseditwithoutamodal.Forexample,ifsomeonesaysIsheateacher?,youcannotsayIthinkhemight.Youmustsay Ithinkhemightbe.Weatherforecastsaren’tveryreliableandneverwillbe.TheBoard’smethodsarenotasstringentastheycouldbe.Relationsbetweenthetwocountrieshavenotbeenassmoothastheymighthavebeen.Formoreinformationonleavingoutwordsinverbphrasesseeparagraphs10.60to10.81.

Referringtotime5.109 Modals do not usually showwhether you are talking about the past, the present, or the future.

Usuallyyouindicatethisinotherways,forexamplebyputtinganauxiliaryverbandaparticipleafterthemodal.Sometimesthegeneralcontextmakesitclearwhetheryouaretalkingaboutapast,present,orfutureeventorsituation.

thefuture:shallandwill

5.110 Shallandwillareexceptionstothis.Shallalwaysindicatesthatyouaretalkingaboutafutureeventorsituation.Ishalldowhatyousuggested.Eventuallyweshallfindasolution.Willusuallyshowsthatyouaretalkingaboutafutureeventorsituation.Thefarmerwillfeelmoreresponsibletowardshisworkers.Hewillnotreturnformanyhours.However,willissometimesusedtotalkaboutpresentsituations.Youwillnotfeelmuchloveforhimatthemoment.Thisuseofwillisdescribedinparagraph5.123.

5.111 Couldandwouldaresometimesdescribedaspast tenseformsofcanandwill.However, this istrueinonlyafewminorways.Theseareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.

abilityinthepast:could

5.112 Could can be regarded as the past tense of can if you are simply talking about the ability of apersonorthingtodosomething.For example, if you are talking about a living person, you can sayHe can speak Russian andFinnish.Ifyouaretalkingaboutadeadperson,youcansayHecouldspeakRussianandFinnish.Forafullerexplanationoftheseusesseeparagraphs5.118to5.120.

reportedspeech

5.113 Could andwould are sometimes used in place of can andwill when you are reporting whatsomeonehassaid.Forexample, ifyourfriendhassaidIcancome,youmight report thisasHesaid thathecouldcome.Similarly,ifhehassaid,Iwillcome,youmightreportthisasHesaidthathewouldcome.ForafullexplanationofreportedspeechseeChapter7.

thingsthathappenedregularlyinthepast:would

5.114 Wouldisusedtotalkaboutsomethingthathappenedregularlyinthepast,butnolongerhappens.Theotherchildrenwouldteasemeandcallmenames.Amanwithalistwouldcomeroundandsayyoucouldgooffduty.Whenyouusewouldlikethis,youoftenaddatimeexpression.Shewouldoftenhearhimgrumbling.Onceinawhileshe’dgivemesomelilactotakehome.EverydayI’dringuphomeandaskifthey’dchangedtheirminds.Youcanuseusedtoinsteadofwould.Usedtoisexplainedinparagraphs5.254to5.258.

thinkingaboutthefuture:would

5.115 Wouldisalsousedinstoriestotalkaboutthethoughtsthatsomeoneishavingaboutthefuture.Forexample,ifacharacterinastoryisthinkingthatshewillseeagirlcalledJanethenextday,theauthormightsimplysayShewouldseeJanethenextday.Hewouldrecognizeitwhenhehearditagain.Theywouldreachthecastlesometime.

refusingtodosomething:wouldnot

5.116 Whenwould isusedwithnot to talkabout something thathappened in thepast, it has a specialmeaning.Itisusedtosaythatsomeonerefusedtodosomething.Theyjustwouldnotbelievewhatwetoldthem.Afterallthis,Iwouldn’tcomebacktothefarm.Theuseofmodalstoexpressarefusalisexplainedinparagraphs5.196to5.201.

Talkingaboutpossibility5.117 Thefollowingfoursectionsexplainthedifferentwaysinwhichmodalsareusedtotalkaboutthe

possibilityofsomethinghappeningorbeingdone.Paragraphs5.118to5.121explainhowcanandcouldareusedtotalkabouttheabilityofapersonorthingtodosomething.Paragraphs5.122to5.141explainhowmodalsareusedtoexpressdegreesofcertaintyaboutpast,

present,andfuturesituationsandevents.

Paragraphs5.142to5.145explainhowmodalsareusedtosaythatsomethingispermissible.Paragraphs 5.146 to 5.153 explain howmodals are used to say that something is forbidden orunacceptable.

Talkingaboutability

skillsandabilities:canandcould

5.118 Canisusedtosaythatsomeonehasaparticularskillorability.Youcanallreadandwrite.Somepeoplecanskibetterthanothers.Hecannotdance.…thegirlwhocan’tact.Couldisusedtosaythatsomeonehadaskillorabilityinthepast.WhenIarrived,IcouldspeakonlyalittleEnglish.Icouldbarelywalk.Hecouldkickgoalsfromanywhere.

awareness:canandcould

5.119 Canisalsousedtosaythatsomeoneisawareofsomethingthroughoneoftheirsenses.Icanseeyou.Icansmellit.Can’tyou?Could is used to say that someone was aware of something through one of their senses on aparticularoccasioninthepast.Icouldseeafewfaintstarsinaclearpatchofsky.Icouldfeelmyheartbumping.Policesaidtheycouldsmellalcoholonhisbreath.

generaltruths:canandcould

5.120 Canandcould arealsoused toexpress facts thataregenerally thecase,particularlywhen theyrelate to somethingor someonebeing capable of having a particular effect, or of behaving in aparticularway.Itcanbeveryunpleasant.Artcanbeusedtocommunicate.Throwingpartiescanbehardwork.Hecouldbeverystiff,couldHaggerty.Hecouldreallyfrightenme,andyetatthesametimehecouldbethemostgentleandcourteousofmen.

BECAREFUL

5.121 Youcannotusecanorcouldtosaythatsomeoneorsomethingwillhaveaparticularabilityinthefuture.Insteadyouusebeabletoorbepossibleto.Beabletoandbepossibletocanalsobeusedtotalkaboutsomeone’sabilitytodosomethinginthepresentorthepast.Beabletoandbepossibletoaredealtwithinparagraphs5.224to5.231.

Talkingaboutlikelihood5.122 Thefollowingparagraphsexplainhowmodalsareused toexpressdifferentdegreesofcertainty

aboutpast,present,andfuturesituationsandevents.Paragraphs5.123to5.129explainthemainwaysinwhichmodalsareusedtoexpressdegreesofcertainty.Paragraphs 5.130 to 5.134 explain special uses of modals when talking about possible futuresituations.Paragraphs5.135to5.141explainspecialusesofmodalswhentalkingaboutpossiblesituationsinthepast.

assumingthatsomethingisthecase:willandwould

5.123 Youusewillwhenyouareassumingthatsomethingisthecase,andyoudonotthinkthereisanyreasontodoubtit.Thoseofyouwhoarefamiliarwiththegamewillknowthis.Hewillbealittleoutoftouch,althoughhe’sarapidlearner.Shewillhaveforgottenallaboutitbynow.Similarly,youusewillnotorwon’twhenyouareassumingthatsomethingisnotthecase.Theaudiencewillnotbeawareofsuchexactdetails.Youwon’tknowGordon.He’sournewdoctor.Afteryou,youcanusewouldinsteadofwill,ifyouwanttobemorepolite.YouwouldagreethattheUnitedStatesshouldbeinvolvedinassistingthesecountries.

certainty:wouldandshould

5.124 Youalsousewouldtosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappeninparticularcircumstances.Evenanilliteratepersonwouldunderstandthat.Fewpeoplewouldagreewiththisasageneralprinciple.Apicnicwouldn’tbeanyfunwithoutyou.AfterI,youcanuseshouldinsteadofwould.TheveryfirstthingIshoulddowouldbetoteachyouhowtocook.Ishouldbeveryunhappyonthecontinent.

ThisisunusualinAmericanEnglish,whichnormallyuseswouldafterI.

belief:mustandcannot

5.125 You usemust to show that you believe something is the case, because of particular facts orcircumstances.Oh,youmustbeSylvia’shusband.Fashionmustaccountforasmallpercentageofsales.Thisarticlemusthavebeenwrittenbyawoman.Whenyouareindicatingthatsomethingisnotthecase,youusecannot.Youdonotusemustnot.(Seeparagraph5.128.)Thetwoconflictingmessagescannotpossiblybothbetrue.Youcan’thaveforgottenme.Hecan’thavesaidthat.Hejustcan’t.

presentpossibility:could,might,andmay

5.126 Youusecould,might,ormaytosaythatthereisapossibilityofsomethinghappeningorbeingthecase.Mayisslightlymoreformalthancouldormight;otherwisethereisverylittledifferenceinmeaningbetweenthesemodals.Don’teatit.Itcouldbepoisonous.Hisroutefromthebusstopmightbethesameasyours.Inrarecasesthejawmaybebrokenduringextraction.Ifyouputwellaftercould,might,ormay,youaresayingthatitisfairlylikelythatsomethingisthecase.Itcouldwellbethattheeconomicsituationisgettingbetter.Hispredictionscouldwellhavecometrue.Youmightwellberight.Ithinkthatmaywellhavebeentheintention.

negativepossibility:mightnotandmaynot

5.127 Youusemightnotormaynottosaythatitispossiblethatsomethingisnotthecase.HemightnotbeinEnglandatall.Thatmightn’tbetrue.Thatmaynotsoundveryimposing.

impossibility:couldnotandcannot

5.128 Youusecouldnotorcannottosaythatitisimpossiblethatsomethingisthecase.…knowledgewhichcouldnothavebeengainedinanyotherway.Itcouldn’tpossiblybepoison.

Hecannotknoweverythingthatisgoingon.Youcan’ttalktothedead.

strongassertion:couldnotwithcomparatives

5.129 Couldissometimesusedinnegativeconstructionswiththecomparativeformofanadjective.Youuse could like this to say that it is not possible for someone or something to have more of aparticularquality.Icouldn’tbehappier.Youcouldn’tbemorewrong.Thesettingcouldn’thavebeenlovelier.Hecouldhardlyhavefeltmoreashamedofhimself.

talkingaboutthefuture

5.130 Thefollowingparagraphsexplainhowmodalsareusedwhenyouaretalkingaboutpossiblefuturesituations.Theusesofmust,cannot,could,might,andmayaresimilartotheiruseswhenyouaretalkingaboutpossiblesituationsinthepresent.

certainty:will

5.131 Youusewilltosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappenorbethecaseinthefuture.Theywillseeeverything.Thepriceoffoodwillgoup.TheservicewillhavebeenrunningforayearinMay.Begoingtocanalsobeusedtosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappeninthefuture.Thisuseofbegoingtoisdealtwithinparagraph5.233.

certainty:shall,must,andcannot

5.132 Shallisalsousedtosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappen.Youusuallyuseshallwhenyouaretalkingabouteventsandsituationsoverwhichyouhavesomecontrol.Forexample,youcanuseshallwhenyouaremakingaresolutionorapromise.IshallbeleavingassoonasIamready.Verywell,mydear.Youshallhavethecoat.Ofcourseheshallhavewater.‘You’llmakealotofmoney.’–‘Ishalloneday.’

ThisusageisconsideredveryformalinAmericanEnglishandisnotoftenused.You use must to say that something is certain to happen because of particular facts orcircumstances.Thisresearchmusteventuallyleadtocomputerdecision-making.You use cannot to say that something is certain not to happen because of particular facts or

circumstances.Youdonotusemustnot.

Ateamcannothopetowinconsistentlywithoutagoodcoach.Thebadweathercan’tlast.

expectation:shouldandoughtto

5.133 Youuseshouldoroughttotosaythatyouexpectsomethingtohappen.Sheshouldbebackanytimenow.Thiscourseshouldbequiteinterestingforyou.TheCourtofAppealoughttobeabletohelpyou.Itoughttogetbetterasitgoesalong.Shouldandoughttoarealsousedwhenyouaretalkingabouttheimportanceofdoingsomething.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph5.215.

futurepossibility:could,might,andmay

5.134 Youusecould,might,ormaytosaythatitispossiblethataparticularthingwillhappen.England’snextfixtureinSalzburgcouldbethedecisivematch.Therivercouldeasilyoverflow.Theymightbeabletorememberwhathesaid.Clericalworkmaybeavailablefortwostudentswhowanttolearnaboutpublishing.Ifyouputwellaftercould,might,ormay,youareindicatingthatitisfairlylikelythatsomethingwillhappenorbethecase.Whenitisfinisheditmaywellbethelargestcathedralintheworld.Wemightwellgetinjured.Ifyouputpossiblyorconceivablyaftercould,might,ormay,youareindicatingthatitispossible,butfairlyunlikely,thatsomethingwillhappenorbethecase.Theseconditionscouldpossiblybeaccepted.Ratescouldconceivablyrisebyasmuchasawholepercentagepoint.

talkingaboutthepast

5.135 The following paragraphs explain how you use modals when you are talking about possiblesituationsinthepast.

expectation:shouldhave,oughttohave

5.136 Youuseshouldoroughttowithhavetosaythatyouexpectsomethingtohavehappenedalready.DearMom,youshouldhaveheardbynowthatI’mO.K.Youalsouseshouldoroughttowithhavetosaythatsomethingwasexpectedtohappen,althoughithasnotinfacthappened.

Muskieshouldhavewonbyahugemargin.Sheoughttohavebeenhomebynow.

possibility:wouldhave

5.137 Youusewouldwithhavetotalkaboutactionsandeventsthatwerepossibleinthepast,althoughtheydidnotinfacthappen.Denialwouldhavebeenuseless.Iwouldhavesaidyes,butJuliepersuadedustostayathome.Youwouldn’thavepushedhim,wouldyou?

possibility:couldhave,mighthave

5.138 Youusecouldormightwithhavetosaythattherewasapossibilityofsomethinghappeninginthepast,althoughitdidnotinfacthappen.Itcouldhavebeenawful.Icouldeasilyhavespentthewholeyearonit.Youcouldhavegotajoblastyear.Alotofmendiedwhomighthavebeensaved.Youmighthavefounditverydifficult.

uncertainty:couldhave,mighthave,mayhave

5.139 Youalsousecould,might,ormaywithhavetosaythatitispossiblethatsomethingwasthecase,butyoudonotknowwhetheritwasthecaseornot.Itisjustpossiblethatsuchasmallcreaturecouldhavepreyedondinosaureggs.Theymighthavemovedhousebynow.Imayhaveseemedtobeoverreacting.

negativepossibility:mightnothave,maynothave

5.140 Youusemightnotormaynotwithhavetosaythatitispossiblethatsomethingdidnothappenorwasnotthecase.Theymightnothaveconsideredmeastheirfriend.Myfathermightn’thavebeentoblame.Theparentsmaynothavebeenreadyforthisnews.

impossibility:couldhavewithnegative

5.141 Youusecouldwithanegativeandhavetosaythatitisimpossiblethatsomethinghappenedorwasthecase.Itcouldn’thavebeenwrong.Themoneywasnot,andnevercouldhavebeen,thepropertyoftheorganization.

Talkingaboutpermission

permission:can

5.142 Canisusedtosaythatsomeoneisallowedtodosomething.Youcandriveavanupto3-toncapacityusinganordinarydrivinglicence.Ifyouaregivingpermissionforsomething,youusecan.Youcanborrowthatpenifyouwantto.Youcangooffdutynow.Shecangowithyou.

formalpermission:may

5.143 Inmoreformalsituations,mayisusedtogivepermission.Youmayspeaknow.Theymaydoexactlyastheylike.

permissioninthepast:could

5.144 Couldisusedtosaythatsomeonewasallowedtodosomethinginthepast.Wecouldgotoanypartoftheislandwewantedto.

BECAREFUL

5.145 Youcannotusecanorcould tosay thatsomeonewillbeallowed todosomething in thefuture.Insteadyouusebeableto.Beabletoisdealtwithinparagraphs5.224to5.231.

Sayingthatsomethingisunacceptable5.146 Modalsareoftenusedinnegativestructurestosaythatanactionisforbiddenorunacceptable.

sayingthatsomethingisforbidden:cannot

5.147 Cannotisusedtosaythatsomethingisforbidden,forexamplebecauseofaruleorlaw.Childrencannotbatheexceptinthepresenceoftwolifesavers.We’reawfullysorrywecan’tletyoustayhere.

sayingthatsomethingisforbidden:maynot

5.148 Maynotisusedinasimilarwaytocannot,butismoreformal.Youmaynotmakeamendmentstoyourapplicationoncewehavereceivedit.Thismaterialmaynotbepublished,broadcast,orredistributedinanymanner.

sayingthatsomethingisforbidden:willnot

5.149 Willnot is used to tell someone very firmly that they are not allowed to do a particular thing.Usually,thespeakerhasthepowertopreventthehearerfromdoingthisthing.‘I’lljustgoupstairs.’–‘Youwillnot.’Untilwehavecuredyou,youwon’tbeleavinghere.

sayingthatsomethingisforbidden:shallnot

5.150 Shallnotisusedtosayformallythataparticularthingisnotallowed.Shallnot isoftenusedinwrittenrules,laws,andagreements.Personsunder18shallnotbeemployedinnightwork.EqualityofrightsunderthelawshallnotbedeniedorabridgedbytheUnitedStatesorbyanyState.Shan’tisusedinasimilarwaytowillnotandwon’t.Youshan’tleavewithoutmypermission.

sayingthatsomethingisforbidden:imperatives

5.151 You can also say that something is not allowed by using an imperative sentence. Imperativesentencesareexplainedinparagraph5.4andinparagraphs5.37to5.41.

undesirableactions:shouldnot

5.152 Shouldnotisusedtotellsomeonethatanactionisunacceptableorundesirable.Youshouldnottakeherhelpforgranted.Youshouldn’tdothat.Youshouldn’tbesounfriendly.

undesirableactions:mustnot

5.153 Mustnotisusedtosaymuchmorefirmlythatsomethingisunacceptableorundesirable.Youmustnotacceptit.Youmustn’tdothat.Youmustn’tbreatheawordofthistoanyone.

Interactingwithotherpeople5.154 Youoftensaythingsinordertogetsomeonetobehaveinaparticularway.Forexample,youmay

want someone to take a particular action, to accept an offer, or to give their permission forsomethingtobedone.Inthesesituations,modalsareoftenused.Themodalyouchoosedependsonseveralfactors.Themainonesare:

theformalityorinformalityofthesituationtherelationshipbetweenyourselfandthepersonyouarespeakingtothedegreeofpolitenessyouwanttoshow.

Inparticularsituations,otherfactorscanbeimportant.Forexample,ifyouaremakinganofferorsuggestion,themodalyouchoosemaydependonhowpersuasiveyouwanttobe.

5.155 Thefollowingsectionsexplainhowtousemodalsindifferentsituations.Paragraphs5.156to5.172explainhowtogiveinstructionsandmakerequests.Paragraphs5.173to5.181explainhowtomakeanofferoraninvitation.Paragraphs5.182to5.189explainhowtomakesuggestions.Paragraphs5.190to5.195explainhowtostateanintention.Paragraphs5.196to5.201explainhowtoexpressunwillingnessorarefusaltodosomething.Paragraphs5.202to5.210explainhowtoexpressawish.Paragraphs5.211to5.215explainhowtoindicatetheimportanceofdoingsomething.Paragraphs5.216to5.222explainvariouswaysofintroducingwhatyouaregoingtosay.

Givinginstructionsandmakingrequests5.156 When you give an instruction or make a request, you usually use a modal in an interrogative

sentence.Youusewill,would,can,orcouldwithyoutotellsomeonetodosomething,ortoasksomeonetodosomething.Youusecan,could,may,ormightwithIorweorwithotherpersonalpronounsornounphrasestoasksomeone’spermissiontodosomething.Instructionsandrequestsarealwaysmademorepolitebyaddingplease.Pleaseandothermarkersofpolitenessareexplainedinparagraph5.172.

instructionsandappealsforhelp

5.157 Will,would,andcouldareusedwithyouintwoways:youusethemtogiveaninstructionoranorderyouusethemtoaskforhelporassistance.

instructionsandappealsforhelp:will

5.158 Will isusedtogivean instructionororder inafairlydirectway.It isslightly lessforceful thanusingtheimperative.Willyoupickthosetoysupplease?Willyoupackupandleaveatonce,please.Willisusedtoaskforhelpinfairlyinformalsituations.

Mummy,willyouhelpme?

instructionsandappealsforhelp:would

5.159 Whenwouldisusedtogiveaninstructionororder,itismorepolitethanwill.WouldyoutellherthatAdrianphoned?Wouldyouaskthemtoleave,please?Whenwouldisusedtoaskforhelp,itislessinformalandmorepolitethanwill.Wouldyoudomeafavour?

instructionsandappealsforhelp:could

5.160 Whencouldisusedtogiveaninstructionororder,itismorepolitethanwould.Couldyoufollowmeplease?Couldyoujustswitchtheprojectoronbehindyou?Whencouldisusedtoaskforhelp,itismorepolitethanwould.Couldyoushowmehowtodothis?

appealsforhelp:can

5.161 Can canbeusedwithyou to ask for help.Youusually usecanwhen you are not surewhethersomeonewillbeabletohelpyouornot.Ohhello.Canyouhelpme?I’vebeentryingthisnumberfortenminutesandIcan’tgetthrough.

requests

5.162 Can,could,may,andmightareusedwithIorwewhenyouareaskingforsomething,orareaskingpermissiontodosomething.Thesemodalscanalsobeusedwithhe,she,or they,orwithothernounphrases,whenyouareaskingforsomethingonbehalfofsomeoneelse.Forexample,youcansayCansheborrowyourcar?orCouldmymotheruseyourtelephone?

requests:can

5.163 Canisusedtomakearequestinasimpleanddirectway.CanIaskaquestion?’CanIchangethis?’Iaskedtheboxofficelady,offeringhermyticket.

requests:could

5.164 Couldismorepolitethancan.CouldIhaveabottleoflemonade,please?

CouldIjustinterruptaminute?

requests:can’tandcouldn’t

5.165 Youcanmakearequestsoundmorepersuasivebyusingcan’torcouldn’tinsteadofcanorcould.Forexample,youcansayCan’tIcomewithyou?insteadofCanIcomewithyou?Can’twehavesomemusic?Couldn’twestayhere?

requests:mayandmight

5.166 Mayandmight aremore formal thancan andcould. In thepast, peoplewere taught that,whenasking for something, it was correct to saymay rather than can, andmight rather than could.Howevercanandcouldarenowgenerallyused.Requestsbeginningwithmightareunusual,andareconsideredbymostpeopletobeold-fashioned.MayIhaveacigarette?Maywehavesomethingtoeat?MayIaskwhatyournameis?MightIinquireifyouaretheowner?

instructions:wouldlike

5.167 WouldlikecanbeusedwithIorweinadeclarativesentencetogiveaninstructionororder.Itisfollowedbyyouandato-infinitiveclause.OK,everyone,Iwouldlikeyoutogetintoacircle.Wantcanbeusedinasimilarwaytowouldlike.Thisuseofwantisdealtwithinparagraph5.236.

firminstructions:will

5.168 Aninstructionorordercanalsobegivenusingwill inadeclarativesentence.Thisformisusedwhenthespeakerisangryorimpatient.Youwillgoandgetoneofyourparentsimmediately.Youwillgivemethosenow.

formalinstructions:shall

5.169 Shall is sometimesused inadeclarativesentence togivean instructionororder.This isaveryformaluse.Thereshallbenofurthercommunicationbetweenyou.

imperatives

5.170 Theimperativecanalsobeusedtogiveaninstructionororder.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph

5.37.

requests:wouldlike,shouldlike

5.171 Youcanusewouldlikeor(inBritishEnglishonly)shouldlikeinadeclarativesentencetomakearequest.Wouldlikeandshouldlikearefollowedbyato-infinitiveclauseoranounphrase.Iwouldliketoaskyouonequestion.I’dliketohavealittletalkwithyou.Ishouldlikealistofyourcustomersoverthepastyear.

politeadditionstorequests

5.172 Allthewaysofgivinginstructionsormakingrequestsdescribedabovecanbemademorepolitebyusingplease.CanIspeaktoNicola,please?PleasemayIhavethekey?Youcanalsomakearequestmorepolitebyaddingthenameofthepersonyouareaddressingatthebeginningorendofyourquestion.Martin,couldyoumakeusadrink?CanItalktoyou,Howard?Anotherwayofmakingarequestmorepoliteistoaddanadverbsuchasperhapsorpossiblyafterthesubjectoftheverb.CouldIperhapsbringafriendwithme?MayIpossiblyhaveawordwithyou?

InspokenEnglish,youcanmakearequestmorepolitebyaddingjustafterthesubjectoftheverb.Couldyoujustcomeintomyofficeforaminute?

Makinganofferoraninvitation5.173 Modalsareoftenusedtomakeanofferoraninvitation.

Youusewillorwouldwithyoutoasksomeonetoacceptsomething,ortomakeaninvitation.Youusecan,may,shall,orshouldwithIorwewhenyouareofferingtohelpsomeone.Someofthesestructuresaresimilartothosedescribedintheprevioussection.

offersandinvitations:will

5.174 Will isusedwithyou inan interrogative sentence tooffer something to someone,or tomakeaninvitationinafairlyinformalway.Youusewillwhenyouknowthepersonyouaretalkingtoquitewell.Willyouhaveawhisky,Doctor?Willyoustayforlunch?

offersandinvitations:wouldandwouldn’t

5.175 Amorepolitewayofofferingsomethingormakinganinvitationistousewouldwithaverbthatmeanstolike.Wouldyoulikeadrink?Wouldyoucaretostaywithus?Ifyouwanttosoundmorepersuasivewithoutseemingimpoliteorinsistent,youcanusewouldn’tinsteadofwould.Wouldn’tyouliketocomewithme?Wouldn’tyoucareforsomemorecoffee?

offersofhelp:can

5.176 Whenyouareofferingtodosomethingforsomeone,youusuallyusecanfollowedbyIorwe.CanIhelpyouwiththedishes?Canwegiveyoualiftintotown?

offersofhelp:may

5.177 Mayisalsousedwhenyouareofferingtodosomethingforsomeone.Itislesscommonthancan,andisratherformalandold-fashioned.MayIhelpyou?MayItakeyourcoat?

offersofhelp:shallandshould

5.178 Youcanalsouseshallorshouldwhenyouareofferingtodosomething.Ifyouareoffering todo something thatyoucando immediately,oryouare fairlyconfident thatyourofferwillbeaccepted,youuseshall.ShallIshutthedoor?ShallIspellthatforyou?Ifyoutalkingaboutalesslikelyorlessimmediatesituation,orifyouareuncertainwhetheryourofferwillbeaccepted,youuseshould.ShouldIgiveheraring?ShouldIputallthesemeetingsonmycalendar?

emphasizingability:can

5.179 Ifyouwant to emphasizeyour ability tohelp,youcanmakeanofferusingcan in adeclarativesentence.Ihaveacar.Icandropyouoffonmywayhome.Icanpopinattheshoptomorrow.

persuasiveinvitations:mustandhaveto

5.180 If youwant tomake an invitation in a verypersuasiveway, you canuse a declarative sentencebeginningwithyouandmustorhaveto.HavetoismorecommoninAmericanEnglish.

Youmustjoinusfordrinksthisevening.Youhavetocomeandvisitme.Youonlyusemustandhavetolikethiswithpeoplewhoyouknowwell.

5.181 Otherwaysofmakinganofferorinvitationaredealtwithinparagraph5.44.

Makingsuggestions5.182 Suggestionscanbemadebyusingamodalinadeclarativeorinterrogativesentence.Thesubject

ofthesentenceisusuallyweoryou.

suggesting:could

5.183 Youcanmakeasuggestionbyusingcouldinadeclarativesentenceorcouldn’tinaninterrogativesentence.Ifthebusinessdoesn’tworkoutwecouldsellit.Youcouldhaveanurserythere.Couldn’tyoujustbuildmorefactories?Couldn’tsomeinternationalagreementbeconcludedtobantheseweapons?

suggesting:shouldandoughtto

5.184 Ifyouaremakingasuggestionandyouwanttoindicatethatyoufeelstronglythatitisagoodidea,youcanuseshouldoroughtto.YoushouldaskNorryaboutthis.Ithinkyoushouldgetintouchwithyoursolicitor.Weoughttocelebrate.Let’sgetabottleofchampagne.Ithinkyououghttotryadifferentapproach.Amore polite way of making a suggestion that you feel strongly about is to use shouldn’t oroughtn’ttoinaninterrogativesentence.Shouldn’tweatleastgiveherachance?Oughtn’twetophonethepolice?

persuading:must

5.185 Ifyouaresuggestinganactionandyouaretryingtopersuadesomeonethatitshouldbedone,youusemust.Youonlyusemustlikethiswhenyouaretalkingtosomeoneyouknowwell.Youmustsayhellotoyourdaughter.Wemustgototheplace,perhapshaveaweekendthere.

politesuggestions:might

5.186 Ifyouwanttomakeasuggestioninaverypoliteway,youcanusemightwithyouinadeclarativesentence.Mightisfollowedbyaverbmeaningtolikeortowant.Youmightwanttocommentonhislatestproposal.Ithoughtperhapsyoumightliketocomealongwithme.YoucanalsomakeapolitesuggestionbyusingasentencebeginningwithItmightbe,followedbyanounphraseoradjectiveandato-infinitiveclause.Ithinkitmightbeagoodideatostopnow.Itmightbebettertowaitawhile.

suggesting:mightaswell,mayaswell

5.187 Youcanalsomakesuggestionsusingtheexpressionsmightaswellandmayaswell.You usemight as well when what you are suggesting seems to be the only sensible course ofaction,althoughyouarenotenthusiasticaboutit.Hemightaswelltakethecar.Wemightaswellcallthewholethingoff.Youusemayaswelltoshowthatitisnotimportanttoyouwhetheryoursuggestionisacceptedornot.Youmayaswellopenthemall.Wemayaswellgiveheracopy.

suggesting:shall

5.188 Youcanmakeasuggestionaboutwhatyouandsomeoneelsecoulddobyusingan interrogativesentencebeginningwithshallandwe.Shallwegoandseeafilm?Shallwegoontoquestionnumbersix?Shallwetalkaboutsomethingdifferentnow?

5.189 Otherwaysofmakingsuggestionsaredescribedinparagraph5.48.

Statinganintention5.190 Intentionsareusuallystatedbyusingwill,shall,ormustinadeclarativesentence.ThesubjectisI

orwe.

intentions:will

5.191 TheusualwaytostateanintentionistouseIorwewithwill.TheshortenedformsI’llandwe’llareverycommon.IwillcallyouwhenIamready.

Wewillstayhere.I’llwriteagainsometime.We’lldiscussthatlater.Youstateyourintentionnottodosomethingusingwillnotorwon’t.Iwillnotfollowher.Iwon’tkeepyouanylonger.Wewon’tletthemthroughthegate.

5.192 YoucanshowthatyouareverydeterminedtodosomethingbyusingthefullformIwillorwewillandstressingwill.YoucanshowthatyouareverydeterminednottodosomethingeitherbyusingIwon’torwewon’tandstressingwon’t,orbyusingIwillnotorwewillnotandstressingnot.

intentions:shall

5.193 AnotherwayofstatinganintentionistouseIorwewithshall.Ishallbeleavingsoon.Ishallmakesomeenquiriesandcallyouback.Weshallcontinuetomonitorhisprogress.

Thisuseisslightlyold-fashioned,ratherformal,anduncommoninAmericanEnglish.Youcanshowthatyouareverydeterminednottodosomethingbyusingshallnotorshan’t.Thisismoreemphaticthanusingwillnotorwon’t.Ishallnotdisclosehisname.Ishan’tgobackthere.

Theformshan’tisnotusedinAmericanEnglish.

intentions:must

5.194 Ifyouwanttoshowthatitisimportantthatyoudosomething,youcanuseImust.Imustleavefairlysoon.Imustaskheraboutthat.Imustcallmymum–it’sherbirthdaytoday.

5.195 Waysofstatinganintentionwithoutusingamodalareexplainedinparagraphs5.237to5.240.

Expressingunwillingnessorrefusal5.196 A refusal can be expressedbyusing amodal in a negative declarative sentence.The subject is

usuallyIorwe,butotherpersonalpronounsornounphrasescanbeused.

refusal:willnotandwon’t

5.197 Ifyouwanttosayfirmlythatyourefusetodosomething,youusewillnotorwon’t.IwillnothearawordsaidagainsttheNationalHealthService.Iwon’tletthishappen.YoucanjustsayIwon’t.‘Tellmeyoursecret.’–‘Iwon’t.Itwouldn’tbeasecretifItoldyou.’Itisn’tthatIwon’t.Ican’t.Youcanusewon’ttosaythatsomeoneelseisrefusingtodosomething.Hewon’tgiveherthemoney.

refusal:wouldnot

5.198 Ifyouwanttosaythatyourefusedtodosomethinginthepast,youusewouldnotorwouldn’t.HethoughtIwasafreakbecauseIwouldn’tcarryaweapon.

unwillingness:cannot

5.199 Ifyouwanttoshowthatyouhavestrongfeelingsthatpreventyoufromdoingsomething,youusecannotorcan’t.Icannotleaveeverythingforhim.Ican’tgiveyouup.

unwillingness:couldn’t

5.200 Couldn’tisusedintwowaystoexpressunwillingnesstodosomething.Youuseittoshowthatyouareunwillingtodosomethingbecauseyouareafraid,embarrassed,ordisgusted.Icouldn’tpossiblygooutnow.Icouldn’tlethimtouchme.Youuseittoindicatethatyouareunwillingtodosomethingbecauseyouthinkitwouldbeunfairormorallywrong.Icouldn’tleaveHilarytocopeonherown.Icouldn’ttakeyourlastchocolate.

5.201 Otherwaysofexpressingrefusalandunwillingnessaredescribedinparagraphs5.241to5.243.

Expressingawish5.202 Wishescanbeexpressedbyusingamodalinadeclarativesentence.

wishes:would

5.203 Youcansaywhatsomeonewantsbyusingwould followedbyaverbmeaning to like.After theverbmeaningtolikeyouputato-infinitiveclauseoranounphrase.Iwouldliketoknowthedate.Iwouldprefertosaynothingaboutthisproblem.We’dliketokeepyouhere.Oh,Ihopeitwillbetwins.I’dlovetwins.

5.204 Youcansaywhatsomeonedoesnotwantbyusingwouldnot.Iwouldnotliketoseeit.Wewouldn’tliketoloseyou.Normally,whenyouareusingwouldwith like to saywhat someonedoesnotwant,youputnotafterwould.Ifyouputnotafterlike,youchangethemeaningslightly.Forexample,ifyousayIwouldnotliketobeastudent,youmeanyouarenotastudentanddonotwanttobeone.ButifyousayIwouldlikenottobeastudent,youmeanyouareastudentanddonotwanttobeone.Theywouldlikenottohavetogothroughallthat.Youcanalsosaywhatsomeonedoesnotwantbyusingwouldwithhate.Iwouldhatetomovetoanotherhousenow.Personally,Iwouldhatetobedraggedintothisdispute.

wishes:should

5.205 Youcanalsosaywhatsomeonewantsordoesnotwantbyusingshould.Should islesscommonthanwould,andisslightlymoreformal.Ishouldliketoliveinthecountry.Ishouldhatetoseethemdisappear.

preference:wouldrather,wouldsooner

5.206 Youcansaythatsomeoneprefersonesituationtoanotherbyusingwouldratherorwouldsooner.Hewouldratherhaveleftit.She’dratherbeleftalone.I’dsoonerwalkthandoanyofthesethings.

wishes:wouldhave

5.207 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeonewantedsomethingtohappen,althoughitdidnothappen,youuse

wouldhaveandan-edparticiple.Iwouldhavelikedtohearmorefromthepatient.Shewouldhavelikedtoremainjustwhereshewas.

USAGENOTE

5.208 Anotherwayofsayingthatyouwantsomethingistousewouldn’twithaverborexpressionthatisnormallyusedtorefusesomething,suchasmindorobjectto.Iwouldn’tmindbeingamanagerofastore.‘Drink,Ted?’–‘Iwouldn’tsayno,Bryan.’

regret:wouldthat

5.209 Inveryold-fashionedEnglish,would isusedwithoutasubject toexpressawish thatasituationmightbedifferent,ortoexpressregretthatsomethingdidnothappeninthepast.Wouldisfollowedbyathat-clause.‘Aretheybetteroffnowthantheyweretwoyearsago?’–‘Wouldthattheywere.’Wouldthatthedevelopmentshadbeensoeasy.WhenI,he,she,oritisthesubjectofthethat-clause,theverbisusuallywere,notwas.Wouldthatyouwereheretonight.Twoyearsagoweweretoldthattheywouldbemuchbetteroffbynow.Wouldthattheywere.

hopesandwishes:may

5.210 InveryformalEnglish,mayisusedtoexpressahopeorwish.Longmaytheycontinuetodoit.Mayhejustifyourhopesandrisetothetop.

Indicatingimportance5.211 Modals can be used in declarative sentences to say that it is important that something is done.

Differentmodalsindicatedifferentdegreesofimportance.

importance:must

5.212 Mustisusedinthreecommonwaystotalkabouttheimportanceofdoingsomething.Youusemustwithyouorwe tourgesomeonetodosomething,becauseyoufeel it is important.Mustnotisusedtourgesomeonenottodosomething.Youmustcomeatonce.Wemustacceptthetruthaboutourselves.Youmustnotworry.Youmustn’tlethersufferforit.Haveto,havegotto,andneedtocanbeusedinsteadofmusttotalkabouttheimportanceofdoing

something.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs5.244and5.245.Youusemusttosaythatsomethingisrequiredbyaruleorlaw.Peoplewhoqualifymustapplywithinsixmonths.EuropeanCommunitystandardsmustbemet.Youusemusttosaythatitisnecessarythatsomethinghappensorisdone,inorderthatsomethingelsecanhappen.Meadowsmusthaverain.Totravelproperlyyoumusthaveavalidticket.

necessity:willhaveto,willneedto

5.213 Ifyouwanttosaythatanactionwillbenecessaryinthefuture,youusewillhavetoorwillneedto.Theywillhavetopayfortherepairs.MrSmithwillhavetomakethefuneralarrangements.Youwillneedtocoveritwithsomekindofsheeting.Electricclockswillneedtobereset.

necessity:shallhaveto

5.214 ShallhavetoissometimesusedinsteadofwillhavetoafterIorwe.IshallhavetospeakaboutthattoPeter.Weshallhavetoassumethatyouareright.

Thisisaslightlyformaluse,andisrarelyusedinAmericanEnglish.

importance:shouldandoughtto

5.215 Shouldandoughttoareusedinthreedifferentwayswhenyouaretalkingabouttheimportanceofdoingsomething.Youuseshouldoroughttowhenyouaretryingtohelpsomeonebyadvisingthemtodosomething.Carbonsteelknivesshouldbewipedcleanafteruse.Youshouldclaimyourpension3-4monthsbeforeyouretire.Yououghttotryadifferentapproach.Youuseshouldoroughttowhenyouaresayingthatsomethingistherightorcorrectthingtodo.Weshouldsendherapostcard.Thejudgesshouldofferconstructivecriticism.Weoughttostaywithhim.Yououghtnottodothat.Youuseshouldoroughttowithhaveandan-edparticipletosaythatsomethingwasdesirableinthepast,althoughitdidnotinfacthappen.

Onesailorshouldhavebeenasleepandoneonwatch.Weoughttohavestayedintonight.Amorejuniormemberofstaffoughttohavedonethework.Youalsouseshouldandoughttotosaythatyouexpectsomethingtohappen.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph5.133.

Introducingwhatyouaregoingtosay5.216 Sometimesyouintroducewhatyouaregoingtosaybyusingamodalfollowedbyaverbsuchas

sayorask thatrefers to theactofsayingsomething.Youcanalsocombineamodalwithaverbsuchasthinkorbelievethatreferstotheholdingofanopinion.Youuseamodalinordertosoundmorepolite,ortoshowyourfeelingsaboutwhatyouaregoingtosay.In structures like these, the subject is usually I. Sometimes you use an impersonal structurebeginningwith it oryou. For example, insteadof saying I ought tomention that he hadneverbeenthere,youcansayItoughttobementionedthathehadneverbeenthere.

importance:must

5.217 Ifyoufeelstronglythatwhatyouaresayingisimportant,youusemust.Imustapologizetoyou.Imustobject.Itmustbesaidthathehasapoint.

importance:shouldandoughtto

5.218 Ifyoufeelthatitisimportantorappropriatethatsomethingissaid,youindicatethatyouaregoingtosayitbyusingshouldoroughtto.Ishouldexplainatthispointthattherearetwodifferentsortsofmicroscope.ItshouldalsobesaidthatIlearnedagreatdealfromtheexperience.Ioughttostressthatthiswasnotatrial.PerhapsIoughttoconcludewithaslightlymorelight-heartedquestion.

politeness:canandcould

5.219 Ifyouwanttosaysomethingduringadiscussion,youcanindicatepolitelythatyouaregoingtosayitbyusingcan.PerhapsIcanmentionanotherpossibility.IfIcanjustinterveneforonemoment…Ifyouwanttobeevenmorepolite,youusecould.PerhapsIcouldjustillustratethisbymentioningtwocasesthatIknowofpersonally.PerhapsIcouldjustaskyouthis…

5.220 Youalsousecanandcouldwhenyouarementioninganopinionorawayofdescribingsomething.Cansuggeststhatyouapproveoftheopinionordescription.Suchbehaviourcanbeareactiontodeepemotionalupset.Couldismoreneutral.Youcouldarguethatthisisirrelevant.Youcouldcallitapoliticaloffence.

approval:mayandmight

5.221 Mayandmightcanalsobeusedtomentionanopinionorawayofdescribingsomething.Maysuggeststhatyouapproveoftheopinionordescription.Itismoreformalthancan.This,itmaybeadded,greatlystrengthenedhiminhisresolve.Mightalsosuggeststhatyouapproveoftheopinionordescription.Youusemightwhenyouthinkthereisapossibilitythatthepersonyouaretalkingtowilldisagreewithyou.Youmightsayshe’sentitledtogetangry.That,onemightargue,isnottooterrible.

politeness:shouldandwould

5.222 Ifyouarestatinganopinionofyourown,youcanshowpolitelythatyouaregoingtostateitbyusingshould.Ishouldthinkitwouldlastquitealongtime.Wouldisusedinasimilarway,butislesscommon.Iwouldguessitmaywellcomedowntocost.

Expressionsusedinsteadofmodals5.223 Severalordinaryverbsandfixedexpressionsareusedtoexpressthesameattitudesandideasas

modals.These verbs and expressions are explained in the following paragraphs.Each group ofparagraphs corresponds to an earlier section in the chapter dealingwith the use ofmodals in aparticulartypeofsituation.

sayingwhethersomethingispossible

5.224 Be able to and be possible to can be used instead of can and could to say whether or notsomethingispossible.Thesubjectofbeabletoandbeunabletousuallyreferstoapersonorgroupofpeople,butitcanrefertoanylivingthing.Itcanalsorefertosomethingorganizedoroperatedbypeople,suchasacompany,acountry,oramachine.Thesubjectofbepossibletoisalwaystheimpersonalpronounit.

5.225 Ifyouwanttosaythatitispossibleforsomeoneorsomethingtodosomething,youcanusebeable

to.Allmembersareabletoclaimtravellingexpenses.Thecollegeisabletoofferawidechoiceofsubjects.Youusebeabletowithanegative tosay that it isnotpossibleforsomeoneorsomething todosomething.Theyarenotabletorunfastorthrowaball.

5.226 Youalsousebeunabletotosaythatitisnotpossibleforsomeoneorsomethingtodosomething.IamhavingmedicaltreatmentandI’munabletowork.Weareunabletocommentonthis.

5.227 Youalsousebepossibletowithitasthesubjecttosaythatsomethingispossible.Youusuallyusethisexpressiontosaythatsomethingispossibleforpeopleingeneral,ratherthanforanindividualperson.Itispossibletoinsureagainstlossofearnings.Isitpossibletoprogrammeacomputertospeak?Ifyouusebepossibletotosaythatsomethingispossibleforaparticularpersonorgroup,youputforandanounphraseafterpossible.Itispossibleforustomeasurehisprogress.It’spossibleforeachdepartmenttosupportnewmembers.Youusebepossibletowithanegativetosaythatsomethingisnotpossible.Itisnotpossibletoquantifytheeffect.

5.228 Youcanalsousebeimpossibletotosaythatsomethingisnotpossible.Itisimpossibletofixtheexactmomentintimewhenithappened.ItisimpossibleforhimtowatchTVandtalk.

5.229 Tochangethetenseofbeableto,beunableto,bepossibleto,orbeimpossibleto,yousimplychangetheformofbetoanappropriatesimpleform.Thedoctorwillbeabletospendmoretimewiththepatient.Theirparentswereunabletosendthemanymoney.Itwasnotpossibletodismisshisbehaviourasacontributingfactor.Itwasimpossibleforhertoobeythisorder.

5.230 Allmodalsexceptcanandcouldcanbeusedwiththeseexpressions.Amachineoughttobeabletodothis.TheUnitedStateswouldbeunabletoproduceanywood.Itmaybeimpossibletopredictwhichwaythingswilldevelop.

5.231 Usedtocanbeusedwithbeabletoandbepossibleto.Youusedtobeabletogotothedoctorforthat.Itusedtobepossibletobuysecond-handwigs.Formoreinformationaboutusedto,seeparagraphs5.254to5.258.

sayinghowlikelysomethingis

5.232 Youcanusehavetoorhavegottoinsteadofmust toshowthatyouthinksomethingisthecase,becauseofparticularfactsorcircumstances.‘Thatlooksaboutright.’–‘Ithastobe.’Moneyhasgottobethereason.

5.233 Youcanusebegoingtoinsteadofwilltosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappenorbethecaseinthefuture.Thechildrenaregoingtobefishermenorfarmers.Lifeisgoingtobeabiteasierfromnowon.

5.234 Youcanusebeboundtoorbesuretotosayemphaticallythatsomethingiscertaintohappeninthefuture.Marion’sboundtobebacksoon.Itwasboundtohappensoonerorlater.Theroadsaresuretobebusythisweekend.

givinginstructionsandmakingrequests

5.235 Insteadofbeginningaquestionwithcanorcouldwhenyouaremakingarequest,youcanbeginitwithisandtheimpersonalpronounit.Afterit,youputanexpressionsuchasallrightandeitherato-infinitiveclauseoranif-clause.Isitallrightforhimtocomeinandsitandreadhispaper?Isitokayifwehavelunchhere?

5.236 Youcanusewant insteadofwould like to give an instructionormake a request.Want ismoredirectandlesspolitethanwouldlike.Iwantyoutoturntothefrontoftheatlas.Iwanttoknowwhatyouthinkaboutthis.Iwanttospeaktothemanager.Wantedisalsosometimesused.Itismorepolitethanwant.Iwantedtoaskifyoucouldgiveusanyadvice.Goodmorning,IwantedtobookaholidayintheSouthofFrance.

statinganintention

5.237 Youcanusebegoingtoinsteadofwilltostateanintention.IamgoingtotalktoBoris.I’mgoingtoshowyouourlittleschool.

5.238 Youuseintendtotostateafairlystrongintention.IintendtogotoCannesforamonthinAugust.Idon’tintendtostayverylong.

5.239 Youusebedeterminedtoorberesolvedtotoindicateaverystrongintentiontodosomething.Beresolvedtoisratherformal.I’mdeterminedtotry.ShewasresolvedtomarryarichAmerican.

5.240 You can use have to or have got to instead ofmust to show that it is important that you dosomething.Ihavetogethomenow.It’ssomethingIhavegottoovercome.

expressingunwillingness

5.241 Youcanuse I amnot insteadof Iwill not to say firmly that you are unwilling to door acceptsomething.Iamnotisfollowedbyan-ingparticiple.Iamnotstayinginthishospital.I’mnothavingdirtyrugs.

5.242 Youcanuserefuseinsteadofwillnotwhenyouarerefusingtodosomething.Refuseisfollowedbyato-infinitiveclause.Irefusetolistpossiblereasons.Irefusetopay.

5.243 Youcanuseunwillingorreluctantwithato-infinitiveclausetosaythatsomeoneisnotwillingtodooracceptsomething.Heisunwillingtoanswerthequestions.Theyseemedreluctanttotalkaboutwhathadhappened.You can use several adjectives after not to say that someone is unwilling to do or acceptsomething.Exportersarenotwillingtosupplygoodsoncredit.I’mnotpreparedtoteachhimanything.Thompsonisnotkeentoseehistoryrepeatitself.

indicatingimportance

5.244 Youcanusehavetoorhavegottoinsteadofmusttosaythatsomethingisnecessaryorextremelyimportant.Wehavetolookmorecloselyattherecordoftheirworktogether.Thishasgottobeputright.You’vegottobeabletocommunicate.

5.245 Needtocanalsobeusedinsteadofmustorhaveto.Weneedtochangethebalanceofpower.Youdonotneedtoworry.

5.246 Youcanalsosaythatsomethingisimportantornecessarybyusingasentencebeginningwiththe

impersonalpronounit,followedby is,anadjectivesuchas importantornecessary,anda that-clause.Itisimportantthatyoushouldknowpreciselywhatisgoingon.Itisessentialthatimmediateactionshouldbetaken.Itisvitalthatamothertakestimetogettoknowherbaby.Importantandnecessarycanalsobefollowedbyato-infinitiveclause.It’simportanttorecognizewhatindustryneedsatthismoment.Itisnecessarytoexaminethisclaimbeforeweproceedanyfurther.

5.247 Youcanusehadbetterinsteadofshouldoroughttotosaythatsomethingistherightorcorrectthingtodo.YouusehadbetterwithIorwetoshowanintention.Youuseitwithyouwhenyouaregivingadviceorawarning.IthinkIhadbettershowthistomybrother.Hedecidedthatwehadbettermeet.You’dbettergo.

Semi-modals5.248 Dare,need,andusedtocanbeusedasmodals,ortheycanbeusedinotherways.Whentheyare

usedasmodals,theyhavesomecharacteristicsthatothermodalsdonothave.Forthesereasons,theyaresometimescalledsemi-modals.Theuseofdareandneedasmodalsisexplainedinparagraphs5.249to5.253.Theuseofusedtoasamodalisexplainedinparagraphs5.254to5.258.

dareandneed

5.249 Whendareandneedareusedasmodals,theyhavethesamemeaningaswhentheyarefollowedbyato-infinitiveclause.However,theyarenormallyusedasmodalsonlyinnegativesentencesandinquestions.Nobodydaredisturbhim.Noparentdarelettheirchildroamfree.Hetoldherthatsheneednotworry.Howdareyouspeaktomelikethat?Needyougososoon?

Neednotisoftenshortenedtoneedn’t.Darenotissometimesshortenedtodaren’tinBritishEnglishbutthiscontractionisveryrareinAmericanEnglish.Idaren’tringJeremyagain.Weneedn’tworryaboutthat.

inflectedforms

5.250 Unlikeothermodals,darehassomeinflectedformsthatareoccasionallyused.Inthepresentsimple,thethirdpersonsingularformcanbeeitherdareordares.

Hedarenotadmithehadforgottenhername.Whatnobodydaressuggestisthatthechildrenaresimplyspoilt.Inthepastsimple,eitherdareordaredcanbeused.Dareismoreformalthandared.Hedarenottakehiseyesoffhisassailant.Hedarednotshowhewaspleased.Needisnotinflectedwhenitisusedasamodal.

usewithothermodals

5.251 Normally,modalscannotbeusedwithothermodals.Howeverdarecanbeusedwithwill,would,should,andmight.Noonewilldareoverridewhatthetownsdecide.Iwouldn’tdaregototherealone.

usewithdo

5.252 Unlikeothermodals,darecanbeusedwiththeauxiliaryverbdo.Wedonotdareexamineit.Don’tyoueverdarecomehereagain!Inordinaryspeech,didnotdareanddidn’tdarearemuchmorecommonthandarednotordarenot.Shedidnotdareleavethepath.Ididn’tdarespeakormove.Wedidn’tdaresaythatwewouldprefertogohome.

otherusesofdareandneed

5.253 Besides being used as modals, dare and need are used in other ways in which they are notfollowedbythebaseformofanotherverb.Bothverbscanbefollowedbyato-infinitiveclause,andneedisacommontransitiveverb.

usedto

5.254 Usedtocannotbeusedwithothermodals.SheusedtogetquitecrosswithLily.…theseWesternsthatusedtodosowellinHollywood.Whatdidweusetocallit?However,usedtocanbeusedwiththeauxiliaryverbdo.This isexplainedinparagraphs5.257and5.258.Usedissometimesregardedasamodal,ratherthanusedto.Usedisthensaidtobefollowedbyato-infinitive.

5.255 Used to is used to say that something happened regularly or existed in the past, although it nolongerhappensorexists.Used to is similar towouldwhen it is used to describe repeated actions in the past.However,unlikewould,usedtocanalsodescribepaststatesandsituations.I’mnotquiteasmadasIusedtobe.Youusedtobringmeflowersallthetime.Theuseofwouldtotalkaboutthingsthathappenedregularlyinthepastisdealtwithinparagraph5.114.

omittingthefollowingverbphrase

5.256 Usedtocanbeusedonitsownwithoutafollowingverbphrasewhenitisclearfromthecontextwhatthesubjectmatteris.Peopledon’tworkashardastheyusedto.Idon’tfeelBritishanymore.NotasmuchasIusedto.

negatives

5.257 Usedtoisnotcommoninnegativestructures.

Ininformalspeech,peoplesometimesmakenegativestatementsbyputtingdidn’tinfrontofusedto.Thisissometimesrepresentedasuseto.Theydidn’tusetomindwhatwedid.However,manypeopleconsiderthisusetobeincorrect.Anotherwaytoformthenegativeistoputneverinfrontofusedto.WhereIwasbefore,weneverusedtohavepostersonthewalls.Sometimesnotisputbetweenusedandto.Thisisafairlyformaluse.Itusednottobetaxable.Somegrammarbooksgiveacontractedformforthenegative,usedn’ttoorusen’tto.Thisisnowrarelyused,andisthoughttobeveryold-fashioned.

questions

5.258 Younormallyformquestionswithusedtobyputtingdidinfrontofthesubject,followedbyusedtooruseto.Wh-questionsareformedbyputtingthewh-wordatthebeginning,followedbyusedto.Didsheusedtobenice?Whatusedtoannoyyoumostabouthim?Youcanformnegativequestionsbyputtingdidn’t infrontofthesubject,followedbythesubjectandusedtooruseto.Didn’ttheyusetomind?

InmoreformalEnglish,didisputinfrontofthesubjectandnotafterit,followedbyusedtooruseto.Didshenotusetosmile?

Chapter6Expressingmannerandplace:otheradverbials

6.1–15 Introduction

6.7–15 Positionofadverbials

6.16–72 Adverbs

6.16 Typesofadverb6.17–29 Adverbformsandmeaningsrelatedtoadjectives6.30–35 Comparativeandsuperlativeadverbs6.36–44 Adverbsofmanner6.45–52 Adverbsofdegree6.53–64 Adverbsofplace6.65–72 Destinationsanddirections

6.73–127 Prepositions

6.78 Positionofprepositionalphrases6.79–83 Afterverbsindicatingmovement6.84–92 Showingposition6.93–99 Showingdirection

6.100–101 Prepositionalphrasesafternouns6.102–110 Otherusesofprepositionalphrases6.111–116 Prepositionsusedwithverbs6.117–120 Prepositionalphrasesafternounsandadjectives

6.121 Extendedmeaningsofprepositions6.122–127 Otherwaysofgivinginformationaboutplace

6 Expressingmannerandplace:otheradverbials

Introduction6.1 Whenyouaretalkingaboutaneventorasituation,yousometimeswanttosaysomethingaboutit

thathasnotbeen indicatedby the subject,verb,object,orcomplement.Youdo thisbyusinganadverbial.Anadverbial isawordorgroupofwords thatyouusewhenyouwant tosaywhenaneventorsituationoccurs,howitoccurs,howmuchitoccurs,orwhereitoccurs.Iwassoonlost.Shelaughedquietly.Shewastremendouslyimpressed.Hefumbledinhispocket.

adverbphrases

6.2 Thetwomaintypesofadverbialareadverbphrasesandprepositionalphrases.Heactedveryclumsily.Icannotspeaktoohighlyoftheircourageandskill.Hetakeshisjobveryseriouslyindeed.Hedidnotplaywellenoughthroughouttheweektodeservetowin.However,adverbsveryoftenoccurontheirown.Ishookhergently.HegreatlyadmiredCezanne.HescarcelyknewhisauntThenumberwillprobablybehigherthanweexpected.Formoreinformationaboutadverbs,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.16.

prepositionalphrases

6.3 Adverbialsthatconsistofaprepositionandanoun,suchasinaboxandtothestation,arecalledprepositionalphrases.Thesearedealtwithindetailinthesectionbeginningatparagraph6.73.Largecushionslayonthefloor.Thevoicewascomingfrommyapartment.

nounphrases

6.4 Occasionally,nounphrasescanalsobeusedasadverbials.Hewaslookingreallyillthistimeyesterday.I’mgoingtohandlethismyway.When noun phrases are used as adverbials, theymost often relate to time. Time adverbials aredealtwithinChapter4.Nounphrasesthatrelatetoplacearedealtwithatparagraph6.72; thosethatrelatetomanneraredealtwithatparagraph6.44,andthosethatrelatetodegreeatparagraph6.52.Formoreinformationonnounphrasesingeneral,seeChapters1and2.

addingmeaningtoverbphrases

6.5 The most common way in which adverb phrases give additional information is by addingsomethingtothemeaningofaverbphrase.Henoddedandsmiledwarmly.Thereportsaysthathospitalsandrescueservicescopedextremelywell.Icouldfindthatoutfairlyeasily.Prepositionalphraseshaveawiderrangeofmeanings.Itwasestimatedthatatleast2,000peoplewereonthetwotrains.KennyStuartcamesecond,knockingtwominutesoffhispreviousbesttime.ForthefirsttimesinceI’dbeenpregnantIfeltwell.Manyintransitiveverbsnormallyrequireanadverbial.Seeparagraph3.10formoreinformationaboutthese.Ashtonhadbehavedabominably.Sheturnedandrushedoutoftheroom.Some transitive verbs normally require an adverbial after the object of the verb. For moreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraph3.19.Iputmyhandonthedoor.

addingmeaningtoclauses

6.6 Adverbials can also add meaning to a whole clause, for example by giving the writer’s orspeaker’scommentonit.Formoreinformation,seethesectiononsentenceadverbialsbeginningatparagraph9.56.Obviouslycrimeisgoingtobesqueezedinavarietyofways.Fortunately,thedamagehadbeenslight.Ideallythedairyshouldhaveaconcreteortiledfloor.NodoubtshelovesGertrudetoo.They can also show the way in which one sentence is linked to another clause. For moreinformation,seethesectiononsentenceconnectorsbeginningatparagraph10.48.Thesecondparagraphrepeats the informationgiven in the firstparagraph.Therefore, it isn’t

necessary.

Positionofadverbials6.7 The position of adverbials within clauses is flexible, allowing many changes of emphasis and

focus.Adverbialsarenormallyplacedattheendoftheclauseaftertheverbphrase,orafteranobjectifthereisone.Shepackedcarefully.Theywouldgoontalkingforhours.Ienjoyedthecourseimmensely.

beginningofclauseforemphasis

6.8 Youcanemphasizetheadverbialbyplacingitatthebeginningoftheclause,infrontofthesubject.GentlyFionaleanedforwardandwipedtheoldlady’stearsaway.InhisexcitementBillyhadforgottentheletter.Theadverbialisoftenseparatedbyacommafromtherestoftheclause.Aftermuchdiscussion,theyhaddecidedtotakethecointothejeweller.This position is often used in written stories to draw attention to the adverbial. For moreinformation,seeparagraph9.70.Notethatadverbsofdegreearerarelyusedatthebeginningofaclause:seeparagraph6.45.

betweensubjectandverb

6.9 Adverbials can also be placed between the subject and the main verb. This focuses on theadverbialmorethanwhenitisattheendoftheclause,butnotasmuchasputtingitatthebeginningoftheclause.However,thispositionismuchmorecommonwithadverbsthanwithprepositionalphrases.Iquicklybecameawarethatshewaslookingatme.Weoftenswaminthesurf.Hecarefullywrappedeachcomponentinseverallayersoffoamrubber.Henoisilyopenedthefridgeandtookoutacartonofmilk.Notethat inverbphrasescontainingauxiliaries, theadverbial isstillplacedinfrontof themainverb.Ihadalmostforgottenaboutthetrip.Wewillneverhaveenoughmoneytoprovidealltheservicesthatpeoplewant.Itwouldnotinanycasebeforhim.Longadverbialsinthispositionareusuallyseparatedbycommasfromtherestoftheclause.Fred,inhisownway,wasagreatactor.Adverbialsofplacerarelyoccurinthisposition.Formoreinformationaboutadverbialsofplace,

seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.53.

6.10 Someadverbialsareoftenplacedinfrontofthemainverb:mostadverbsofindefinitefrequency(seeparagraph4.114)

alwaysconstantlycontinuallycontinuouslyeverfrequentlyhardlyevernevernormallyoccasionallyoftenrarelyregularlyrepeatedlyseldomsometimesusually

someadverbsofindefinitetime(seeparagraph4.41)

againalreadyearlierfinallyfirstjustlastpreviouslyrecentlysince

some adverbs of degree (see paragraph 6.45), especially emphasizing adverbs (see paragraph6.49)

absolutelyalmostaltogetherbadlycompletelydeeplyentirelyfairly

greatlylargelynearlyperfectlyquiteratherreallysomewhattotallyutterlyvirtuallywell

focusingadverbs,whenmodifyingaverb(seeparagraph9.67)

evenjustmerelyonlyreallysimply

Notethatsomeadverbshaveadifferentreferencewhentheyareplacedinfrontofthemainverbratherthanattheendoftheclause:TheTradeUnionshaveactedfoolishly.Baldwinhadfoolishlyopenedthedoor.Thefirstexamplemeans that theUnionsacted ina foolishway.Thesecondexamplemeans thatopeningthedoorwasafoolishaction,andnotthatthedoorwasopenedinafoolishway.Americansalwaystipgenerously.Hegenerouslyofferedtodrivemehome.ThefirstexampletellsushowwellAmericanstip,thesecondexampleindicatesthathisofferwasagenerousaction.

USAGENOTE

6.11 Iftheverbisato-infinitive,youusuallyputanadverbafterit,oraftertheobjectifthereisone.Hetriedtoleavequietly.Thomasmadeanappointmenttoseehimimmediately.Somepeople,however,particularlywhentheyarespeaking,doputadverbsbetweenthetoandtheinfinitive.ThisuseisconsideredtobeincorrectbysomespeakersofEnglish.Mywifetoldmetoprobablyexpectyou,hesaid.Vauxhallareattemptingtoreallybreakintothemarket.Sometimes,however,ifyouavoidputtingtheadverbbetweenthetoandtheinfinitive,youchange

theemphasisofthesentence,oritcansoundclumsy.Insuchcases,splittingtheinfinitive,asitiscalled,isnowgenerallyconsideredacceptable.Participantswillbeencouragedtoactivelyparticipateintheworkshop.Iwantyoutoreallyenjoyyourself.NotethatthesecondexampleabovemeansIwantyoutoenjoyyourselfverymuch.IfyousaidIreallywantyou toenjoyyourself, youwouldmean It is very important forme thatyouenjoyyourself.

minorpointsaboutposition

6.12 Ifaclausehastwoadverbials,andoneisanadverbandtheotherisaprepositionalphrase,youcanusuallyplaceeitherofthemfirst.MissBurnslookedcalmlyatMarianne.Theyweresittinghappilyinthecar.Thewomenshoutedatmesavagely.Hegotintothecarquicklyanddroveoff.However, if theprepositionalphraseisrather long, it ismorecommontoplacetheadverbfirst,immediatelyaftertheverb.Helistenedcalmlytothereportofhisaides.Shewouldsitcross-leggedinherredrobes.Similarly, if the verbphrase is followedby a longobject, the adverb comes after the verb andbeforetheobject.Shesangbeautifullyaschoolsongthechildrenhadtaughtherwhentheywerelittle.

manner,place,thentime

6.13 Inclauseswithmorethanoneadverbial,themeaningoftheadverbialscanalsoaffecttheirorder.Theusualorderisadverbialofmanner,thenadverbialofplace,thentimeadverbial.Theykneltquietlyintheshadowoftherock.Itriedtoreachyouathomeseveraltimes.HewasimprisonedinCairoinJanuary1945.Parentsmaycomplainthattheirchildeatsbadlyatmeals.Theyoungstersrepeatthisinunisonatthebeginningofeachsession.However,ifaclausecontainsanadverbofmannerandanadverbofdirectionsuchasdown,out,orhome,theadverbofdirectionisusuallyputinfrontoftheadverbofmanner.Lomaxdrovehomefast.Ireacheddownslowly.

adverbialsofthesametype

6.14 Adverbials of different types can be placed together, sometimes separated by a comma, but

adverbials of the same type, for example two adverbials of manner, are usually linked byconjunctionssuchasandandbut,orstructuressuchasrather than.Formore informationabouthowtolinkadverbialsusingconjunctions,seeparagraph8.188.Shesangclearlyandbeautifully.Theyhelptocombattheproblematsource,ratherthansuperficially.

changingwordorderafteradverbials

6.15 Whenclausesbeginwithanadverbial,thenormalorderofsubjectandverbissometimeschanged.For example, after adverbials of place, the verb usually comes before the subject. For moreinformationaboutadverbialsofplace,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.53.Nexttoitstoodapileofpapercups.Beyondthemlaythefields.This also happens when broad negative adverbs such as hardly and barely, and some othernegativewordsareplacedat thebeginningof theclause.Formoreinformationabout these,seeparagraphs5.49to5.93.Neverinhistoryhadtechnologymadesuchspectacularadvances.Seldomcantherehavebeensuchahappymeeting.Bothof thesecasesareparticularlycommon inwrittenstories.Achange in thenormalorderofsubjectandverbcanoccurafterotheradverbs,butonly inpoetryorold-fashionedEnglish.ThefollowingexampleisfromaChristmascarolwrittenin1843:Brightlyshonethemoonthatnight,thoughthefrostwascruel.

Adverbs

Typesofadverb6.16 Thereareseveraltypesofadverb:

adverbsoftime,frequency,andduration,forexamplesoon,often,andalways.Becausetheseareallrelatedtotime,theyaredealtwithfullyinChapter4.adverbsofplace,forexamplearound,downstairs,andunderneath.Thesearedealtwithinthe

sectiononplacebeginningatparagraph6.53.adverbsofmanner,forexamplebeautifully,carefully,andsilently.Seethesectionbeginning

atparagraph6.36formoreinformationaboutthese.adverbsofdegree,forexamplealmost,badly,terribly,andwell.Seethesectionbeginningat

paragraph6.45formoreinformationaboutthese.sentenceconnectors, for example consequently, furthermore, andhowever. These are dealt

withinparagraphs10.48to10.56.sentence adverbs, for example alas, apparently, chiefly, and interestingly. See the section

beginningatparagraph9.79formoreinformationonthese.broadnegativeadverbs, forexamplebarely,hardly,rarely,scarcely,andseldom.Theseare

dealtwithatparagraphs5.82to5.89.focusing adverbs, for example especially and only. These are dealt with in the section

beginningatparagraph9.64.

Adverbformsandmeaningsrelatedtoadjectives

-lyadverbs

6.17 Many adverbs are related to adjectives. The main relationships and rules of formation areexplainedbelow.Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective. For example, the adverbsquietly andbadlyareformedbyadding-lytotheadjectivesquietandbad.Mostoftheadverbsformedinthiswayareadverbsofmanner,sosomepeoplerefertoadverbsofmanneras-lyadverbs.Sittherequietly,andlistentothismusic.Ididn’tplaybadly.Hereportedaccuratelywhattheysaid.Henoddedandsmiledwarmly.Formoreinformationaboutadjectives,seeChapter2.

spelling

6.18 Some -ly adverbs have slightly different spellings from the adjectives they are related to, forexample nastily, gently, terribly, academically, truly, and fully. For information about theseadverbs,seetheReferencesection.

6.19 Not all adverbs ending in -ly are adverbs of manner. Some are adverbs of degree, such asextremelyandslightly:seethelistatparagraph6.45.Ienjoyedthecourseimmensely.Salesfellslightlylastmonth.Afewareadverbsoftime,duration,orfrequency,suchaspresently,briefly,andweekly:seethelistsoftheseinChapter4.At10.15a.m.soldiersbrieflyopenedfireagain.Theseallegationsarecurrentlybeinginvestigatedbymylegalteam.Others are adverbs of place, such as locally and internationally, linking adverbs such asconsequently,orsentenceadverbssuchasactually.Forlistsofadverbsofplace,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.53.Forlistsofsentenceadverbs,seeChapter9.Theylivelocallyandtheyhavenevercausedanybother.Theseeffortshavereceivedlittlecreditinternationally.Theydidnotpreach.Consequently,theyreachedavastlywideraudience.Therestillremainssomethingtosay.Severalthings,actually.

adverbmeaning

6.20 Mostadverbs formedbyadding -ly to anadjectivehavea similarmeaning to the adjective, forexamplequietlyandbeautifullyhavesimilarmeaningstoquietandbeautiful.Sheisthoughtful,quietandcontrolled.‘I’mgoingtodoit,’Isaidquietly.Hiscostumesarebeautiful,abigimprovementonthepreviousones.Thegirlshaddressedmorebeautifullythanever,forhim.

6.21 Some -ly adverbs have a different meaning from the meanings of their related adjectives. Forexample,hardlymeansnotverymuchoralmostnotatallandisnotusedwithanyofthemeaningsoftheadjectivehard.Thishasbeenalonghardday.Herbedroomwassosmallshecouldhardlymoveinit.Here is a list of adverbs ending in -ly that have a differentmeaning from themeanings of theirrelatedadjectives:

barelyhardlylatelypresentlyscarcelyshortly

6.22 Some -ly adverbs are not related to adjectives, for example accordingly. Some are related tonouns, for example bodily, purposely, daily andweekly. For lists of these, see the Referencesection.

6.23 Adverbsendingin-lyareveryrarelyformedfromsometypesofadjective:mostclassifyingadjectives,forexampleracist,eastern,female,urban,foreign,andavailable.

SeeChapter2forlistsofclassifyingadjectives.most colour adjectives, although -ly adverbs from these are occasionally found in works of

literature.Thehillsrisegreenlytothedeep-bluesky.Helaystill,staringblacklyupattheceiling.someverycommonqualitativeadjectivesthatrefertobasicqualities:

bigfatoldsmalltalltinywet

young

adjectivesthatalreadyendin-ly,forexamplefriendly,lively,cowardly,ugly,andsilly.mostadjectivesthatendin-ed,suchasfrightenedandsurprised.SeetheReferencesectionfor

alistofthecommononesthatdoform-lyadverbs,suchasexcitedlyandhurriedly.

sameformasadjective:afastcar,drivefast

6.24 In some cases, an adverb has the same form as an adjective and is similar in meaning. Forexample,fastisanadverbinthesentenceNewstravelsfastandanadjectiveinthesentenceShelikesfastcars.…afastraillinkfromLondontotheChannelTunnel.Thedriverwasdrivingtoofastfortheconditions.Inthesecases,theadverbisusuallyplacedimmediatelyaftertheverborobject,andrarelyinfrontoftheverb.

alikedowntownextrafarfastinsidelongnextoutsideoverseaspaststraightthrough

Somewordsendingin-lyarebothadverbsandadjectives,forexampledaily,monthly,andyearly.Theserelatetofrequencyandareexplainedinparagraph4.120.

6.25 Severalpostdeterminers,includingfurther,next,only,opposite,andsame,havethesameformasadverbsbutnodirectrelation inmeaning.Note thatwell isanadverbandadjective,butusuallymeansnotillasanadjective,andwithskillorsuccessasanadverb.Hehasdonewell.

twoforms:dear/dearly,hard/hardly,etc.

6.26 Sometimes, twoadverbsarerelatedtothesameadjective.Oneadverbhasthesameformastheadjective,andtheotherisformedbyadding-ly.Heclosedhiseyestight.Heclosedhiseyestightly.

Failuremayyetcosthiscountrydear.Holesintheroadareamenacewhichcoststhiscountrydearlyinlostmanhourseveryyear.TheGermanmanufacturerwasurgingmetocutoutthemiddlemananddealwithhimdirect.Thetrendinrecentyearshasbeentodealdirectlywiththesupplier.Hereisalistofcommonadverbsthathaveboththeseforms:

clearclearlyclosecloselydeardearlydeepdeeplydirectdirectlyeasyeasilyfinefinelyfirstfirstlyhardhardlyhighhighlylastlastlylatelatelythickthicklythinthinlytighttightly

Notethatthe-lyadverboftenhasadifferentmeaningfromtheadverbwiththesameformastheadjective,Theriverwasrunninghighandswiftly.Ithoughthighlyoftheidea.Hehasworkedhard.Bordercouldhardlymakehimselfheardabovethedin.Whenthesnakestrikes,itsmouthopenswide.Closingdatesforapplicationsvarywidely.Notethat,withsomewordsthatareadverbsandadjectives,theadditionof-lyformsanewadverbandanewadjective,forexampledeadanddeadly,lowandlowly.

noadverbfromadjective

6.27 Some adjectives do not form adverbs at all. These include the common qualitative adjectiveslistedinparagraph6.23,suchasbigandold.Hereisalistofsomemoreadjectivesthatdonotformadverbs:

afraidalivealoneasleepawakecontentdifficultdrunkforeigngoodhurtilllittlelongsorrystandard

Note that the adverbs relating to content and drunk are formed by adding -ly to the formscontentedanddrunken,thusgivingcontentedlyanddrunkenly.

USAGENOTE

6.28 Ifthereisnoadverbrelatedtoanadjective,andyouwanttogiveadditionalinformationaboutaneventorsituation,youcanoftenuseaprepositionalphrase.In some cases, the prepositional phrase involves a noun that is related to the adjective. Forexample, there is no adverb related to the adjectivedifficult, but you can use the related noundifficultyintheprepositionalphrasewithdifficultyinstead.Hestoodupslowlyandwithdifficulty.Inothercases,forexamplewithadjectivesthatendin-ly,ageneralnounsuchasway,manner,orfashionisused.Hewalksinafunnyway.Hegreetedusinhisusualfriendlyfashion.Prepositionalphrasesmaybeusedevenifanadverbdoesexist,forexamplewhenyouwanttoaddmoredetailedinformationortoaddemphasis.Shecomfortedthebereavedrelativesinadignified,compassionateandpersonalizedmanner.Attheseextremevelocities,materialsbehaveinatotallydifferentmannerfromnormal.

adverbsnotrelatedtoadjectives

6.29 Someadverbsarenot related toadjectivesatall.This isespecially trueofadverbsof timeandplace.SeeChapter4foradverbsoftime,andthesectionbeginningatparagraph6.53foradverbsofplace.ItwillsoonbeChristmas.Therearealsosomeotheradverbsthatarenotrelatedtoadjectives.Foralistofthecommonadverbsthatarenotrelatedtoadjectives,seetheReferencesection.

Comparativeandsuperlativeadverbs6.30 Youmaywanttosayhowsomethinghappensorisdoneinrelationtohowithappensonadifferent

occasion,orhowitwasdonebysomeoneorsomethingelse.Youcandothisbyusingadverbsinthecomparativeorsuperlative.Hebegantospeakmorequickly.Thisformoftreatmentismostcommonlyusedinyoungerpatients.Mostadverbsofmanner(seeparagraph6.36)havecomparativesandsuperlatives.Afewotheradverbsalsohavecomparativesandsuperlatives:someadverbsoftime (earlyandlate, see paragraph 4.71), frequency (often and frequently, see paragraph 4.114), duration(briefly,permanently,andlong,seeparagraph4.123),andplace(near,close,deep,high,far,andlow,seeparagraphs6.88and6.60).

6.31 The forms and uses of comparative and superlative adverbs are generally similar to those ofadjectives. For more information about comparatives and superlatives of adjectives, seeparagraphs2.103to2.122.However, unlike adjectives, the comparative of an adverb is usually formedwithmore and thesuperlativewithmost,andnotbyadding-erand-est.Thepeopleneededbusinessskillssothattheycouldmanagethemselvesmoreeffectively.…thetextthatProfessorWilliams’sworkmostcloselyresembles.Valiumismostoftenprescribedasananti-anxietydrug.

irregularforms

6.32 Some very common adverbs have comparatives and superlatives that are singlewords and notformed using more and most. Note that adverbs that have irregular comparatives also haveirregularsuperlatives.Wellhasthecomparativebetterandthesuperlativebest.Shewouldaskhimlater,whensheknewhimbetter.IhavetofindoutwhatIcandobest.Badlyhasthecomparativeworseandthesuperlativeworst.‘Idon’tthinkthecrowdhelpedher,’Gordonadmitted.‘Sheplayedworse.’TheexpeditionfromMozambiquefaredworst.Notethatworseandworstarealsothecomparativeandsuperlativeofillwhenitisanadverboradjective.

6.33 Adverbsthathavethesameformasadjectivesalsohavethesamecomparativesandsuperlativesastheadjectives.Forexample,fasthasfasterandfastest,andhardhasharderandhardest.Foralistofcommonadverbsthathavethesameformasadjectives,seeparagraph6.24.Theyworkedharder,theyweremorehonest.Thewinningblowistheonethatstrikeshardest.Thiswouldenableclaimstobedealtwithfaster.Thistypeofsugardissolvesfastest.

6.34 Someadverbshavecomparativesandsuperlativeswithmoreandmost,butalsohavesingle-wordcomparativesandsuperlatives.Theycanbebuiltmorequickly.Youprobablylearnquickerbyhavinglessons.Thosewomentreatedquickestwerethosemostlikelytodie.TheAmericancomputerfirmwillberelyingmoreheavilyonitsnewScottishplant.Itseemsthattherightsofsoldiersweighheavierthantherightsofthosekilled.TheburdenfellmostheavilyonKanhai.Illiteracyweighsheaviestonthegroupswhoarealreadydisadvantagedinotherways.

USAGENOTE

6.35 Thestructuresinvolvingcomparativesandsuperlativesaregenerallythesameforadverbsasforadjectives:theuseofnoandanywithcomparatives:seeparagraph2.163

Hebegantobehavemoreandmoreerratically.Omorodidn’twanttoexpressitanymorestrongly.theoptionaluseofthewithsuperlatives:seeparagraph2.117

Hisshouldershurttheworst.Oldpeopleworkhardest.the use of words likemuch or a little with comparatives and superlatives: see the section

beginningatparagraph2.157ThesituationresolveditselfmuchmoreeasilythanIhadexpected.Theretheprocessprogressesevenmorerapidly.theuseofthanaftercomparatives:seeparagraph2.106

Thisclasscontinuestogrowmorerapidlythananyothergroup.Priceshavebeenrisingfasterthanincomes.Youmightknowthisbetterthanme.repeatingcomparativestoshowchangesinextent:seeparagraph2.161

Hebegantobehavemoreandmoreerratically.

Adverbsofmanner

adverbsofmanner

6.36 Youoftenwanttosaysomethingaboutthewaysomethingisdoneoraboutthecircumstancesofaneventorsituation.Themostcommonwayofdoingthisisbyusingadverbsofmanner.Adverbsofmannergivemoreinformationaboutthewayinwhichaneventoractiontakesplace.Henoddedandsmiledwarmly.Sheaccidentallyshotherselfinthefoot.

howsomethingisdone:singbeautifully,walkbriskly

6.37 Manyadverbsofmannerareusedtodescribethewayinwhichsomethingisdone.Forexample,inthesentenceHediditcarefully,carefullymeansinacarefulway.Theythink,dressandlivedifferently.Heactedveryclumsily.Youmustbeabletospeakfluentlyandcorrectly.

6.38 Hereisalistofcommon-lyadverbsthatdescribethewayinwhichsomethingisdone:

abruptlyaccuratelyawkwardlybadlybeautifullybrightlybrilliantlybrisklycarefullycarelesslycasuallycheaplyclearlycloselyclumsilycomfortablyconsistentlyconvenientlycorrectlydangerouslydelicatelydifferentlydiscreetlydistinctlydramaticallyeasilyeconomicallyeffectivelyefficientlyevenlyexplicitlyfaintly

faithfullyfiercelyfinelyfirmlyfluentlyformallyfranklyfreelygentlygracefullyhastilyheavilyhonestlyhurriedlyintentlymeticulouslyneatlynicelyoddlypatientlypeacefullypeculiarlyperfectlyplainlypleasantlypolitelypoorlyprofessionallyproperlyquietlyrapidlyreadilyrichlyrigidlyroughlyruthlesslysecurelysensiblysharplysilentlysimplysmoothlysoftlysolidlyspecificallysplendidlysteadilysteeplystifflystrangelysubtlysuperblyswiftlysystematically

tenderlythicklythinlythoroughlythoughtfullytightlytruthfullyuncomfortablyurgentlyvaguelyvigorouslyviolentlyvividlyvoluntarilywarmlywidelywillinglywonderfully

feelingsandmanner:smilehappily,walkwearily

6.39 Adverbs formed from adjectives that describe people’s feelings, for example happily ornervously, indicateboth theway inwhichsomething isdoneand thefeelingsof thepersonwhodoesit.Forexample, thesentenceShelaughedhappilymeansboththatshelaughedinahappywayandthatshewasfeelinghappy.Welaughedandchattedhappilytogether.Gaskellgotupwearilyandheadedforthestairs.Theylookedanxiouslyateachother.Thechildrenwaitedeagerlyfortheirpresents.Thechildrensmiledshyly.

6.40 Hereisalistofadverbsthatdescribethefeelingsofthepersonwhodoessomethingaswellasthewayinwhichitisdone:

angrilyanxiouslybitterlyboldlycalmlycheerfullyconfidentlydesperatelyeagerlyexcitedlyfuriouslygladlygloomilygratefully

happilyhelplesslyhopefullyhopelesslyimpatientlymiserablynervouslypassionatelyproudlyreluctantlysadlyshylysincerelyuncomfortablyuneasilyunhappilywearily

circumstances:talkprivately,workpart-time

6.41 Adverbs ofmanner can also indicate the circumstances inwhich something is done, rather thanhowitisdone.Forexample,inthesentenceHespoketomeprivately,privatelymeanswhennooneelsewaspresentratherthaninaprivateway.Ineedtospeaktoyouprivately.Hehadpubliclycalledforaninvestigationoftheentireschoolsystem.BritainandFrancejointlysuggestedaplanin1954.Ihaveundertakenalltheenquiriespersonally.

6.42 Hereisalistofadverbsthatareusedtoshowthecircumstancesinwhichanactiontakesplace:

accidentallyaloneartificiallyautomaticallybodilycollectivelycommerciallydeliberatelydirectlydulyfirst-classfull-timeillegallyindependentlyindirectlyindividuallyinnocentlyinstinctivelyinvoluntarilyjointly

legallylogicallymechanicallynaturallyofficiallyopenlyovertlypart-timepersonallypoliticallyprivatelypubliclyregardlessretailscientificallysecretlysolospeciallysymbolicallywholesale

forms

6.43 Mostadverbsofmannerareformedfromqualitativeadjectives,forexamplestupidlyfromstupid,andangrilyfromangry.Formoreinformationabouttheformsofadverbs,seeparagraph6.17.

USAGENOTE

6.44 Insteadofusinganadverbofmanner,youcansometimesuseprepositionalphrasesornounphrasestogivemoreinformationaboutthemannerorcircumstancesofanaction.‘Comehere’,hesaidinalowvoice.IknowIhavetodoitthisway.Insomecasesyoumayhavetodothis,becausethereisnoadverb.Seeparagraph6.23.

Adverbsofdegree6.45 Whenyouwant togivemoreinformationabout theextentofanactionor thedegreetowhichan

actionisperformed,youoftenuseanadverbofdegree.Ienjoyedthecourseimmensely.Ihadalmostforgottenaboutthetrip.Achangeofonewordcanradicallyalterthemeaningofastatement.

6.46 Hereisalistofadverbsofdegree:

absolutelyadequatelyalmostaltogether

amazinglyawfullybadlycompletelyconsiderablydearlydeeplydrasticallydreadfullyenormouslyentirelyexceedinglyexcessivelyextensivelyextraordinarilyextremelyfairlyfantasticallyfullygreatlyhalfhardhugelyimmenselyincrediblyintenselyjustlargelymoderatelynearlynoticeablyoutrightpartlyperfectlypoorlypositivelypowerfullypracticallyprettyprofoundlypurelyquiteradicallyratherreallyreasonablyremarkablysignificantlysimplyslightlysomewhatsoundlystronglysufficiently

supremelysurprisinglysuspiciouslyterriblytotallytremendouslytrulyunbelievablyutterlyveryvirtuallywellwonderfully

fromadjectives

6.47 Adverbs of degree are often formed from adjectives by adding -ly. Some are formed fromqualitative adjectives, for example deeply, hugely, and strongly, and some from classifyingadjectives,forexampleabsolutely,perfectly,andutterly.Afewadverbsofdegreeareformedfrompostdeterminers,suchasentirely.SeeChapter2formoreinformationabouttypesofadjectives.

positioninclause

6.48 Youcanuseadverbsofdegreeintheusualpositionsforadverbials.Iadmiredhimgreatly.Igreatlyenjoyedworkingwiththem.Yogacangreatlydiminishstresslevels.However,yourarelyuseanadverbofdegreeatthebeginningofaclause.Forexample,youdonotusuallysayGreatlyIadmiredhim.Formoreinformationaboutplacingadverbsatthebeginningofaclause,seeparagraph9.70.Afewadverbsofdegreearenearlyalwaysusedinfrontofthemainverb:

almostlargelynearlyreallyvirtually

Forexample,youusuallysayHealmostgotthere,notHegottherealmost.Thistypeofinstitutionhaslargelydisappearednow.Hereallyenjoyedtalkingaboutflying.TheresultvirtuallyensuresScotland’splaceinthefinals.

Someadverbsofdegreearealmostalwaysusedafterthemainverb:

altogetherenormouslyhardoutrightsomewhattremendouslywell

Thiswasadifferentlevelofcommunicationaltogether.Theproposalwasrejectedoutright.Ienjoyedthebookenormously.

emphasizingadverbs

6.49 A group of adverbs of degree are called emphasizing adverbs. These are formed fromemphasizingadjectives(seeparagraph2.36).

absolutelycompletelyentirelyjustoutrightperfectlypositivelypurelyquitereallysimplytotallytrulyutterly

Notethattheemphasizingadverboutrighthasthesameformasanadjective,anadverbofmanner,andanadverbofdegree.

6.50 Youuseanemphasizingadverbsuchasabsolutely,just,quite,orsimply toaddemphasis to theactiondescribedbyaverb.Emphasizingadverbsusuallycomeinfrontofverbs.Iquiteagree.Iabsolutelyagree.IjustknowI’mgoingtobelate.Isimplyadorethisflat.In averbphrase, the emphasizing adverb comes after the auxiliaryormodal and in frontof theverb.

Someonehadsimplyappeared.Iwasabsolutelyamazed.However,absolutelyisoccasionallyusedafterverbsaswell.IagreeabsolutelywithwhatGeoffreyhassaid.Forotherusesofemphasizingadverbs,seeparagraphs9.62to9.63.

adverbsofdegreeinfrontofotheradverbs:verycarefully,fairlyeasily

6.51 You can use some adverbs of degree such as very and rather in front of other adverbs.Whenadverbsofdegreeareusedlikethistheyarecalledsubmodifyingadverbs.Theycanalsobeusedinfrontofadjectives; thisuse isexplainedinparagraphs2.140 to2.168,wherelistsofsubmodifyingadverbsandtheirmeaningsarealsogiven.Hepreparedhisspeechverycarefully.Hewashavingtoworkawfullyhard.Thingschangedreallydramatically.Wegetonextremelywellwithourneighbours.Wewereabletoheareverythingprettyclearly.Thepaperdisintegratedfairlyeasily.Hedressedratherformally.Everychildreactssomewhatdifferently.Notethatmoderatelyandreasonablyaremainlyusedinfrontofadverbsthatdonotendin-ly.Heworksreasonablyhard.Afewadverbsofdegreecanbeusedasinthiswaywithcomparatives:seethesectionbeginningatparagraph2.157.Thiscouldallbedoneverymuchmorequickly.Ithankedhimagain,evenmoreprofuselythanbefore.Ihopeyoucanseeslightlymoreclearlywhatisgoingon.Notethatstillcanalsobeplacedafterthecomparative.They’redoingbetterinsomerespectsnow.Ofcoursethey’vegottodobetterstill.

otheradverbsofdegree

6.52 Thereare some special adverbsofdegree.These includemuch,which is used as an adverb ofdegreeinnegativeclauses,andinreportedquestionsafterhow.Shewasdifficultasachildandhasn’tchangedmuch.Thesedefinitionsdonothelpmuch.Haveyoutoldhimhowmuchyoulovehim?Verymuchisalsousedinasimilarway.Sheischarming.Welikeherverymuch.Thecomparativeadverbsbetterandworse and the superlativeadverbsbest andworst are also

adverbsofdegree.Youknowhimbetterthananyoneelse.Itisthelanditselfwhichsuffersworst.Moreandlesscanbeusedascomparativeadverbsofdegree.Hertearsfrightenedhimmorethananythingthathadeverhappenedtohimbefore.Thegroundheatsuplessthere.Mostandleastcanbeusedassuperlativeadverbsofdegree.ShegavemetheopportunitytodowhatIwantedtodomost.Theystagedsomeofhisleastknownoperas.Comparativeadverbsandsuperlativeadverbsareexplainedinthesectionbeginningatparagraph6.30.Thenounphrasesabit,agreatdeal,alittle,andalotarealsousedasadverbsofdegree.Idon’tlikethisabit.Thesituation’schangedagreatdealsincethen.

Adverbsofplace6.53 Adverbsarealsousedafterverbstogiveinformationaboutplace.

Nobirdsoranimalscamenear.Seagullswerecirclingoverhead.Inmanycasesthesamewordcanbeusedasaprepositionandasanadverb.Thelimbwasseveredbelowtheelbow.Thisinformationissummarizedbelow.

adverbsshowingposition

6.54 Hereisalistofwordsthatareusedasadverbstoshowposition.Notethatsomeadverbsconsistofmorethanoneword,forexample,outofdoors.

abroadaheadaloftashoreawayclosetodownstairsdownstreamdowntowndownwindeastwardhalfwayhereindoors

inlandmidwaynearbynextdoornorthwardoffshoreoutdoorsoutofdoorsoverheadoverseassouthwardthereunderfootundergroundunderwaterupstairsupstreamuptownupwindwestwardyonder(American)

Thecommonadverbsofplacethatareusedasadverbsandasprepositionsaresometimescalledadverb particles or adverbial particles. The following words are used as adverbs to showposition,andcanalsobeusedasprepositions:

aboardaboutabovealongsidebehindbelowbeneathbesidebeyondclosebydownininbetweeninsidenearoffoppositeoutsideoverroundthroughoutunderneathup

6.55 Anadverbcanbeusedaloneafteraverbtoshowplaceordirection.Theyoungmenhatedworkingunderground.Theenginedronedonasweflewnorthward.Youcanalsouseanadverbshowingplaceordirectionwhenitisclearfromthecontextwhatplaceordirectionyouare referring to.Forexample,youmayhavementioned theplaceearlier,or theadverbmayrefertoyourownlocation,ortothelocationofthepersonorthingbeingtalkedabout.HemovedtoPortugal,anditwastherewherehelearnttodothesamba.Shewalkedawayandmymotherstoodinthemiddleoftheroad,watching.Theyspenttheautumnof1855inJapan.ItwasherethatHilarywroteherfirstnovel.

USAGENOTE

6.56 Afewadverbsofpositionareusedtoshowtheareainwhichasituationexists:

globallyinternationallylocallynationallyuniversallywidelyworldwide

Everythingweusedwasboughtlocally.Unlike most other adverbs of position, they cannot be used after be to state the position ofsomething.

USAGENOTE

6.57 Afewotheradverbsareusedtoshowwheretwoormorepeopleorthingsareinrelationtoeachother:together,apart,sidebysideandabreast.Allthevillagersandvisitorswouldsittogetherroundthefire.Afigurestoodatthewindowholdingthecurtainsapart.

adverbsofpositionwithafollowingadverbial

6.58 Some adverbs of position are normally followed by another adverbial of position. This isparticularlycommonwhentheverbbeisusedasamainverb.Barbara’sdownatthecottage.Adamwashalfwayupthestairs.Outonthequietsurfaceoftheriver,somethingmoved.Sheisupinherownbedroom.

deep,far,high,low

6.59 Theadverbsdeep,far,high,andlow,whichindicatedistanceaswellasposition,arealsousuallyfollowedbyanotheradverbialofposition,oraremodifiedorqualifiedinsomeotherway.Manyoftheeggsremainburieddeepamongthesandgrains.Oneplane,flyingverylow,sweptbackandforth.Deepdown,faraway,highup,andlowdownareoftenusedinsteadoftheadverbsontheirown.Thewindowwashighup,milesabovetherocks.Sitascrapedashallowcavitylowdowninthewall.Farandfarawayareoftenqualifiedbyaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithfrom.Iwasstandingfarawayfromtheball.Welivedfarfromthenearestvillage.

adverbsofposition:comparativesandsuperlatives

6.60 Someadverbshavecomparativeandsuperlativeforms.Thesuperlativeformisnotusedtoshowposition,buttospecifywhichofseveralthingsyouaretalkingabout.Deeper, further (or farther),higher, and lower are usually followed by a prepositional phraseshowingposition.Furtheralongthebeach,athintrickleofsmokewasclimbingintothesky.Thebeansareabithigheronthestalkthisyear.Nearercanbeusedasanadverbaswellasapreposition(seeparagraph6.88).Closercanonlybeusedasanadverb.Thehillswerenearernow.Thousandsoftouristsstoodwatchingormilledaroundtryingtogetcloser.

anywhere,everywhere,somewhere,nowhere

6.61 Thereare four indefinite adverbsofposition:anywhere, everywhere, nowhere, and somewhere.Theyareusedtotalkaboutapositionthatisnotdefiniteorthatisverygeneral.Idroppedmycigarsomewhereroundhere.IthoughtI’dseenyousomewhere.Therewerebicycleseverywhere.No-onecanfindHowardorBarbaraanywhere.Nowheremakesaclausenegative.Therewasnowheretohide.Ifnowhereisatthebeginningofaclause,thesubjectoftheverbmustbeplacedafteranauxiliaryoraformofbeorhave.NowherehaveIseenanyseriousmentionofthis.Nowherearetheyoverwhelminglynumerous.

AmericanEnglishhasinformalvariantsforallfouroftheseadverbsinwhichthewordplacereplaces-where.Thesecanbewrittenasoneortwowords.

Haven’tyougotsomeplacetogo?Video-conferencingcanconnectanyone,anytime,anyplace.

addinginformation

6.62 There are several structures you can use with indefinite place adverbs in order to give moreinformation.Youcanuse:anadverbofplace:

Iwouldliketoworksomewhereabroad.We’recertainlynowherenear.anadjective:

WecouldgotoMajorcaifyouwantsomewherelively.Areyougoingsomewherenice?aprepositionalphrase:

Thewaiterwasn’tanywhereinsight.In1917,Kollontaiwastheonlywomaninanygovernmentanywhereintheworld.orato-infinitiveclause:

Wementionedthatwewerelookingforsomewheretolive.Iwantedtohavesomewheretoputit.Youcanalsousearelativeclause.Notethattherelativepronounisusuallyomitted.Wasthereanywhereyouwantedtogo?EverywhereIwent,peoplewereangryorsuspicious.

differentoradditionalplaces

6.63 Elseisusedaftertheindefiniteplaceadverbtoindicateadifferentoradditionalplace.Wecouldholdthemeetingsomewhereelse.Morepeopledieinbedthananywhereelse.Elsewherecanbeusedinsteadofsomewhereelse.Gwensatnexttothewindow.Theothergirlshadfoundseatselsewhere.

6.64 Everywhereandanywherecanalsobeusedasthesubjectsofverbs,especiallybe.SometimesIfeelthatanywhere,justanywhere,wouldbebetterthanthis.Ilookedaroundforashop,buteverywherewasclosed.

Destinationsanddirections

adverbsindicatingdestinationsandtargets

6.65 Adverbscanbeusedtoindicatedestinationsandtargets.

Ihaveexpectedyou,shesaid,invitinghiminside.Nobirdsoranimalscamenear.Thefollowingadverbsareusedtoindicatedestinationsortargets:

aboardabroadashoreclosedownstairsdowntownheavenwardhomehomewardinindoorsinlandinsideinwardinwardsnearnextdooroutdoorsoutofdoorsoutsideoverseasskywardthereundergroundupstairsuptown

Thecomparativeformsnearerandcloseraremorecommonlyusedthannearorclose.Comenearer.Deep,far,high,andlowarealsousedasadverbsshowingadestinationortargetbutonlywhentheyaremodifiedinsomeotherway.Thedancersspranghighintotheairbrandishingtheirspears.Thecomparativeformsdeeper,further(orfarther),higher,andlowerarealsoused,andsoisthesuperlativeformfurthest(orfarthest).Thesedonothavetobemodifiedinanyway.Weleftthewaterfallandclimbedhigher.Peoplehavetotrekfurtherandfurther.

relativedirection

6.66 Adverbscanbeusedtoshowdirectioninrelationtotheparticularpositionofthepersonorthingyouaretalkingabout.Formoreinformationonphrasalverbs,seeparagraphs3.83to3.116.

GonorthfromLeicesterSquareupWardourStreet.Don’tlookdown.…thepartoftheenginethatwasspinningaround.MrsJamesgavealittlecryandhurriedon.Theygrabbedhimandpulledhimbackwards.Heturnedleftandbeganstrollingslowlydownthestreet.Theycanalsoshowthedirectioninwhichsomeoneorsomethingisfacinginrelationtothefrontoftheplacetheyarein.Theseatsfaceforward.Thefollowingadverbsareusedtoshowdirectionofthissort:

aheadalongbackbackwardbackwardsforwardforwardsleftononwardrightsideways~anti-clockwisearoundclockwisecounterclockwise(American)downdownwarddownwardseasteastwardeastwardsnorthnorthwardnorthwardsnorth-eastnorth-westsouthsouthwardsouthwardssouth-eastsouth-westroundupupwardupwardswest

westwardwestwards

movementinseveraldirections

6.67 Theadverbsround,about,andaroundshowmovementinseveraldirectionswithinaplace.Stoprushingabout!Theywon’twantanyoneelsetramplingaround.The following adverbial expressions are used to talk about repeated movement in differentdirections:

backandforthbackwardsandforwardsfromsidetosideinandoutroundandroundtoandfroupanddown

Atothertimesshewouldpaceupanddownoutsidethetrailer.Burkewaswalkingbackandforthashespoke.

movementaway

6.68 Thefollowingadverbsareusedtotalkaboutmovementawayfromsomeoneorsomething:

asideawayoffoutoutward

Thefarmerjustlaughedandrodeaway.Ittookjustonetugtopullthemout.Theadverbapartindicatesthattwoormorethingsmoveawayfromeachother.Irushedinandtriedtopullthedogsapart.

movementalongapath

6.69 Thefollowingadverbsareusedtotalkaboutmovementalongaroad,path,orline:

alongsidebesidedownhilldownstreamuphillupstream

Goingdownhillwaseasy.Itwasn’tthemovingthatkeptmewarm;itwastheeffortofpushingDaisyuphill.

movementacrossorpastsomething

6.70 Thefollowingadverbsareusedtotalkaboutmovementacrossorpastsomething:

acrossbyoveroverheadpastroundthrough

There’sanaircraftcomingover.‘Whereareyougoing?’demandedMissCraigasFlorrierushedby.

indefinitedirection:somewhere,everywhere,nowhere,etc.

6.71 Theindefiniteplaceadverbsareusedtotalkaboutadestinationordirectionwhenyouwanttobemoregeneralorvague.Hewentoffsomewhereforashootingweekend.Dustbleweverywhere,swirlingoverdrycakedmountains.Therewashardlyanywheretogo.Can’tyouplayelsewhere?Nowhereismainlyusedmetaphorically,toindicatelackofprogress.Theyweregettingnowhereandhadotherthingstodo.Seeparagraph6.61formoreinformationontheseindefiniteadverbs.

adverbsafternouns:themanopposite,theroadsouth

6.72 Likeprepositionalphrases,adverbscanalsobeplacedafternouns.Theywatchedhimfromtheterraceabove.Themanoppositegotup.Peopleeverywherearebecomingawareoftheproblem.

Wetooktheroadsouth.

Prepositions6.73 This section explains how prepositional phrases are used to show the place where an action

occurs,theplacewheresomeoneorsomethingis,theplacetheyaregoingtoorcomingfrom,orthedirectiontheyaremovingin.Aprepositionalphraseconsistsofaprepositionanditsobject,whichisnearlyalwaysanoun.Themostbasicuseofmostprepositionsistoindicatepositionanddirection.Hefumbledinhispocket.Onyourleftistheriver.WhydidhenotdrivetoValence?Thevoicewascomingfrommyapartment.Iraninsideandboundedupthestairs.

6.74 Aprepositionisawordthatallowsyoutosaymoreaboutathingoranaction,becauseyoucanchooseanyappropriatenounafter it as itsobject.Mostprepositions are singlewords, althoughtherearesomethatconsistofmorethanoneword,suchasoutofandinbetween.Hereisalistofcommonone-wordprepositionsthatareusedtotalkaboutplaceordestination:

aboutaboveacrossalongalongsideamongaroundatbeforebehindbelowbeneathbesidebetweenbeyondbydownfromininsideintonearoffonoppositeoutsideoverpast

roundthroughthroughouttotoward(Am)towardsunderunderneathupwithin

Note that toward and towards are both used in American English, with no difference inmeaning.Here isa listofprepositions thatconsistofmore thanonewordand thatareused to talkaboutplaceordestination:

acrossfromaheadofalloverawayfromclosebyclosetoinbetweeninfrontofneartonexttoontopofoutof

6.75 Manyprepositionscanalsobeadverbs;thatis,theycanbeusedwithoutanobject.Seeparagraph6.54foralistofthese.

BECAREFUL

6.76 BecauseEnglishhasalargenumberofprepositions,someofthem,suchasbeside,by,near,andnext to, are very close in meaning. Other prepositions, for example at and in, have severaldifferentmeanings.Themeaningandusageofprepositionsshouldbecheckedwherepossibleinadictionary.

6.77 Prepositionshaveanobject,whichcomesafterthepreposition.Theswitchisbythedoor.Lookbehindyou,Willie!Notethatifapersonalpronounisusedastheobjectofapreposition,itmustbetheobjectpronoun:me,you,him,her,it,us,them.Prepositions also combine with complex noun phrases to describe places in some detail. Seeparagraph2.280forinformationontheuseofofinnounphrases.

Istoodaloneinthemiddleoftheyard.Hewassittingtowardstheendoftheroom.Hewenttothebackofthestore.

Positionofprepositionalphrases

afterverbsshowingposition

6.78 Prepositionalphrasesaremostcommonlyusedafterverbs.Theyareusedafterverbsthatindicatepositioninordertospecifywheresomethingis.ShelivesinNewcastle.Anoldpianostoodinthecorneroftheroom.Yououghttostayoutofthesun.Thefollowingverbsareoftenusedtoshowposition:

bebelonghanglieliveremainsitbesituatedstandstay

Afterverbsindicatingmovement6.79 Prepositional phrases are used after verbs indicating movement to specify the direction of

movement.Iwentintothekitchenandbegantomakethedinner.MrsKaulwasleadinghimtohisseat.Theothersburstfromtheirtents.Thestormhaduprootedtreesfromtheground.HetookhertoEdinburgh.

afterverbsindicatingactivities

6.80 Prepositionalphrasesareusedafterverbsindicatingactivitiestospecifywhereanactivitytakesplace.…childrenplayinginthestreet.ThemeetingwasheldatacommunitycentreinLoganHeights.Hewaspractisinghighjumpsinthegarden.

6.81 Prepositionalphrasesusuallycomeattheendoftheclause,aftertheverb,oraftertheobjectoftheverbifthereisone.Welandedatasmallairport.Weputthechildren’stoysinabigbox.

atthebeginningofaclause:foremphasisorcontrast

6.82 Ifyouwanttofocusontheprepositionalphraseforemphasisorcontrast,itcanbeplaced at thebeginningof the clause.This ordering ismainlyused in descriptivewritingorreports.Inthegardeneverythingwaspeaceful.Atthetopofthetreewasabrowncat.

atthebeginningofaclause:verbbeforesubject

6.83 If you put a prepositional phrase that refers to the position of something at the beginning of theclausewhenyouareusingaverbwithnoobject,thenormalwordorderafteritisoftenchanged,andtheverbisplacedbeforethesubject.Ontheceilinghungdustpansandbrushes.Insidetheboxliethegroup’sUSminingassets.Beyondthemlaythefields.Ifyouareusingbeasamainverb,theverbalwayscomesbeforethesubject;so,forexample,youcannotsayUnderherchinacolossalbroochwas.Underherchinwasacolossalbrooch.NexttoitisadifferentsignwhichsayssimplyBeware.AlongsidehimwillbeMrMitchellFromstein.

Showingposition6.84 Theprepositionalphrasesinthefollowingexamplesshowtheplacewhereanactionoccurs,orthe

placewheresomeoneorsomethingis.Thechildrenshouted,wavingleafybranchesabovetheirheads.Thewholeplaytakesplaceatabeachclub.Twominuteslaterweweresafelyinsidethetaxi.Hestoodnearthedoor.Shekepthispictureonherbedsidetable.

prepositionsshowingposition

6.85 Thefollowingprepositionsareusedtoshowposition:

aboard

aboutaboveacrossagainstaheadofalloveralongalongsideamidstamongaroundastrideatawayfrombeforebehindbelowbeneathbesidebetweenbeyondbyclosebyclosetodownininbetweeninfrontofinsidenearneartonexttooffonontopofoppositeoutofoutsidepastthroughunderunderneathupuponwithwithin

USAGENOTE

6.86 Someprepositionsareonlyusedwitharestrictedgroupofnouns.For example,aboard is usedwith a noun referring to a form of transport, such as ship,plane,train,orbus,orwiththenameofaparticularship,theflightnumberforaparticularplanejourney,

andsoon.There’ssomethingterriblywrongaboardthisship,DrMarlowe.Morethan1500peoplediedaboardtheTitanic.…gettingaboardthatflighttoRome.Heclimbedaboardatruck.Hereisalistofnounsthatyouusewithaboardtoindicateposition:

aircraftcarrierboatbuscoachferryjetplanerocketshipsled(American)sledgespaceshuttletraintrawlertruckwagonyacht

Astrideismainlyusedtosaythatapersonhasonelegoneachsideofsomething,usuallysittingonitorridingit.Hewhippedoutachairandsatastrideit.Hespottedamansittingastrideahorse.Whenbeforeisusedtoshowposition,theobjectisusuallyapersonorgroupofpeople.Leadingrepresentativeswereinterviewedbeforealivetelevisionaudience.Heappearedbeforeadisciplinarycommittee.Alloverusuallyhasalargeorindefiniteareaasitsobject.Throughthesite,thousandsofpeopleallovertheworldarebeingreunitedwitholdfriends.Therewerepiecesofshipallovertheplace.

USAGENOTE

6.87 Someprepositionshave severalmeanings.Forexample,on canbeused to say that someoneorsomethingisrestingonahorizontalsurfaceorisattachedtosomething,orthatsomeone’splaceofworkisanareasuchasafarmorabuildingsite.Thephonewasonthefloorinthehallway.Iloweredmyselfdownonarope.Myfatherworkedonafarm.

prepositionswithcomparativeforms

6.88 Near,nearto,andclosetohavecomparativeformsthatcanalsobeusedasprepositions.We’removingnearermyparents.VenusismuchnearertotheSunthantheEarth.Thejudge’sbenchwasclosertomethanRuchell’schair.

morespecificposition

6.89 If youwant to saymore exactlywhichpart of theother thing anobject is nearest to, or exactlywhichpartofanareaorroomit is in,youcanuseoneof thefollowingprepositions:at,by, in,near,on,round.Toandtowards,usuallyusedtoindicatedirection,areusedtoexpresspositioninamoreapproximateway.The objects of the prepositions are nouns referring to parts of an object or place, such as top,bottom,andedge.Hereisalistofwordsthatareusedtotalkaboutpartsofanobjectorplace:

backbottomedgeendfrontleftmiddlerightsidetop~eastnorthnorth-eastnorth-westsouthsouth-eastsouth-westwest~banksidebedsidedocksidegravesidehillsidekerbsidelakesidemountainsidepoolsidequaysideringsideroadsideseaside

waterside

Note that thecompounddirectionprepositions (northeast,southwest, etc.)maybe spelledeitherwithorwithoutahypheninBritishEnglish.TheyarehardlyeverspelledwithahypheninAmericanEnglish.Whentheplacethatyouarereferringtoisobviousorhasbeenstatedearlier,youusethenounsinthesingularwiththedeterminerthe.Iraninsideandboundedupthestairs.Wendywasstandingatthetop.Hewassittingtowardstherear.Tothenortharethemaingardens.Wefoundhimsittingbythefireside.Otherdeterminers, forexample thisandeach, areusedwithnounssuchasside,end, andedge,becauseanobjectorplacemayhaveseveralsides,ends,oredges.Loosenthetwoscrewsateachendofthefuse.Standingoneithersideofhimweretwoyoungermen.Ifthepersonorthinghasbeenmentionedorisobvious,apossessivedeterminercanbeused.…adollthatturnsbrowninthesun,exceptforunderitsswimsuit.Therewasagateonourleft.

6.90 Notethat two-or three-wordprepositionsthat includethewordofaremorespecificbecauseofcanbefollowedbyanynoun.Sheturnedandrushedoutoftheroom.Therewasamanstandinginfrontofme.Mysisterstartedpilingthebooksontopofeachother.

specificdistances

6.91 Theplacewhereanactionoccurs,orwheresomeoneorsomethingis,canalsobeshownbystatingitsdistancefromanotherobjectorplace.Youmentiontheactualdistancebeforeaprepositionalphrasewithfromorawayfrom.Herehesatontheterraceafewfeetfromtheroaringtraffic.Theballswervedtwofeetawayfromher.Distanceisalsoexpressedintermsofthetimetakentotravelit.Myhouseisonly20minutesfromwhereIwork.TheylivedonlytwoorthreedaysawayfromJuffure.Themethodoftravellingcanbestatedtobeevenmoreprecise.Itislessthananhour’sdrivefromhere.It’saboutfiveminutes’walkfromthebusstop.

showingpositionanddistance

6.92 Toshowbothwheresomethingisandhowfarfromanotherobjectorplaceit is, thedistanceisstatedbeforethefollowingprepositions:

abovealongbehindbelowbeneathbeyonddowninsideoutsidepastunderup

Thevolcanoisonlyafewhundredmetresbelowsealevel.Thedistancecanalsobestatedbeforeprepositionalphrasesincludingleftandrightorpointsofthecompasssuchasnorthandsouth-east.WelivedfortymilestotheeastofOttawa.

Showingdirection6.93 Theprepositionalphrasesinthefollowingexamplesshowtheplacethatsomeoneorsomethingis

goingto,ortheplacethattheyaremovingtowards.I’mgoingwithhertoAustralia.Theyjumpedintothewater.Hesawhismotherrunningtowardshim.Hescrewedthelidtightlyontothetopofthejar.Shestuckherknittingneedlesintoaballofwool.

prepositionsused

6.94 Thefollowingprepositionsareusedtoshowdestinationsandtargets:

aboardalloveralongalongsidearoundatawayfrombesidedownfrominside

intonearoffontooutofroundtotoward(American)towardsup

Notethatontoissometimeswrittenastwowords.Thebirdhoppedupontoahigherbranch.InAmericanEnglishandsomevarietiesofBritishEnglish,outisusedasaprepositionwithoutoftoshowdirection.Hewalkedoutthedoorforthelasttime.Theprepositionalphrasestotheleftandtotherightarealsousedtoindicatedirection,fromyourownviewpointorthatofsomeoneelse.Seeparagraph6.96.

USAGENOTE

6.95 Therearesomerestrictionsinthechoiceofpreposition.Atisnotusuallyusedtoshowtheplacethatthesubjectoftheverbismovingtoortowards.Itisusedtoshowwhatsomeoneislookingat,orwhattheycauseanobjecttomovetowards.Theywerestaringatagarageroof.Supportersthrewpetalsathiscar.Afterisusedtoshowthatsomeoneorsomethingisfollowinganothermovingpersonorthing,orismovinginthesamedirectionbutbehindthem.Hehurriedafterhismen.…draggingthesacksafterusalongtheground.

directionrelativetothefront

6.96 Youusetheprepositionalphrasestotheleftandtotheright tosaywhichdirectionsomeoneorsomethingismovinginrelationtothedirectiontheyarefacing.Theyturnedtotheleftanddroveaway.

severaldirections

6.97 The prepositions about, round, around, and all over are used to show movement in severaldirectionswithinaplace.Iwanderedroundthegarden.

Shejumpedaroundtheroominfrontofthechildrenassheactedoutherstory.Theboysbeganclimbingallovertheship.

RoundisnotusedasaprepositioninAmericanEnglish;aroundisalwaysusedinstead.

startingpoint

6.98 Prepositionalphrasesshowtheplaceorobjectthatisthestartingpointofamovement.Thefollowingprepositionsareused:awayfrom,from,off,andoutof.Thecoffeewassentupbythecatererfromthekitchensbelow.Sheturnedandrushedoutoftheroom.Hetookhishandoffherarm.

frombeforeprepositionsandadverbs

6.99 From is also used before another preposition or before some adverbs to talk about the startingpointofamovement.Ihadtakenhisdrinkingbowlfrombeneaththekitchentable.…goodsimportedfromabroad.Thomashadstoppedbringinghislunchfromhome.Fromisusedbeforethefollowingadverbs:

aboveabroadanywherebehindbelowbeneathdownstairselsewhereeverywhereherehomeinsidenextdoornowhereoutsideoverseassomewherethereunderneathupstairs

Prepositionalphrasesafternouns6.100 As well as being used after verbs, prepositional phrases can be used after nouns to give

informationaboutplace.ThemusclesbelowPeter’skneeswerebeginningtoachealittle.Thechestnuttreesinthebackgardenwereablazingorange.Theystoodandwatchedtheboatsontheriver.…theclockinherbedroom.…thelowwallroundthegarden.…theblackshapelessmassestotheleftandrightoftheroad.

6.101 Prepositionalphrasescanbeaddedafter roads, routes, andsoon, to specify themby indicatingtheirdestinationordirection.…themainroadfromParistoMarseilles.…theroadbetweenthecampandthehospital.…theroadthroughthecanyon.Similarly,doors,entrances,andsooncanbespecifiedbyaddingprepositionalphrasesindicatingwhereyougettobygoingthroughthem.Heopenedthedoortohisroom.…attheentrancetothelibrary.Prepositionalphrasesarealsousedafternounstosaywheresomeoneorsomethingcomesfrom.…aveterinaryofficerfromSingapore.…anengineerfromHertfordshire.

Otherusesofprepositionalphrases6.102 Prepositionsareoftenusedtotalkaboutthingsotherthanplaceaswell,forexampletotalkabouta

time,awayofdoingsomething,orafeelingorquality.Thefollowingparagraphsfrom6.103 to6.110describetheseusesbriefly,andgivecrossreferencestofullerexplanationselsewhere.Thefollowingprepositionsareonlyormainlyusedtoindicatethingsotherthanplace:

afterasdespiteduringexceptforlikeofsinceuntil

referringtotime

6.103 Althoughthemainuseofprepositionalphrasesistotalkaboutpositionordirection,theyarealsousedtorefertotime.

I’llseeyouonMonday.Theyareexpectingtoannouncethesalewithinthenextfewdays.Theuseofprepositionstotalkabouttimeisexplainedinparagraphs4.100to4.108.

referringtothewaysomethingisdone

6.104 Prepositionalphrasesarealsousedtosaysomethingmoreaboutthewayinwhichanactionwasperformed,orthewayinwhichitshouldbedone.‘Ohyes,’Ettasneeredinanoffensiveway.Abirdcanchangedirectionbydippingonewingandliftingtheother.Hebrushedbackhishairwithhishand.Prepositionalphrasessuchasonfootorbybuscanbeusedtotalkaboutamethodoftravelling.Iusuallygotoworkonfoot.Itravelledhomebybus.Theuseofadverbstotalkaboutthewaythingsaredoneisexplainedinthesectionbeginningatparagraph6.36.

6.105 Youcanalsouseprepositionalphrasestogivemoreinformationaboutthefeelingsofthepersonperformingtheaction.Fannysawwithamazementthattheletterwasaddressedtoherself.

likeandasincomparison

6.106 Youcanusetheprepositionlike toshowthatsomeoneorsomethingbehavesinasimilarwaytosomeoneorsomethingelse.Shetreatedmelikeaservant.Sheshuffledlikeanoldlady.Thereismoreinformationaboutcomparisoningeneralinthesectionbeginningatparagraph2.103.

6.107 You can also use like andas to say that someone or something is treated in a similar way tosomeoneorsomethingelse.Thenounphraseafterlikeorasdescribesthepersonorthingaffectedbytheaction,notthepersonorthingdoingtheaction.Myparentsdressedmelikealittledoll.Theirparentscontinuetotreatthemaschildren.Shetreatedhermorelikeadaughterthanacompanion.Youcanalsouseexpressionssuchaslikethisorlikethattorefertoaparticularmannerofdoingsomething.Ifyou’regoingtobehavelikethis,thebestthingyoucandoistogobacktobed.Howdareyouspeaktomelikethat?Theuseoflikeandasinsubordinateclausesisexplainedinparagraphs8.78to8.80.

6.108 Youcan say thatonewayofdoing somethinghas asmuchof aquality as anotherwayofdoingsomething,byusingasfollowedbyanadverbfollowedbyanotheras.Thesecondasisfollowed

byanounphrase,apronoun,anadverbial,oraclause.Thecompanyhasnotgrownasquicklyasmanyofitsrivals.ShewantedsomeonetotalktoasbadlyasIdid.

circumstancesofanaction

6.109 Youuseprepositionalphrasestosaysomethingaboutthecircumstancesofanaction.‘No,’shesaidwithadefiantlook.…strugglingtoestablishdemocracyunderadverseconditions.

reason,cause,orpurpose

6.110 Prepositionalphrasescanalsobeusedtosaysomethingaboutthereasonforanaction,orthecauseorpurposeofit.In1923,thePrimeMinisterresignedbecauseofillhealth.Hewasdyingofpneumonia.Asisusedtoshowthefunctionorpurposeofsomething.Heworkedasatruckdriver.Duringthewartheyusedthetheatreasawarehouse.

Prepositionsusedwithverbs

inphrasalverbs

6.111 Someverbsalwayshaveaprepositionalphraseaftertheminparticularmeanings.Theyarecalledphrasalverbs,andinformationaboutthemcanbefoundinparagraphs3.83to3.116.Shesailedthroughherexams.Whatareyougettingat?

verbswithoptionalprepositionalphrases

6.112 Someverbscanhaveaprepositionalphrase insteadofadirectobject.Formore informationontheseverbs,seeparagraph3.10.ThePolishArmyfoughttheGermansfornearlyfiveweeks.Shewasfightingagainsthistory.Weclimbedthemountain.Iclimbedupthetree.

indirectobjectsofverbswithtwoobjects

6.113 Aprepositionalphraseisusedasanindirectobjectwhentheindirectobjectcomesafterthedirectobject.

Forinformationonverbswithtwoobjects,seeparagraphs3.73to3.82.Iftheactiondescribedbytheverbinvolvesthetransferofsomethingfromonepersonorthingtoanother,theprepositiontoisused.Ipassedthelettertomyhusband.Therecoveredanimalswillbegiventozoos.If theactioninvolvesapersondoingsomethingforthebenefitofanotherperson,theprepositionforisused.Sheleftanoteforheronthetable.

withreciprocalverbs

6.114 Somereciprocalverbsrequireaprepositionalphrasewhenasecondnounphraseismentioned.Forinformationonreciprocalverbs,seeparagraphs3.68to3.72.Ourreturncoincidedwiththearrivalofbadweather.Shehasrefusedtocooperatewithinvestigators.

withpassiveverbs

6.115 Prepositionalphrasesareusedafterverbsinthepassive.Ninetymenwerecutoffbystorms.Moistureisdrawnoutwithsalt.Theuseofprepositionalphrasesafterpassiveverbsisexplainedinparagraphs9.14to9.16.

positionofprepositionalphrasesandadverbsafterverbs

6.116 When verbs are followed by prepositional phrases and adverbs, a long prepositional phrase isusuallyplacedaftertheadverb.Helistenedcalmlytothereportofhisaides.Ashortprepositionalphrasecancomebeforeoraftertheadverb.Thewomenshoutedatmesavagely.MissBurnslookedcalmlyatMarianne.

Prepositionalphrasesafternounsandadjectives6.117 Prepositional phrases are sometimes used after nouns and adjectives to describe the subject or

object of a clause rather than themanner of an action or situation. See the section beginning atparagraph2.275formoreinformation.…agirlinadarkgreydress.…amanwithaquicktemper.

particularprepositionsafternounsandadjectives

6.118 Particularprepositionsareusedaftersomenounsandadjectiveswhenyouareaddinginformation.Seeparagraphs2.45to2.50and2.287to2.290.Myrespectforherisabsolutelyenormous.Women’stennisputsanemphasisontechnique,notstrength.Heisresponsibleforpursuingtheclaim.

comparisonswiththanandlike

6.119 Aprepositionalphrasewiththanoftenshowsthepersonorthingthatisthebasisofacomparison.Hewassmarterthanyou.Shewasmorerefinedthanherhusband.Formoreinformationoncomparisons,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph2.103.Theprepositionlikeisusedtoshowthatsomeoneorsomethingissimilartosomeoneorsomethingelse,withoutcomparinganyspecificquality.TheBritishforcesarelikepermanenttourists.Weneedmanymorepeoplelikethese.

of

6.120 Of isused inprepositionalphrasesafteranynoun to indicatevarious relationshipsbetweenonenounphraseandanother,especiallybelonging,possession,andconnection.Itcanbeusedtostatewhatsomethingis,whatitcontains,whatitismadefrom,orhowmuchofitthereis.Hewasamemberofthegolfclub.She’safriendofStephen’s.…theMayorofMoscow.

Extendedmeaningsofprepositions6.121 Theusesofprepositionalphrasestoexpresstimeandmannerarereallyextendedormetaphorical

uses that cover awide rangeofprepositions and arepart of ametaphor that affectsmanyotheraspects of language aswell.For example,whenyou talk aboutapproaching a point in time, ashortstretchoftime,andsoon,youareusingwordsthatrefertospacetotalkabouttime.However, there are also extendedmeanings that apply only to small groups of prepositions, orsometimesonlytoindividualprepositions.Forexample,inbasicallyindicatespositioninsideacontainer.What’sthatinyourbag?Itwillendupinthedustbin.However,itisoftenusedwithreferencetoareasratherthancontainers.Emmasatinanarmchairwithherlegscrossed.ThenweweretoldwhathadhappenedinSheffield.Inisalsousedtotalkaboutrelativeposition.

Wehadtodosomethinginthecentreofthetowntoattractvisitors.However,inisalsousedinwaysthatextenditsmeaningfurtherawayfromphysicalposition.Forexample,itcanbeusedtosaythatsomeoneisinvolvedinaparticularsituation,group,oractivity.Theywereinnodanger.Thechildwasintroublewiththepolice.Thisgovernmentwon’tbeinpowerforever.MrMatthewshasremainedinofficebuttheislandhasnoParliament.Itcanshowinclusioninamoreabstractway.SomeofherearlyHollywoodexperienceswereusedinher1923film,MaryoftheMovies.Inanybook,thereisamoralpurpose.Itcanalsoindicatethatsomethinghasreachedaparticularstage,orappearsinaparticularway.Thefirstprimrosesareinflower.Herhairwasinpigtailsovereithershoulder.Afewotherprepositionswithabasicmeaningrelatingtocontainersareusedinsimilarways:forexamplewithin,into,outof.Anythingwithinreasonshouldbeconsidered.Whenwegetthosemenintothepoliceforce,theyaregoingtoberealheroes.Heroines who were considered attractive by earlier generations now seem hopelessly out oftouch.

Otherwaysofgivinginformationaboutplace

nounphrasesreferringtoplace:placenames

6.122 Someverbsofpositionandmovementarefollowedbynounphrasesreferringtoplaces.Thesearedescribedinparagraph3.21.Peelapproachedthebuilding.

6.123 Insteadofusinganounphrasetorefertoaplace,youcanusethenameoftheplace.ThisgreatblockoflandbecameAntarctica.…anislandroughlythesizeofMartha’sVineyard.HerworkisonshowattheNationalMuseumofFilmandPhotographyinBradford.

verbsafterplacenames

6.124 Most place names are singular nouns, although some look like plural nouns, for example TheNetherlands.Someplacenames,forexamplethosereferringtogroupsofislandsormountains,arepluralnouns.Verbsusedwithplacenamesfollowthenormalrules,soasingularverbformisusedwithasingularnounandapluralverbformwithapluralnoun.Milanisaveryinterestingcity.TheAndessplitthecountrydownthemiddle.

placenamesusedfortalkingaboutpeople

6.125 Thenameofaplacecanbeused to talkabout thepeoplewholive there. If theplacenameisasingularnoun,asingularverbformisstillused,eventhoughthenounisbeingusedtorefertoapluralconcept.Europewassickofwar.Thenameofacountryoritscapitalcityisoftenusedtotalkaboutthegovernmentofthatcountry.BritainandFrancejointlysuggestedaplan.WashingtonputagreatdealofpressureonTokyo.

placenamesusedfortalkingaboutevents

6.126 Place names are also used to talk about a well-known historical or recent event that occurredthere, suchasabattle,adisaster,an internationalsportscompetition,ascandal,oran importantpoliticalmeeting.AfterWaterloo,tradeandindustrysurgedagain.WhatwastheeffectofChernobylonBritishagriculture?…thechainofeventsthatledtoWatergate.

placenamesusedasmodifiersbeforenouns

6.127 Manyplacenamescanbeusedasmodifiers,toshowwherethingscomefromorarecharacteristicof,aswellaswherethingsare.…aLondonhotel.…theNewZealandrugbyteam.Ifaplacenamebeginswiththe,youomititwhenyouusethenameasamodifier.…Arcticexplorers.ShehasaMidlandsaccent.Notethatthenamesofcontinentsandofmanycountriescannotbeusedasmodifiers.Instead,youuseclassifyingadjectivessuchasAfricanandItalian.

Chapter7Reportingwhatpeoplesayorthink

7.5–15 Showingthatyouarereporting:usingreportingverbs

7.16–26 Reportingsomeone’sactualwords:directspeech

7.27–86 Reportinginyourownwords:reportedspeech

7.29–31 Reportingstatementsandthoughts7.32–38 Reportingquestions7.39–47 Reportingorders,requests,advice,andintentions

7.48 Reportinguncertainthings7.49–59 Timereferenceinreportedspeech7.60–63 Makingyourreferenceappropriate7.64–67 Usingreportingverbstoperformanaction7.68–71 Avoidingmentionofthepersonspeakingorthinking7.72–81 Referringtothespeakerandhearer7.82–85 Otherwaysofindicatingwhatissaid

7.86 Otherwaysofusingreportedclauses

7 Reportingwhatpeoplesayorthink

7.1 Thischapterexplainsthedifferentwaysofreportingwhatpeoplesayorthink.7.2 Onewayofreportingwhatsomeonehassaidistorepeattheiractualwords.

‘Idon’tknowmuchaboutmusic,’Judysaid.Repeatingsomeone’sactualwordslikethisiscalleddirectspeech.Instead of repeating Judy’swords, thewriter could say, Judy said that she didn’t knowmuchaboutmusic.Thisiscalledreportedspeech.Somegrammarscalledthisindirectspeech.Direct speech and reported speech both consist of two clauses. The main clause is called areportingclause.Theotherclauseshowswhatsomeonesaidorthought.Indirectspeech,thisotherclauseiscalledthequote.‘Haveyoumethim?’Iasked.‘I’llseeyoutomorrow,’saidTom.Inreportedspeech,theotherclauseiscalledthereportedclause.HementionedthathehadabrotherlivinginLondon.Heaskedifyouwouldbeabletocallandseehim.Hepromisedtogivemethemoney.Notethatthereportedclausecanbeginwithato-infinitive.

7.3 Inordinaryconversation,weusereportedspeechmuchmoreoften thandirectspeech. This isbecausewe usually do not know, or cannot remember, the exact words that someone has said.Directspeechismainlyusedinwrittenstories.Whenwereportpeople’sthoughts,wealmostalwaysusereportedspeech,becausethoughtsdonotusuallyexistintheformofwords,sowecannotquotethemexactly.Reportedspeechcanbeusedtoreportalmostanykindofthought.

7.4 Paragraphs7.5to7.15explainverbsusedinreportingclauses.Paragraphs7.16 to7.26explaindirectspeech.Paragraphs7.27to7.71explainreportedspeech.Paragraphs7.72to7.81explainhowtorefertothespeakerandhearerindirectspeechorreportedspeech.Paragraphs7.82to7.85explainotherwaysofindicatingwhatsomeonesaysortalksabout.

Showingthatyouarereporting:usingreportingverbs7.5 Youshowthatyouarequotingorreportingwhatsomeonehassaidorthoughtbyusingareporting

verb.Everyreportingclausecontainsareportingverb.‘Idon’tseewhatyouaregettingat,’Jeremysaid.

Helookedold,Haroldthought,andsick.TheywerecomplainingthatCantonwashotandnoisy.

basicreportingverbs

7.6 Youusesaywhenyouaresimplyreportingwhatsomeonesaidanddonotwanttoaddanymoreinformationaboutwhatyouarereporting.Shesaidthatshedidn’twanttoknow.Youuseaskwhenyouarereportingaquestion.‘How’sitallgoing?’Derekasked.

showingthepurposeofspeaking

7.7 Somereportingverbssuchasanswer,complain,andexplain tellyouwhatpurposeanutterancewasintendedtoserve.Forexample,answertellsyouthatastatementwasintendedasananswer,andcomplaintellsyouthatastatementwasintendedasacomplaint.Heansweredthatthepricewouldbethreepounds.Henevertoldme,sir,Watsoncomplained.‘Pleasedon’t,’Ibegged.Isuggestedthatitwastimetoleave.Somereportingverbsusedindirectspeechshowthemannerofspeaking.Seeparagraph7.19.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatcanbeusedtoreportwhatpeoplesay:

acknowledgeaddadmitadviseagreeallegeannounceanswerargueaskassertassurebegbeginboastcallchorusclaimcommandcommentcomplainconcedeconfess

confirmcontendcontinueconvincecrydeclaredecreedemanddenydescribedirectdiscussdisputeenquireexplainforbidgrumbleguaranteehintimplyinforminquireinsistinstructinvitelamentmaintainmentionmumblemurmurmusemutternotenotifyobjectobserveorderpersuadepleadpledgepraypredictproclaimpromiseprophesyproposereassurerecallreciterecommendrecordrefuseremarkremind

repeat

replyreportrequestrespondrevealrulesayscreamshoutshriekstatestipulatestormsuggestswearteachtellthreatenthunderurgevowwailwarnwhisperwriteyell

BECAREFUL

7.8 Note that the verbs address, converse, lecture, speak, and talk, although they mean to saysomething,cannotbeusedasreportingverbs.

verbsofthinkingandknowing

7.9 Manyreportingverbsareusedtotalkaboutpeople’sthoughts,ratherthanwhattheysay.Reportingverbs are used to talk about many different kinds of thought, including beliefs, wishes, hopes,intentions,anddecisions.Theycanalsobeusedtotalkaboutrememberingandforgetting.Webothknewthathewaslying.‘I’llgotohiminaminute,’shethought.IhadalwaysbelievedthatonedayIwouldseehimagain.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatcanbeusedtoreportpeople’sthoughts:

acceptagreeassumebelieveconsider

decidedeterminedoubtdreamestimateexpectfearfeelfigureforeseeforgetguessholdhopeimagineintendjudgeknowlongmeanmusenoteplanponderpraypreferproposereasonrecallreckonreflectregretrememberresolvesupposethinkunderstandvowwantwishwonderworry

verbsoflearningandperceiving

7.10 Somereportingverbsareusedfortalkingaboutlearningandperceivingfacts.Ihavesincelearnedthatthewriteroftheletterisnowdead.Thenshesawthathewassleeping.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatrefertolearningandperceivingfacts:

concludediscoverelicitfindgatherhearinferlearnnotenoticeobserveperceivereadrealizeseesense

7.11 Someoftheverbsintheabovelists,suchastellandpromise,mustbeorcanbefollowedbyanobjectshowingwhotheheareris.Seeparagraphs7.75to7.76.Notethatsomeverbsappearinmorethanonelist,becausetheyhavemorethanonemeaning.

indicatingthewaythatsomethingissaid

7.12 Whenyouusedirectspeechorreportedspeech,youcangivemoreinformationaboutthewaythatsomethingissaidbyputtinganadverboraprepositionalphraseafterthereportingverb.‘I’vegotthekey!’heannouncedtriumphantly.Hissecretaryexplainedpatientlythatthiswastheonlytimehecouldspare.Iknowwhatyoumean,Carrierepliedwithfeeling.Youshowhowthethingthatissaidfitsintotheconversationbyusingaprepositionalphrase.Agiftfrommymother,headdedinexplanation.

negativesinreportingclauses

7.13 With a small number of reporting verbs, the negative is often expressed in the reporting clauseratherthaninthereportedclause.Idon’tthinkMaryisathomemeansthesameasIthinkMaryisnotathome,andShedoesn’twanttoseehimmeansShewantsnottoseehim.Idonotthinkshesuspectsme.Shedidn’tbelieveshewouldeverseehimagain.Hedidn’twanttogo.Wedon’tintendtoputhimontrial.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatareoftenusedwithanegativeinthisway:

believeexpect

feelimagineintendplanproposereckonsupposethinkwantwish

reportingspeechandthoughtininformalspokenEnglish

7.14 In informal spoken English, the reporting verb go is sometimes used to introduce directspeech.Thereportingclausewithgoalwayscomesbeforethequote.Isaid,‘Well,whatdoyouwanttotalkabout?’Hegoes,‘Idon’tcare.’ItoldherwhatI’dheardandshewent,‘Oh,mygosh.’WhenIheardthatI’dgotthejobIwent,‘Oh,no,whathaveIdone?’Notethatyoucannotaddanadverbaftergo.Forexample,youcannotsay,Hewentangrily, ‘Bequiet!’

7.15 Another reporting structure that is used in informal spoken English is be like. Be like canrepresenteitherspeechorthought.Inwriting,belikeisusuallyfollowedbyacomma.Thequoteissometimesinquotationmarks,andsometimesnot.HegotacallfromOprah,andhewaslike,‘OfcourseI’llgoonyourshow.’He’slike,‘It’sboring!Ihatechess!’AndI’mlike,‘Pleaseteachme!’TheminuteImethim,Iwaslike,he’sperfect.Aswithotherreportingverbs,youcanusebelikewithanounorapersonalpronoun:forexample,youcansayShewaslike,…,Thedoctorwaslike,…orJanewaslike,…,followedbythethingthatshe/thedoctor/Janesaidorthought.Unlikeotherreportingverbs,youcanalsousebelikeafterthepronounit.Thisstructureisoftenusedtopresentamixtureofspeechandthought,orageneralsituation.Forexample,ifyousayItwaslike,Ohwow!itispossiblethatnobodyactuallysaidorthoughtOhwow!Rather,thesentencegivesusanideaofthesituationandmeanssomethinglikeItwasamazing/surprising.SoIgetbackinthebus,quarterofanhourpassesandit’slike,Where’sGraham?Whenthathappeneditwaslike,Oh,no,notagain.Belikealwayscomesbeforethereportedclause.

Reportingsomeone’sactualwords:directspeech7.16 Whenyouwanttosaythatapersonusedparticularwords,youusedirectspeech.Youcandothis

even ifyoudonotknow,ordonot remember, theexactwords thatwerespoken.Whenyouusedirectspeech,youreportwhatsomeonesaidasifyouwereusingtheirownwords.Direct speech consists of two clauses. One clause is the reporting clause, which contains the

reportingverb.

‘IknewI’dseenyou,’Isaid.Yesplease,repliedJohn.Theotherpartisthequote,whichrepresentswhatsomeonesaysorhassaid.‘Let’sgoandhavealookattheswimmingpool,’shesuggested.‘Leavemealone,’Isnarled.You can quote anything that someone says – statements, questions, orders, suggestions, andexclamations.Inwriting,youusequotationmarks(alsocalledinvertedcommasinBritishEnglish)(‘’)or(“”)atthebeginningandendofaquote.‘Thankyou,’Isaid.Afteralongsilenceheasked:‘Whatisyourname?’Notethat, inwrittenstories,quotesaresometimesusedwithoutreportingclausesif thespeakershave been established, and if you do not wish to indicate whether the quotes are questions,suggestions,exclamations,etc.‘Whendoyouleave?’–‘Ishouldbegonenow.’–‘Well,good-bye,Hamo.’

7.17 Thinkingissometimesrepresentedasspeakingtooneself.Youcanthereforeusesomeverbsthatrefertothinkingasreportingverbsindirectspeech.ImustgoandseeLynn,Marshathought.When you are using direct speech to saywhat someone thought, you usually omit the quotationmarksatthebeginningandendofthequote.Howmuchshouldhetellher?Notmuch,hedecided.Perhapsthat’snoaccident,hereasoned.Why,shewondered,wastheflagathalfmast?

7.18 Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatareoftenusedwithdirectspeech:

addadmitadviseagreeannounceanswerargueaskassertassurebegbeginboastclaimcommandcommentcomplainconclude

confesscontinuedecidedeclaredemandexplaingrumbleinquireinsistmuseobserveorderpleadponderprayproclaimpromisereadreasonrecitereflectremarkreplyreportrespondsaystatesuggesttellthinkurgevowwarnwonderwrite

Afewoftheseverbscanormustbeusedwithanobjectthatreferstothehearer.Seeparagraphs7.75to7.76.

verbsthatdescribethewayinwhichsomethingissaid

7.19 Ifyouwanttoindicatethewayinwhichsomethingwassaid,youcanuseareportingverbsuchasshout,wail,orscream.Verbsliketheseusuallyoccuronlyinwrittenstories.Jump!shoutedtheoldwoman.Oh,poorlittlething,shewailed.Getoutofthere,Iscreamed.Hereisalistofverbsthatindicatethewayinwhichsomethingissaid:

bellow

callchoruscrymumblemurmurmutterscreamshoutshriekstormthunderwailwhisperyell

BECREATIVE

7.20 Anotherwayofdescribingthewayinwhichsomethingissaidistouseaverbthatisusuallyusedtodescribethesoundmadebyaparticularkindofanimal.Excuseme!Susannahbarked.You can use a verb such as smile,grin, or frown to indicate the expression on someone’s facewhiletheyarespeaking.‘I’mawfullysorry.’–‘Notatall,’Ismiled.Itwasajoke,hegrinned.

BECREATIVE

7.21 Youuseverbs likebarkandsmile indirect speechwhenyouwant tocreateaparticular effect,especiallyinwriting.

positionofreportingverb

7.22 There are several positions inwhich you can put the reporting verb in relation to a quote.Theusualpositionisafterthequote,butitcanalsogoinfrontofthequoteorinthemiddleofthequote.Youhavetokeeptrying,hesaid.Hesteppedbackandsaid,Nowlookatthat.Yousee,hesaid,myfatherwasaninventor.

7.23 Ifyouputthereportingverbinthemiddleofaquote,itmustgoinoneofthefollowingpositions:afteranounphrase

Thatman,Isaid,neveropenedawindowinhislife.afteravocativesuchasdarlingorDad

‘Darling’,Maxsaidtoher,‘don’tsayit’snotpossible.’afterasentenceadverb

Maybe,hesaidhesitantly,maybethereisabeast.

afteraclause‘Iknowyoudon’trememberyourfather,’saidJames,‘buthewasakindandgenerousman.’

7.24 Youcanusemostreportingverbsinfrontofaquote.Shereplied,Myfirstthoughtwastoprotecthim.Onestudentcommented:Heseemstoknowhissubjectverywell.However,thereportingverbsagree,command,promise,andwonderarehardlyeverusedinfrontofaquote.

changingtheorderofthesubjectandthereportingverb

7.25 Whenareportingverbcomesafteraquote,thesubjectisoftenputaftertheverb.‘Perhapsheisn’tabadsortofchapafterall,’remarkedDave.Isee,saidJohn.Iamawareofthat,repliedtheEnglishman.Notethatthisisnotdonewhenthesubjectisapronoun,exceptinsomeliterarycontexts.

punctuationofquotes

7.26 The following examples show how you punctuate quotes inBritish English.You can use eithersinglequotationmarks(‘’)ordoublequotationmarks(“”).Theonesusedtobeginaquotearecalledopening quotationmarks, and the ones used to end a quote are called closing quotationmarks.‘Let’sgo,’Iwhispered.“Wehavetogohome,”shetoldhim.Mona’smotheranswered:‘Ohyes,she’sin.’Henoddedandsaid,‘Yes,he’smyson.’‘Margaret’,Isaidtoher,‘I’msogladyoucame.’Whatareyoudoing?Sarahasked.‘Ofcourseit’sawful!’shoutedClarissa.Whatdotheymean,shedemanded,bya“populationproblem”?Notethatinthelastexampleshownabove,thereisaquotewithinaquote.Ifyouareusingsinglequotationmarksforthemainquote,thequotedwordswithinthemainquoteareenclosedindoublequotationmarks. If you are using double quotationmarks for themain quote, the quotedwordswithinthemainquoteareenclosedinsinglequotationmarks.

InAmericanEnglish, you always use double quotationmarks (“ ”), exceptwhere you have a quotewithin a quote. In such cases, the quoted words within the main quote are enclosed in singlequotationmarks(‘’).Thisisshowninthesecondexamplebelow.“Whatareyoudoing?”Sarahasked.“Whatdotheymean,”shedemanded,“bya‘populationproblem’?”Ifyouarequotingmore thanoneparagraph,youputopeningquotationmarksat thebeginningofeachparagraph,butyouputclosingquotationmarksonlyattheendofthelastparagraph.

Reportinginyourownwords:reportedspeech7.27 Whenyoureportwhatpeoplehavesaidusingyourownwordsratherthanthewordstheyactually

used,youusereportedspeech.Thewomansaidshehadseennothing.IrepliedthatIhadnotreadityet.Youusuallyuseareportedspeechstructurewhenyoureportwhatsomeonethinks.Hethoughtshewasworried.Reportedspeechissometimescalledindirectspeech.Reportedspeechconsistsoftwoparts.Onepartisthereportingclause,whichcontainsthereportingverb.Itoldhimthatnothingwasgoingtohappentome.Ihaveagreedthatheshoulddoit.Iwantedtobealone.Theotherpartisthereportedclause.Heansweredthathethoughtthestorywasextremelyinteresting.Hefeltthathehadtodosomething.Hewonderedwheretheycouldhavecomefrom.Youusuallyputthereportingclausefirst,inordertomakeitclearthatyouarereportingratherthanspeakingdirectlyyourself.Henrysaidthathewantedtogohome.TheexactwordsthatHenryusedareunlikelytohavebeenIwanttogohome,althoughtheymighthavebeen. It ismore likely thathe saidsomething like I think I shouldbegoingnow.You aremorelikelytoreportwhathemeantratherthanwhatheactuallysaid.Therearemanyreasonswhyyoudonotquoteaperson’sexactwords.Oftenyoucannotrememberexactlywhatwassaid.Atothertimes,theexactwordsarenotimportantornotappropriateinthesituationinwhichyouarereporting.

typesofreportedclause

7.28 There are several types of reported clause. The type you use depends on whether you arereportingastatement,aquestion,anorder,orasuggestion.Most reported clauses either are that-clauses or beginwith a to-infinitive.When a question isbeingreported,thereportedclausebeginswithif,whether,orawh-word.Theuseofthat-clausesasreportedclausesisdiscussedinparagraphs7.29to7.31.Reportedquestionsarediscussedinparagraphs 7.32 to 7.38. The use of to-infinitive clauses in reported speech is discussed inparagraphs7.39to7.48.

Reportingstatementsandthoughts7.29 Ifyouwanttoreportastatementorsomeone’sthoughts,youuseareportedclausebeginningwith

theconjunctionthat.

Hesaidthatthepolicehaddirectedhimtothewrongroom.HewrotemealettersayingthatheunderstoodwhatIwasdoing.MrsKaulannouncedthatthelecturewouldnowbegin.Ininformalspeechandwriting,theconjunctionthatiscommonlyomitted.TheysaidIhadtoseeadoctorfirst.Shesaysshewantstoseeyouthisafternoon.Heknewtheattemptwashopeless.Ithinkthere’ssomethingwrong.Ineachofthesesentences,thatcouldhavebeenused.Forexample,youcansayeitherTheysaidIhadtoseeadoctorfirstorTheysaidthatIhadtoseeadoctorfirst.That isoftenomittedwhen thereportingverbreferssimply to theactofsayingor thinking.Youusuallyincludethatafteraverbthatgivesmoreinformation,suchascomplainorexplain.TheFBIconfirmedthatthesubstancewasanexplosive.Iexplainedthatshewouldhavetostayinbed.Thiskindofreportedclauseisoftencalledathat-clause,eventhoughmanyoccurwithoutthat.Notethatsomerelativeclausesalsobeginwiththat.Insuchclauses,thatisarelativepronoun,notaconjunction.Relativeclausesareexplainedinparagraphs8.83to8.116.

verbsusedwiththat-clauses

7.30 Hereisalistofverbsthatareoftenusedasreportingverbswiththat-clauses:

acceptacknowledgeaddadmitagreeallegeannounceanswerargueassertassumeassurebelieveboastclaimcommentcomplainconcedeconcludeconfirmconsidercontendconvincedecide

denydeterminediscoverdisputedoubtdreamelicitestimateexpectexplainfearfeelfigurefindforeseeforgetgatherguaranteeguesshearholdhopeimagineimplyinforminsistjudgeknowlamentlearnmaintainmeanmentionnotenoticenotifyobjectobserveperceivepersuadepledgepraypredictpromiseprophesyreadrealizereasonreassurerecallreckonrecordreflectremark

rememberrepeatreplyreportresolverevealsayseesensespeculatestatesuggestsupposesuspectswearteachtellthinkthreatenunderstandvowwarnwishworrywrite

Note that some of these verbs are only used in reported speech in some of their senses. Forexample,ifyousayHeacceptedapresentyouareusingacceptasanordinaryverb.Afewoftheseverbscanormustbeusedwithanobjectthatreferstothehearer.Seeparagraphs7.75to7.76.Some of these verbs, such as decide and promise, can also be used with a to-infinitive. Seeparagraphs7.39and7.45.Someotherverbs,suchasadviseandorder,canbeusedasreportingverbswiththat-clausesonlyif the that-clausecontains amodal or a subjunctive.That-clauses of this kind are discussed inparagraph7.43.

positionofreportedclauses

7.31 Youusuallyputthereportingclausebeforethethat-clause,inordertomakeitclearthatyouarereportingratherthanspeakingdirectlyyourself.IsaidthatIwouldratherworkathome.Georginasaidshewasgoingtobed.However,ifyouwanttoemphasizethestatementcontainedinthereportedclause,youcanchangetheorderandputthereportedclausefirst,withacommaafterit.Youdonotusethattointroducetheclause.Allthesethingsweretrivial,hesaid.

Shewasworried,hethought.Ifthereportedclauseislong,youcanputthereportingclauseinthemiddle.Tenyearsago,Moumoniexplained,somegovernmentpeoplehadcometoinspectthevillage.

Reportingquestions7.32 Aswellasreportingwhatsomeonesaysorthinks,youcanalsoreportaquestionthattheyaskor

wonderabout.Questionsinreportedspeecharesometimescalledreportedquestionsorindirectquestions.

thereportingverb

7.33 Thereportingverbmostoftenusedforreportingquestionsisask.Questionscanbereportedinamoreformalwayusingenquireorinquire.IaskedifIcouldstaywiththem.HeaskedmewhereIwasgoing.SheinquiredhowIbrahimwasgettingon.

BECAREFUL

7.34 Whenyoureportaquestion:youdonotuseinterrogativewordorderyoudonotuseaquestionmark.

SothequestionDidyouenjoyit?couldbereported:Iaskedherifshehadenjoyedit.Questionsareexplainedinparagraphs5.10to5.36.

yes/noquestions

7.35 There are twomain types of question, and so twomain types of reported speech structure forquestions.Onetypeofquestioniscalledayes/noquestion.Thesearequestionsthatcanbeansweredsimplywithyesorno.Whenyou report ayes/no question, youuse an if-clausebeginningwith the conjunction if, or awhether-clausebeginningwiththeconjunctionwhether.You use if when the speaker has suggested one possibility that may be true.Do you knowmyname?couldbereportedasAwomanaskedifIknewhername.SheaskedhimifhisparentsspokeFrench.Someoneaskedmeiftheworkwasgoingwell.Heinquiredifherhairhadalwaysbeenthatcolour.Youusewhetherwhenthespeakerhassuggestedonepossibilitybuthasleftopenthequestionofotherpossibilities.Afterwhether,youcansuggestanotherpossibility,oryoucanleaveitunstated.

IwasaskedwhetherIwantedtostayatahotelorathishome.Sheaskedwhethertheservantswerestillthere.IaskedProfessorFredBaileywhetherheagreed.Apolicemanaskedmewhetherhecouldbeofhelp.Sometimesthealternativepossibilityisrepresentedbyornot.Thebarmandidn’taskwhetherornottheywereovereighteen.TheyaskedwhetherBritainwasorwasnotaChristiancountry.Formoreinformationaboutyes/noquestions,seeparagraphs5.12to5.14.

7.36 Thereareafewotherverbsthatcanbeusedbefore if-clausesorwhether-clauses,because theyrefertobeingunsureoffactsortodiscoveringfacts.Ididn’tknowwhethertobelievehimornot.Simonwonderedifheshouldmakeconversation.Shedidn’tsaywhetherhewasstillalive.Hereisalistofotherverbsthatcanbeusedbeforeif-clausesandwhether-clauses:

considerdeterminediscoverdoubtknowremembersayseetellwonder

Notethatknow,remember,say,see,andtellareusuallyusedinanegativeorinterrogativeclause,oraclausewithamodal.Alltheverbsinthelist,exceptwonder,canalsobeusedwith that-clauses:seeparagraph7.30.Theycanallalsobeusedwithclausesbeginningwithwh-words:seeparagraph7.38.

wh-questions

7.37 Theothertypeofquestioniscalledawh-question.Thesearequestionsinwhichsomeoneasksforinformationaboutaneventorsituation.Wh-questionscannotbeansweredwithyesorno.Whenyoureportawh-question,youuseawh-wordatthebeginningofthereportedclause.HeaskedwhereIwasgoing.SheenquiredwhyIwassolate.Shestartedtoaskwhathadhappened,thendecidedagainstit.Iaskedhowtheyhadgottheresoquickly.Ineverthoughttoaskwhoputitthere.

When the details of the question are clear from the context, you can sometimes leave out everythingexceptthewh-word.ThishappensmostlyinspokenEnglish,especiallywithwhy.Iaskedwhy.Theyenquiredhow.Formoreinformationaboutwh-questionsseeparagraphs5.23to5.36.

7.38 Otherverbscanbeusedbeforeclausesbeginningwithwh-words,becausetheyrefertoknowing,learning,ormentioningoneofthecircumstancesofaneventorsituation.Shedoesn’tknowwhatweweretalkingabout.Theycouldn’tseehowtheywouldmanagewithouther.Iwonderwhat’shappened.Hereisalistofotherverbsthatcanbeusedbeforeclausesbeginningwithwh-words:

decidedescribedeterminediscoverdiscussexplainforgetguessimaginejudgeknowlearnrealizerememberrevealsayseesuggestteachtelltestthinkunderstandwonder

Note that imagine, say, see, suggest, and think are usually used in a negative or interrogativeclause,oraclausewithamodal.Alltheverbsinthelist,exceptdescribe,discuss,andwonder,canalsobeusedwiththat-clauses:seeparagraph7.30.

Reportingorders,requests,advice,andintentions

reportingrequests

7.39 If someone orders, requests, or advises someone else to do something, this can be reported byusingato-infinitiveafterareportingverbsuchastell.Thepersonbeingaddressed,whoisgoingtoperformtheaction,ismentionedastheobjectofthereportingverb.Hetoldhertowaitthereforhim.HecommandedhismentoretreatHeorderedmetofetchthebooks.Mydoctoradvisedmetoseeaneurologist.Formoreonthistypeofstructure,seeparagraphs3.202and3.206.Here is a list of reporting verbs that can be used with a person as object followed by a to-infinitive:

adviseaskbegcommandforbidinstructinviteorderpersuaderemindteachtellurgewarn

USAGENOTE

7.40 Afewverbscanbeusedwithato-infinitivetoreportrequestswhenthehearerismentionedinaprepositionalphrase.Anofficershoutedtoustostopallthenoise.Ipleadedwithhimtotellme.Hereisalistoftheseverbsandtheprepositionsusedwiththem:

appealtopleadwithshoutatshouttowhispertoyellat

7.41 Inordinaryconversation,requestsareoftenputintheformofaquestion.Forexample,youmight

sayWillyouhelpme? insteadofHelpme.Similarly, reported requestsoften look like reportedquestions.HeaskedmeifIcouldlendhimfiftydollars.Whenyoureportarequest likethis,youcanmentionboththepersonreceivingitandthepersonmakingit.SheaskedmewhetherIwouldhelpher.Alternatively,youcanjustmentionthepersonmakingit.HeaskedifIwouldanswersomequestions.

7.42 Youcan report a request inwhich someone asks for permission to do somethingbyusing a to-infinitiveafteraskordemand.Iaskedtoseethemanager.

reportingsuggestions

7.43 When someonemakes a suggestion about what someone else (not their hearer) should do, youreport it by using a that-clause. In British English, this clause often contains amodal, usuallyshould.HeproposesthattheGovernmentshouldholdaninquiry.Travelagentsadvisethatpeopleshouldchangetheirmoneybeforetheytravel.Note that thisstructurecanalsobeused to reportasuggestionaboutwhat thehearershoulddo.Considertheexample:Herfatherhadsuggestedthatsheoughttoseeadoctor;herfathermighthavesuggesteditdirectlytoher.

Ifyoudonotuseamodal,theresultisconsideredmoreformalinBritishEnglish.InAmericanEnglish,however,thisistheusualverbformthatisusedaftersuggestingverbs.Someonesuggestedthattheybreakintosmallgroups.Notethatwhenyouleaveoutthemodal,theverbinthereportedclausestillhastheformitwouldhaveifthemodalwerepresent.Thisverbformiscalledthesubjunctive.Itwashisdoctorwhoadvisedthathechangehisjob.Isuggestedthathebringthemalluptothehouse.Heurgesthattherestrictionsbelifted.Here is a list of reportingverbs that canbe followedby a that-clause containing amodal or asubjunctive:

adviseagreeaskbegcommanddecreedemanddirect

insistintendorderpleadpraypreferproposerecommendrequestrulestipulatesuggesturge

Notethatadvise,ask,beg,command,order,andurgecanalsobeusedwithanobjectanda to-infinitive,andagree,pray,andsuggestcanalsobeusedwiththat-clauseswithoutamodal.

7.44 When someone makes a suggestion about what someone else should do, or about what theythemselves and someone else should do, you can report this using one of the reporting verbssuggest,advise,propose,orrecommendfollowedbyan-ingparticiple.Barbarasuggestedgoingtoanothercoffee-house.DeirdreproposedmovingtoNewYork.

reportingintentionsandhopes

7.45 When you are reporting an action that the speaker (the subject of the reporting verb) intends toperform,youcanreport it in twoways.Youcaneither report it simplyasanaction,usinga to-infinitiveclause,oryoucanreportitasastatementorfact,usingathat-clause.Forexample,promisesrelatetoactions(egHepromisedtophoneher)buttheycanalsobeseenasrelatingtofacts(egHepromisedthathewouldphoneher).Theverbphraseinthethat-clausealwayscontainsamodal.Ipromisedtocomeback.Shepromisedthatshewouldnotleavehospitaluntilshewasbetter.Idecidedtowithholdtheinformationtilllater.Shedecidedthatshewouldleavehermoneytohim.Ihadvowedtofightfortheirfreedom.Shevowedthatshewouldnotleaveherhome.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedeitherwithato-infinitiveorwithathat-clausecontainingamodal:

decideexpectguaranteehopepledge

promiseproposeresolveswearthreatenvow

USAGENOTE

7.46 Claimandpretendcanalsobeusedwiththesetwostructures,whenyouaresayingthatsomeoneisclaiming or pretending something about himself or herself. For example,He claimed to be ageniushasthesamemeaningasHeclaimedthathewasagenius.Heclaimedtohavewitnessedtheaccident.Heclaimedthathehadfoundthemoneyintheforest.Note that the to-infinitive can be in the perfect form: to have + -ed participle, when you arereferringtoapasteventorsituation.

7.47 Notethatafewverbsthatindicatepersonalintentionscanbeusedonlywithato-infinitive.Iintendtosaynothingforthepresent.Theyareplanningtomovetothecountry.Idon’twanttodieyet.Hereisalistoftheseverbs:

intendlongmeanplanrefusewant

Reportinguncertainthings7.48 Whenyouarereportinganactionthatsomeoneiswonderingaboutdoingthemselves,youcanusea

to-infinitivebeginningwithwhether.I’vebeenwonderingwhethertoretire.Hedidn’tknowwhethertofeelgladorsorryathisdismissal.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedwithto-infinitiveclausesofthiskind:

choosedebatedecideknowwonder

Note thatchoose,decide, andknow are usually used in a negative or interrogative clause, or aclausewithamodal.When you arementioning information about something involved in an action, you can use a to-infinitiveafterawh-wordasthereportedclause.Iaskedhimwhattodo.Ishallteachyouhowtocook.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedwithto-infinitivesofthiskind:

describediscoverdiscussexplainforgetguessimagineknowlearnrealizerememberrevealsayseesuggestteachtellthinkunderstandwonder

Asanalternativetobothkindsofto-infinitive,youcanuseaclausecontainingshould.IwonderedwhetherIshouldcallforhelp.Hebegantowonderwhatheshoulddonow.Alltheverbsintheabovelists,exceptchooseanddebate,canalsobeusedwithordinaryclausesbeginningwithwhetherorwh-words.Seeparagraphs7.35to7.38.

Timereferenceinreportedspeech7.49 This section explains how to show time reference in reported speech. Descriptions of time

referenceinreportedspeechoftengiveasimplifiedsystemthatinvolveschangingthetenseintheactualwords spoken, so thatapresent tensewouldbechanged toapast tense, andapast tensewould be changed to the past perfect. In fact, tense changes in reported speech are affected byseveralfactorsotherthantime,suchaswhetheryouwishtodistanceyourselffromwhatwassaid,orwhetheryouwanttoemphasizethefactthatastatementisstilltrue.

pasttenseforbothverbs

7.50 If you are reporting something thatwas said or believed in the past, or if youwant to distanceyourselffromwhattheotherpersonsaid,youusuallyuseapasttenseforboththereportingverbandtheverbinthereportedclause.Shesaidyouthrewawayhersweets.Brodyaskedwhathappened.IntheMiddleAges,peoplethoughttheworldwasflat.

reportingverbinothertenses

7.51 Ifyouarereportingsomethingthatsomeonesaysorbelievesatthetimethatyouarespeaking,youuseapresenttenseofthereportingverb.Athirdofadultssaythatworkisbadforyourhealth.Ithinkit’sgoingtorain.However,youcanalsouseapresenttenseofthereportingverbwhenyouarereportingsomethingsaid in thepast,especially ifyouarereportingsomethingthatsomeoneoftensaysor that isstilltrue.Shesaysshewantstoseeyouthisafternoon.Mydoctorsaysit’snothingtoworryabout.Ifyouarepredictingwhatpeoplewillsayorthink,youuseafutureformofthereportingverb.Nodoubthewillclaimthathiscarbrokedown.Theywillthinkwearemakingafuss.

tenseofverbinreportedclause

7.52 Whateverthetenseofyourreportingverb,youputtheverbinthereportedclauseintoatensethatisappropriateatthetimethatyouarespeaking.If the event or situation described in the reported clause is in the past at the time that you arespeaking,yougenerallyusethepastsimple,thepastprogressive,orthepresentperfect:Shesaidsheenjoyedthecourse,Shesaidshewasenjoyingthecourse,orShesaidshehasenjoyedthecourse.SeeChapter4forinformationonwhentousetheseforms.Dadexplainedthathehadnomoney.Sheaddedthatshewasworkingtoomuch.Hesayshehasneverseenalivesharkinhislife.When the reportingverb is in a past tense, a past tense is also usually used for the verb in thereportedclauseevenifthereportedsituationstillexists.Forexample,youcouldsayItoldhimIwaseighteenevenifyouarestilleighteen.Youareconcentratingonthesituationatthepasttimethatyouaretalkingabout.HesaidhewasEnglish.Apresentformissometimesusedinstead,toemphasizethatthesituationstillexists.ItoldhimthatIdon’teatmorethananyoneelse.

If theeventorsituationwas in thepastat the time that thereportedstatementwasmade,orhadexisteduptothattime,youusethepastperfect:Shesaidshehadenjoyedthecourse.Heknewhehadbehavedbadly.MrBennsaidthathehadbeeninhospitalatthetime.Iftheeventorsituationisstillgoingon,youuseapresentformifyouareusingapresentformofthereportingverb:Shesaysshe’senjoyingthecourse.Don’tassumeI’macompletefool.Heknowshe’sbeingwatched.Iftheeventorsituationwasinthefutureatthetimeofthestatementorisstillinthefuture,youuseamodal.Seeparagraphs7.53to7.56,below.

modalsinreportedclauses

7.53 Thebasicrulesforusingmodalsinreportedclausesareasfollows.If the verb in the reporting clause is in a past formor hascould orwould as an auxiliary, youusuallyusecould,might,orwouldinthereportedclause.If,as is lesscommon, theverb in the reportingclause is in thepresentorhascanorwill as anauxiliary,youusuallyusecan,may,orwillinthereportedclause.

USAGENOTE

7.54 When youwant to report a statement or question about someone’s ability to do something, younormallyusecould.Theybelievedthatwarcouldbeavoided.Nellwouldnotadmitthatshecouldnotcope.Ifyouwanttoreportastatementaboutpossibility,younormallyusemight.Theytoldmeitmightfloodhere.Hesaidyoumightneedmoney.Ifthepossibilityisastrongone,youusemust.Itoldhershemustbeoutofhermind.Whenyouwanttoreportastatementgivingpermissionorarequestforpermission,younormallyusecould.MightisusedinmoreformalEnglish.Itoldhimhecouldn’thaveit.Madeleineaskedifshemightborrowapenandsomepaper.Whenyouwanttoreportaprediction,promise,orexpectation,oraquestionaboutthefuture,younormallyusewould.Shesaidtheywouldallmissus.Heinsistedthatreformswouldsavethesystem,notdestroyit.

7.55 If the reportedeventor situation still existsor is still in the future, andyouareusingapresenttenseofthereportingverb,youusecaninsteadofcould,mayinsteadofmight,andwillorshall

insteadofwould.HelensaysIcanshareherapartment.Ithinktheweathermaychangesoon.Idon’tbelievehewillcome.Notethatyoucannotusecanhaveinsteadofcouldhave,orwillhaveinsteadofwouldhave.Youcannot usemay have instead ofmight have if you are using it like could have to talk aboutsomethingthatdidnothappen.Youcanalsousecan,may,will,andshallwhenyouareusingapasttenseofthereportingverb,ifyouwanttoemphasizethatthesituationstillexistsorisstillinthefuture.Heclaimedthatthechild’searlyexperiencesmaycausepsychologicaldistressinlaterlife.Ifyouareusingapresentreportingverbandwanttoindicatethatthereportedeventorsituationishypotheticalorveryunlikely,youcanusethemodalscould,might,orwould.IbelievethatIcouldliveverycomfortablyhere.

7.56 Whenyouwanttoreportastatementaboutobligation,itispossibletousemust,buttheexpressionhadto(seeparagraph5.244)ismorecommon.Hesaidhereallyhadtogobackinside.Sitatoldhimthathemustbeespeciallykindtothelittlegirl.Youusehaveto,hasto,ormustifthereportedsituationstillexistsorisinthefuture.Whenyouwanttoreportastatementprohibitingsomething,younormallyusemustn’t.Hesaidtheymustn’tgetusintotrouble.Whenyouwanttoreportastrongrecommendation,youcanuseoughtto.Youcanalsouseshould.HeknewheoughttobehelpingHarold.IfeltIshouldconsultmyfamily.

7.57 Whenyouwanttoreportahabitualpastactionorapastsituation,youcanusethesemi-modalusedto.IwishIknewwhathisfavouritedishesusedtobe.

7.58 The use ofmodals in reported clauses can be comparedwith the ordinary use ofmodals (seeparagraphs5.94to5.258).Manyofthefunctionsaresimilar,butsomearerarelyorneverfoundinreportedclauses.

reportingconditionalstatements

7.59 Whenyouare reportingaconditionalstatement, the tensesof theverbsare, inmost cases, thesameastheywouldbenormally.However,theyaredifferentifyouareusingthepastsimpleformof a reporting verb, and reporting a conditional statement such as If there is no water in theradiator,theenginewilloverheat.Inthiscase,youcanusethepastsimpleinsteadofthepresentsimpleandwouldinsteadofwillinthereportedconditionalstatement:Shesaidthatiftherewasnowaterintheradiator,theenginewouldoverheat.Forinformationaboutconditionalstatements,seeparagraphs8.25to8.42.

Makingyourreferenceappropriate7.60 People, things, times, and places can be referred to in different ways, depending on who is

speakingoronwhenorwheretheyarespeaking.Forexample,thesamepersoncanbereferredtoasI,you,orshe,andthesameplacecanbereferredtoasoverthereorjusthere.Ifyouusereportedspeechtoreportwhatsomeonehassaid,thewordsyouusetorefertothingsmustbeappropriateinrelationtoyourself,thetimewhenyouarespeaking,andtheplaceinwhichyou are speaking. Thewords you usemaywell be different from thewords originally spoken,whichwereappropriatefromthepointofviewofthespeakeratthetime.

referringtopeopleandthings

7.61 Forexample,ifamanistalkingtosomeoneaboutawomancalledJenny,andhesays,IsawherintheHighStreet, there are severalways inwhich this statement can be reported. If the originalspeakerrepeatswhathesaid,hecouldsay,IsaidIsawherintheHighStreet.Iandherdonotchange,becausetheystillrefertothesamepeople.Iftheoriginallistenerreportswhatwassaid,heorshecouldsay,HesaidhesawherintheHighStreet.Ibecomeshe,becausethestatementisreportedfromthepointofviewofathirdperson,notfromthepointofviewoftheoriginalspeaker.IftheoriginallistenerreportsthestatementtoJenny,herbecomesyou:HesaidhesawyouintheHighStreet.Theoriginallistenermightreportthestatementtotheoriginalspeaker.Thistime,Ihastochangetoyou:YousaidyousawherintheHighStreet.You’recrazy.Itoldhimhewascrazy.Possessive determiners and pronouns change in the sameway as personal pronouns in order tokeepthesamereference.Sothefollowingsentencescouldallreportthesamequestion:Sheaskedif he was my brother, She asked if you were my brother, I asked if he was her brother. TheoriginalquestionmighthavebeenexpressedasIsheyourbrother?

referringtotime

7.62 Whenreporting,youmayneedtochangetimeadverbialssuchastoday,yesterday,ornextweek.Forexample,ifsomeonecalledJillsaysIwillcometomorrow,youcouldreportthisstatementthefollowing day as Jill said she would come today. At a later time, you could report the samestatementasJillsaidshewouldcomethenextdayorJillsaidshewouldcomethefollowingday.Wedecidedtoleavethecitythenextday.IwasafraidpeoplemightthinkI’dbeenasleepduringtheprevioustwenty-fourhours.

referringtoplaces

7.63 Youmayneedtochangewordsthatrelatetopositionorplace.

Forexample,ifyouaretalkingtoamanaboutarestaurant,hemightsayIgothereeveryday. Ifyoureporthisstatementwhileyouareactuallyintherestaurant,youcouldsayHesaidhecomeshereeveryday.

Usingreportingverbstoperformanaction7.64 Reporting verbs are often used when people explicitly say what function their statement is

performing.Theydo thisusing Iand thepresentsimpleofaverbsuchasadmitorpromise thatreferstosomethingthatisdonewithwords.Forexample,insteadofsayingI’llbethereyoucouldsayIpromiseI’llbethere,whichmakesthestatementstronger.Isuggestwedrawupadocument.I’llbebackatone,Ipromise.Iwassomewhatshocked,Iadmit,bytheseevents.Thefollowingverbscanbeusedinthisway:

acknowledgeadmitassureclaimconcedecontenddemanddenyguaranteemaintainpledgepredictpromiseprophesyproposesaysubmitsuggestsweartellvowwarn

7.65 Someotherverbs that refer todoing somethingwithwords areusedwithout a that-clause afterthem.Whenusedwithoutathat-clause,theuseofthepresentsimplewithIperformsthefunctionofastatementinitself,ratherthancommentingonanotherstatement.Iapologizeforanydelay.Icongratulateyouwithallmyheart.Iforgiveyou.Thefollowingverbsarecommonlyusedinthisway:

absolveacceptaccuseadviseagreeapologizeauthorizebaptizechallengeconfesscongratulateconsentdeclarededicatedefyforbidforgivenamenominateobjectorderpronounceprotestrefuserenounceresignsecondsentence

7.66 Theverbsintheabovelistsaresometimescalledperformativeverbsorperformatives,becausetheyperformtheactiontheyreferto.

USAGENOTE

7.67 Someoftheseverbsareusedwithmodalswhenpeoplewanttobeemphatic,polite,ortentative.ImustapologizeforMayfield.Iwouldagreewithalotoftheirpoints.Shewasverythoroughlychecked,Icanassureyou.MayIcongratulateyouagainonyourexcellentperformance.

Avoidingmentionofthepersonspeakingorthinking7.68 Thereareseveralreportingstructuresthatyoucanuseifyouwanttoavoidsayingwhoseopinion

orstatementyouaregiving.

useofpassivestoexpressgeneralbeliefs

7.69 Ifyouwanttoshoworsuggestthatsomethingisanopinionheldbyanunspecifiedgroupofpeople,youcanuseapassiveformofareportingverbwithitastheimpersonalsubject.

Itisassumedthatthegovernmentwillremaininpower.Informertimesitwasbelievedthatallenlargedtonsilsshouldberemoved.Itisnowbelievedthatforeignlanguagesaremosteasilytaughttoyoungchildren.Itwassaidthathalfamilliondollarshadbeenspentonthesearch.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatareusedinthepassivewithitastheirsubject:

acceptacknowledgeadmitagreeallegeannounceargueassertassumebelieveclaimcommentconcedeconcludeconfirmconsiderdecidedecreediscoverestimateexpectexplainfearfeelfindforeseeforgetguaranteeholdhopeimplyknowmentionnotenoticeobjectobservepredictproposerealizerecallreckonrecommendrecordremember

reportrequestrevealrulerumoursaystatestipulatesuggestsupposethinkunderstand

This structure has much in common with a structure using a passive reporting verb and a to-infinitiveclause.Inthisstructure,themainpersonorthinginvolvedinthereportedopinionisputasthesubjectofthereportingverb.Intelligenceisassumedtobeimportant.Heissaidtohavediedanaturaldeath.HeisbelievedtohavefledtoFrance.Notethattheto-infinitiveismostcommonlybeorhave,oraperfectinfinitive.Hereisalistofreportingverbs,fromthelistabove,thatarealsousedinthistypeofstructure:

agreeallegeassumebelieveclaimconsiderdiscoverestimateexpectfeelfindguaranteeholdknowobservethinkunderstand

seemandappear

7.70 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingappearstobethecase,youcanuseeitheroftheverbsseemandappear.Theseverbscanbeusedasreportingverbsfollowedbyathat-clauseortheycanbeusedwithato-infinitive.Youcanusethisstructuretogiveyourownopinionorthatofsomeoneelse.Thesubjectofseemorappearisit,usedimpersonally.

ItseemedthatshehadnotbeencarefulenoughItseemedthathehadlosthischancetowin.Itappearsthathefollowedmyadvice.Alternatively, you can use a structure involving seem orappear and a to-infinitive clause. Themainpersonorthinginvolvedinthefactthatappearstobetrueisputasthesubjectofthereportingverb.Sheseemedtolikeme.Heappearstohavebeenaninterestingman.Thesystemappearstoworkwell.Ifyouwant tomention thepersonwhoseviewpointyouaregiving,youcanaddaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithtoafterseemorappear.ItseemedtoJanethateveryonewasagainsther.

USAGENOTE

7.71 There are a few expressions containing impersonal it that are used as reporting clauses beforethat-clausestoshowthatsomeonesuddenlythoughtofsomething:Itoccurredtome,Itstruckme,andItcrossedmymind.Itoccurredtoherthatsomeonewasmissing.Itcrossedmymindthatsomebodymusthavebeenkeepingthingssecret.

Referringtothespeakerandhearer

referringtothespeaker

7.72 Youusuallyuseareportingverbtoreportwhatonepersonhassaidorthought,sothesubjectofareportingverbisusuallyasingularnoun.Henrysaidthathewantedtogohome.Heclaimedhishealthhadbeencheckedseveraltimesataclinic.Whenyoureportthestatements,opinions,orders,orquestionsofagroupofpeople,youcanuseapluralnounoracollectivenounasthesubjectofthereportingverb.Thejudgesdemandedthattheraceberunagain.Thecommitteenotedthatthiswasnotthefirstcaseofitskind.When you report what was said on television or radio, or what is printed or written in anewspaper or other document, you can mention the source or means of communication as thesubjectofareportingverb.ThenewspapersaidhewashidingsomewherenearKabul.Hiscontractstatedthathissalarywouldbe£50,000ayear.Notethatyoucanalsousesaywithnounssuchassign,notice,clock,andmapasthesubject.Thenoticesaidthatattendantsshouldnotbetipped.AsignoverthedoorsaidDreamlandCafe.

Theroadmapsaiditwas210kilometrestotheFrenchfrontier.

useofthepassive

7.73 As explained in paragraph 7.69, when you want to avoid mentioning the person who saidsomething,youcanuseareportingverbinthepassive.Itwassaidthatsomeofthemhadbecomeinsane.Hewassaidtobetheoldestmaninthefirm.Ifyouwant to avoidmentioning thepersongivinganorderorgivingadvice,youuse apassivereportingverbwiththepersonwhoreceivestheorderoradviceasthesubject.Harrietwasorderedtokeepawayfrommyroom.

USAGENOTE

7.74 If you want to distance yourself from a statement you are making, you can show that you arereportingwhatsomeoneelsehassaidbyusingaphrasebeginningwithaccordingto, rather thanusingreportedspeech.AccordingtoDime,hehadstrangledJedinthecourseofastruggle.

referringtothehearer

7.75 Aftersomereportingverbsthatrefertospeech,youhavetomentionthehearerasadirectobject.Tellisthemostcommonoftheseverbs.Itoldthemyouwereatthedentist.IinformedherthatIwasunwellandcouldnotcome.Smithpersuadedthemthattheymustsupportthestrike.Youcanusetheseverbsinthepassive,withthehearerasthesubject.Shehadbeentoldshecouldleavehospital.Membershadbeeninformedthatthepurposeofthemeetingwastoelectanewchairman.Shewaspersuadedtolookagain.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatmusthavethehearerasthedirectobjectwhentheyareusedwithathat-clause:

assureconvinceinformnotifypersuadereassureremindtell

Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatmusthavethehearerasthedirectobjectwhentheyareusedwithato-infinitiveclause:

advisebegcommandforbidinstructinviteorderpersuaderemindteachtellurgewarn

verbswithorwithoutthehearerasobject

7.76 After a few reporting verbs that refer to speech, you can choosewhether or not tomention thehearer.IpromisedthatIwouldtrytophoneher.IpromisedMyraI’dbehomeatseven.Thephysicianswarnedthat,withouttheoperation,thechildwoulddie.Thomaswarnedherthathismotherwasslightlydeaf.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatcanbeusedwithorwithoutthehearerasobjectwhenusedwithathat-clause:

askpromiseteachwarn

Promisecanalsobeusedwithorwithoutanobjectwhenitisusedwithato-infinitive.Askhastobeusedwithanobjectwhenitisusedwithato-infinitiveclausetoreportarequestforthehearertodosomething,butitisusedwithoutanobjectwhentherequestisforpermissiontodosomething(seeparagraphs7.39and7.42).

thehearerinprepositionalphrases

7.77 Withmanyotherreportingverbs, ifyouwant tomentionthehearer,youdosoinaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithto.IexplainedtoherthatIhadtogohome.

‘Margaret’,Isaidtoher,‘I’msogladyoucame.’Here is a list of reporting verbs that are used with that-clauses or quotes and that need theprepositiontoifyoumentionthehearer:

admitannounceboastcomplainconfessdeclareexplainhintinsistmentionmurmurproposereportrevealsayshoutsuggestswearwhisper

Proposeandswearcanalsobeusedwithato-infinitive,butnotifyoumentionthehearer.Iproposetomentionthisatthenextmeeting.

7.78 Whenyouaredescribingasituationinwhichaspeakerisspeakingforcefullytoahearer,youcanmentionthehearerinaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithat.Thetallboyshoutedatthem,Choir!Standstill!Shutup!hebellowedatme.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatareusedtodescribeforcefulspeech.Ifyouwanttomentionthehearer,youuseaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithat:

barkbellowgrowlgrumblehowlroarscreamshoutshrieksnapstormthunderwail

yell

7.79 With verbs that describe situations where both the speaker and the hearer are involved in thespeechactivity,youcanmentionthehearerinaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithwith.Heagreedwithusthatitwouldbebettertohavenobreak.CanyouconfirmwithRaythatthisdateisok?Hereisalistofreportingverbsthattaketheprepositionwithifyoumentionthehearer:

agreeargueconfirmpleadreason

7.80 With verbs that describe situations where someone is getting information from someone orsomething, you use a prepositional phrase beginning with from to mention the source of theinformation.Idiscoveredfromherthatawomanprisonerhadkilledherself.Hereisalistofreportingverbswherethesourceoftheinformationismentionedusingfrom:

discoverelicitgatherhearinferlearnsee

reflexivepronouns

7.81 Areflexivepronounissometimesusedastheobjectofareportingverborprepositioninordertosaywhatsomeoneisthinking.Forexample,tosaysomethingtoyourselfmeanstothinkitratherthantosayitaloud.Itoldmyselfthathewascrazy.Itwillsoonbeover,Ikeptsayingtomyself.

Otherwaysofindicatingwhatissaid

objectswithreportingverbs

7.82 Sometimesyouuseanounsuchasquestion,story,orapologytorefertowhatsomeonehassaidor

written.Youcanuseareportingverbwithoneof thesenounsas itsobject insteadofareportedclause.Heaskedanumberofquestions.Simonwhisperedhisanswer.Hetoldfunnystoriesandmadeeveryonelaugh.Philiprepeatedhisinvitation.Hereisa listofreportingverbsthatareoftenusedwithnounsthatrefer tosomethingspokenorwritten:

acceptacknowledgeaskbeginbelievecontinuedemanddenyexpectexplainforgetguesshearimagineknowlayoutlearnmentionmutternotenoticepromiserefuserememberrepeatreportsetdownshoutstatesuggesttellunderstandwhisperwrite

7.83 Somereportingverbscanhaveastheirobjectsnounsthatrefertoeventsorfacts.Thesenounsareoftencloselyrelatedtoverbs.Forexample,loss iscloselyrelatedtolose,and insteadofsayingHeadmittedthathehadlosthispassport,youcansayHeadmittedthelossofhispassport.BritishAirwaysannouncethearrivalofflightBA5531fromGlasgow.

Thecompanyreporteda45percentdropinprofits.Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatareoftenusedwithnounsthatrefertoeventsorfacts:

acceptacknowledgeadmitannouncedemanddescribediscoverdiscussdoubtexpectexplainfearforeseeforgetimaginemeanmentionnotenoticeobservepredictpreferpromiserecommendrecordrememberreportseesensesuggesturge

USAGENOTE

7.84 Note that say is usually only usedwith an object if the object is a very generalword such assomething,anything,ornothing.Imusthavesaidsomethingwrong.Themannoddedbutsaidnothing.

prepositionalphraseswithreportingverbs

7.85 Afewverbsreferringtospeechandthoughtcanbeusedwithaprepositionalphraseratherthanareportedclause,toindicatethegeneralsubjectmatterofastatementorthought.ThomasexplainedabouttherequestfromParis.

Here are three lists of verbs that can be usedwith a prepositional phrase referring to a fact orsubject. Ineach list, theverbs in thefirstgroupareusedwithoutanobject,and theverbs in thesecondgroupareusedwithanobjectreferringtothehearer.Notethataskandwarncanbeusedwithorwithoutanobject.Thefollowingverbsareusedwithabout:

agreeaskboastcomplaindecidedreamexplainforgetgrumblehearinquireknowlearnmutterreadwonderworrywrite~askteachtellwarn

Nooneknewaboutmyinterestinmathematics.Iaskedhimaboutthehorses.Thefollowingverbsareusedwithof:

complaindreamhearknowlearnreadthinkwarnwrite~assureconvinceinformnotify

persuadereassureremindwarn

Theynevercomplainedoftheincessantrain.Noonehadwarnedusofthedangers.Thefollowingverbsareusedwithon.Noneofthemtakeanobjectreferringtothehearer.

agreecommentdecidedetermineinsistremarkreportwrite

Hehadalreadydecidedonhisstory.Theyareinsistingonthereleaseofallpoliticalprisoners.Notethatspeakandtalkareusedwithaboutandofbutnotwithreportedclauses.

Otherwaysofusingreportedclauses

nounsusedwithreportedclauses

7.86 Therearemanynouns,suchasstatement,advice,andopinion,thatrefertowhatsomeonesaysorthinks.Manyofthenounsusedinthiswayarerelatedtoreportingverbs.Forexample,informationis related to inform, and decision is related to decide. These nouns can be used in reportingstructures in a similarway to reporting verbs. They are usually followed by a reported clausebeginningwiththat.HereferredtoCopernicus’statementthattheEarthmovesaroundthesun.TheyexpressedtheopinionthatImustbemisinformed.Therewaslittlehopethathewouldsurvive.Hereisalistofnounsthathaverelatedreportingverbsandthatcanbeusedwiththat-clauses:

admissionadviceagreementannouncementanswerargumentassertion

assumptionbeliefclaimconclusiondecisiondeclarationdreamexpectationexplanationfeelingguesshopeinformationknowledgepromisereplyreportresponserevelationrulerumoursayingsensestatementthoughtthreatunderstandingwarningwish

Someofthesenounscanalsobefollowedbyato-infinitiveclause:

agreementclaimdecisionhopepromisethreatwarningwish

Thedecisiontogohadnotbeenaneasyonetomake.Barnaby’sfatherhadfulfilledhispromisetobuyhissonahorse.Note that some nouns that are not related to reporting verbs can be followed by that-clauses,becausetheyreferorrelatetofactsorbeliefs.Hereisalistofsomeofthesenouns:

advantagebenefit

confidencedangerdisadvantageeffectevidenceexperiencefactfaithideaimpressionnewsopinionpossibilityprinciplerisksignstorytraditionviewvisionword

Hedidn’twanthertogettheideathathewasrich.Shecan’tacceptthefactthathe’sgone.EventuallyadistraughtMcCooturnedupwiththenewsthathishousehadjustburneddown.

Chapter8Combiningmessages

8.6–82 Adverbialclauses

8.8–24 Timeclauses:WhenIwasyoung,…8.25–42 Conditionalclauses:IfIhadmoremoney,…8.43–48 Purposeclauses:Hediditinordertomakeherhappy8.49–53 Reasonclauses:…becauseIwantedtowin8.54–64 Resultclauses:I’lldriveyoutheresothatyouwon’tbelate8.65–72 Concessiveclauses:Ilovebooks,althoughIdon’treadmuch8.73–77 Placeclauses:Staywhereyouare8.78–82 Clausesofmanner:Idon’tknowwhyhebehavesashedoes

8.83–116 Relativeclauses

8.89–91 Usingrelativepronounsindefiningclauses8.92–94 Usingrelativepronounsinnon-definingclauses8.95–100 Usingrelativepronounswithprepositions8.101–102 Usingwhose8.103–108 Usingotherrelativepronouns8.109–111 Additionalpointsaboutnon-definingrelativeclauses8.112–116 Nominalrelativeclauses:Whatyouneedis…

8.117–128 Nominalthat-clauses

8.129–148 Non-finiteclauses

8.132–143 Usingnon-definingclauses8.144–145 Usingdefiningclauses8.146–148 Otherstructuresusedlikenon-finiteclauses

8.149–201 Linkingwords,phrases,andclausestogether

8.151–163 Linkingclauses8.164–170 Linkingverbstogether8.171–179 Linkingnounphrases8.180–189 Linkingadjectivesandadverbs8.190–193 Linkingotherwordsandphrases8.194–199 Emphasizingcoordinatingconjunctions8.200–201 Linkingmorethantwoclauses,phrases,orwords

8 Combiningmessages

8.1 Sometimesa statement is toocomplexordetailed tobeexpressed ina singleclause.Youmakestatementsofthiskindbyputtingtwoormoreclausestogetherinonesentence.Therearetwowaysinwhichyoucandothis.Onewayistouseoneclauseasamainclauseandtoaddothersubordinateclauses.Asubordinateclauseisaclausethatdependsonthemainclauseto complete its meaning, and that cannot form a sentence on its own. For this reason, in somegrammars,itiscalledadependentclause.IcamebecauseIwantyoutohelpme.Ididn’tlikethemanwhodidthegardeningforthem.Youhavenorighttokeeppeopleoffyourlandunlesstheyaredoingdamage.Whenhehadgone,Valentinasighed.Theotherwayissimplytolinkclausestogether.I’manoldmanandI’msick.IlikefilmsbutIdon’tgotothecinemaveryoften.Questionsandorderscanalsoconsistofmorethanoneclause.WhatwillIdoifhedoesn’tcome?Ifsheisambitious,don’ttrytoholdherback.ClausesareexplainedinChapters3and5.

conjunctions

8.2 Whenyouputtwoclausesintoonesentence,youuseaconjunctiontolinkthemandtoshowtherelationshipbetweenthem.Whenhestopped,noonesaidanything.Theyweregoingbycarbecauseitwasmorecomfortable.ThetelephonerangandJudypickeditup.Thefoodlookedgood,butIwastoofulltoeat.

8.3 Therearetwotypesofconjunction.Theyshowthedifferenttypesofrelationshipbetweenclausesinasentence.

subordinatingconjunctions

8.4 Whenyou are adding a clause in order todevelop an aspect ofwhat you are saying, youuse asubordinatingconjunction.Thecatjumpedontomyfather’slapwhilehewasreadinghisletters.

Hehadcanceralthoughitwasdetectedatanearlystage.Whenthejarwasfull,heturnedthewateroff.Aclausethatbeginswithasubordinatingconjunctioniscalledasubordinateclause.Whenanatomissplit,itreleasesneutrons.Ifhehadwon,hewouldhavesharedthemoney.ThehousewascalledSeaView,althoughtherewerenoseaanywhereinsight.Youcanalsoaddsubordinateclausestoquestionsandimperativeclauses.Howlongisitsinceyou’veactuallytaught?Makeaplanbeforeyoustart.Sentencescontainingamainclauseandoneormoresubordinateclausesareoftencalledcomplexsentences.Therearethreemainkindsofsubordinateclause:Adverbialclauses:thesearedealtwithinparagraphs8.6to8.82.Relativeclauses:thesearedealtwithinparagraphs8.83to8.116.Nominal that-clauses: thoserelating to reportedspeechand thoughtare referred toasreportedclauses,andaredealtwithinChapter7;thoserelatingtofactsaredealtwithinparagraphs8.117to8.128.

coordinatingconjunctions

8.5 Ifyouaresimplylinkingclauses,youuseacoordinatingconjunction.Hersonlivesathomeandhasasteadyjob.He’sashyman,buthe’snotscaredofanythingoranyone.Youcanalsoputcoordinatingconjunctionsbetweenquestionsandbetweenimperativeclauses.Didyoubuythosecurtainsordoyoumakeyourown?Visityourlocaldealerorphoneforabrochure.Clausesjoinedbyacoordinatingconjunctionarecalledcoordinateclauses.Sheturnedandlefttheroom.Sentencesthatcontaincoordinateclausesaresometimescalledcompoundsentences.A full explanation of coordinate clauses is given in paragraphs 8.149 to 8.163. Other uses ofcoordinatingconjunctionsareexplainedinparagraphs8.164to8.201.

Adverbialclauses8.6 Thereareeighttypesofadverbialclause:typeofclause usualconjunction paragraphstimeclauses when,before,aftersince,while,as,until paragraphs8.8to8.24conditionalclauses if,unless paragraphs8.25to8.42purposeclauses inorderto,sothat paragraphs8.43to8.48

reasonclauses because,since,as paragraphs8.49to8.53resultclauses sothat paragraphs8.54to8.64concessiveclauses although,though,while paragraphs8.65to8.72placeclauses where,wherever paragraphs8.73to8.77clausesofmanner as,like,theway paragraphs8.78to8.82

Non-finite clauses, when they begin with a subordinating conjunction, are dealt with in thesectionsdealingwithadverbialclauses.Non-finiteclausesthatdonotbeginwithasubordinatingconjunctionaredealtwithseparatelyinparagraphs8.129to8.145.Otherstructures that functionlikenon-finiteclausesaredescribedinparagraphs8.146to8.148.

positionofadverbialclause

8.7 Theusualpositionforanadverbialclauseisjustafterthemainclause.Icouldn’tthinkofasinglethingtosayafterhe’drepliedlikethat.Theperformanceswerecancelledbecausetheleadingmanwasill.However,mosttypesofadverbialclausecanbeputinfrontofamainclause.Whenthecityisdark,wecanmovearoundeasily.Althoughcrocodilesareinactiveforlongperiods,onoccasiontheycanrunveryfastindeed.Occasionally,youcanputanadverbialclauseinthemiddleofanotherclause.Theymakeallegationswhich,whenyouanalysethem,donothavetoomanyfactsbehindthem.Thereareafewtypesofadverbialclausethatalwaysgoafteramainclause;othertypesalwaysgoinfrontofone.Thisisexplainedinthesectionsdealingwiththedifferenttypesofclause.

Timeclauses:WhenIwasyoung,…8.8 Timeclausesareusedforsayingwhensomethinghappens,byreferringtoaperiodoftimeorto

anotherevent.Herfatherdiedwhenshewasyoung.Stocksoffoodcannotbebroughtinbeforetherainsstart.HewasdetainedlastMondayafterhereturnedfromabusinesstripoverseas.WhenIfirstarrivedIdidn’tknowanyone.Timeclausescanbeusedaftertimeadverbials.We’llgivehimhispresentstomorrow,beforehegoestoschool.Iwanttoseeyouforafewminutesattwelveo’clock,whenyougotolunch.TimeadverbialsareexplainedinChapter4.

tensesintimeclauses

8.9 Whenyouaretalkingaboutthepastorthepresent,theverbinatimeclausehasthesametensethatitwouldhaveinamainclauseorinasimplesentence.IwasstandingbythewindowwhenIheardherspeak.IlookafterthechildrenwhileshegoestoDenver.

However,ifthetimeclausereferstosomethingthatwillhappenorexistinthefuture,youusethepresentsimple,notthefuture.Forexample,yousayWhenhecomes,Iwillshowhimthebook,notWhenhewillcome, Iwillshowhimthebook.Assoonaswegetthetickets,we’llsendthemtoyou.Hewantstoseeyoubeforehedies.LetmestayheretillJeanniecomeshome.Ifyoumentionanevent inatimeclausethatwillhappenbeforeaneventreferredtointhemainclause,youusethepresentperfectinthetimeclause,notthefutureperfect.Forexample,yousayWhenyouhavehadyoursupper,comeandseeme,notWhenyouwillhavehadyoursupper,comeandseeme.Wewon’tbegettingmarrieduntilwe’vesavedenoughmoney.Comeandtellmewhenyouhavefinished.

8.10 The most common conjunction in time clauses is when. When is used to say that somethinghappened,happens,orwillhappenonaparticularoccasion.WhenthetelegramcameandIreadofhisdeath,Icouldn’tbelieveit.Hedidn’tknowhowtobehavewhentheynextmet.

8.11 Youcanmentionthecircumstancesinwhichsomethinghappensorhappenedbyusingwhen,while,oras.Thetrainhasautomaticdoorsthatonlyopenwhenthetrainisstationary.Whilehewasstillinthestable,therewasaloudknockatthefrontdoor.HewouldswimbesidemeasIrowedinthelittledinghy.Whilstisamoreformalformofwhile.Wechattedwhilstthechildrenplayedinthecrèche.

WhilstisnotusedinmodernAmericanEnglish.

USAGENOTE

8.12 Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatsomethinghappenedataparticulartime,youcanuseItwasfollowedbyanexpressionsuchassixo’clockorthreehourslater,followedbyawhen-clause.Forexample,insteadofsayingIleftatsixo’clock,yousayItwassixo’clockwhenIleft.ItwasabouthalfpasteightwhenhearrivedatGatwick.Itwaslatewhenhereturned.Thisisanexampleofasplitsentence.Splitsentencesareexplainedinparagraphs9.25to9.30.

repeatedevents

8.13 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingalwayshappenedorhappensinparticularcircumstances,youusewhen,whenever,everytime,oreachtime.WhenhetalksaboutIreland,hedoessoundlikeanoutsider.

Whenevershehadacold,sheateonlyfruit.EverytimeIgotothatclassIpanic.Helookedawayeachtimeshespoketohim.

8.14 Youuseanexpressionsuchasthefirsttime,thenexttime,orthethirdtimetosaythatsomethinghappenedduringoneoccurrenceofanevent.Thelasttimewetalkedhesaidheneededanothertwodays.ThenexttimeIcomehere,I’mgoingtobebetter.

eventsinsequence

8.15 Youcanalsousewhen,after,oroncetotalkaboutoneeventhappeningimmediatelyafteranother.Whenhiswifelefthimhesufferedterribly.Stopmewhenyou’vehadenough.Theturtlereturnstotheseaafterithaslaiditseggs.Oncethedamageisdone,ittakesmanyyearsforthesystemtorecover.Ifyouwanttosayhowlongoneeventhappenedafteranother,youputanounphrasesuchastwodaysorthreeyearsinfrontofafter.Exactlysixweeksaftershehadarrived,shesentacabletoherhusbandandcaughttheplanebacktoNewYork.As soonas, directly, immediately, themoment, theminute, and the instant are all used to talkaboutoneeventhappeningaveryshorttimeafteranother.Theyheardvoicesassoonastheypushedopenthedoor.Theminutesomeonelefttheroom,theothersstartedtalkingaboutthem.Immediatelythemealwasover,itwastimeforprayer.

ThewordsdirectlyandimmediatelyarenotusedasconjunctionsinAmericanEnglish.8.16 Whenyouwant to say that somethinghappened,happens,orwillhappenat anearlier time than

somethingelse,youusebefore.Itwasnecessaryforthemtofindahomebeforethecoldweatherarrived.Beforetheymovedtothecityshehadneverseenacar.If youwant to sayhow longone event happenedbefore another, youput a nounphrase such asthreeweeksorashorttimeinfrontofbefore.Hehadareviewwiththesecondorganiser,aboutamonthbeforethereportwaswritten.Longbeforeyoureturnshewillhaveforgottenyou.

8.17 Whenyouare tellingastory,yousometimeswant tosaywhatwashappeningwhenaparticulareventoccurred.Youfirstsaywhatwashappening,thenaddaclausebeginningwithwheninwhichyoumentiontheevent.IhadjustfinishedmymealwhenIheardvoices.Hewashavinghisdinnerwhenthetelephonerang.Ifyouwanttosaythatoneeventhappenedaveryshorttimeafteranother,youuseaclauseinthepastperfect,followedbyatimeclauseinthepastsimple.Afterhadinthefirstclause,youputno

soonerorhardly.Whenyouusenosooner,thetimeclausebeginswiththan.Ihadnosoonercheckedintothehotelthanhearrivedwiththeappropriatedocuments.Whenyouusehardly,thetimeclausebeginswithwhenorbefore.Hehadhardlygothiseyesopenbeforeshetoldhimthattheywereleaving.Nosooneror, lessfrequently,hardlycanbeputat thebeginningof thefirstclause, followedbyhadandthesubject.Nosoonerhadheaskedthequestionthantheanswercametohim.HardlyhadhesettledintohisseatwhenAlancameburstingin.Hardlyhadhegotonhishorsebeforepeoplestartedfiringathim.

8.18 Whensomethingisthecasebecauseofanewsituation,youcansaywhatisthecaseandthenaddasubordinateclausesayingwhatthenewsituationis.Thesubordinateclausebeginswithnowthat.InBritishEnglishyoucanleaveoutthat.Hecouldtravelmuchfasternowthathewasalone.IfeelbetternowI’vetalkedtoyou.

sayingwhenasituationbegan

8.19 Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationstartedtoexistataparticulartimeandstillexists,youusesinceoreversince.Inthetimeclause,youusethepastsimple.I’vebeeninpoliticssinceIwasatuniversity.It’sbeenmakingmoneyeversinceitopened.Youalsousesinceoreversincetosaythatasituationstartedtoexistataparticulartime,andstillexistedatalatertime.Inthetimeclause,youusethepastsimpleorthepastperfect.Hehadbeentiredeversincehestartedwork.Janinehadbeenbusyeversinceshehadheardthenews.Ifyouarementioningsomeone’sageatthetimewhenasituationstarted,youalwaysusethepastsimple.IwassevenyearsolderthanWendyandhadknownhersinceshewastwelve.Sinceisalsousedinreasonclauses.Thisisexplainedinparagraph8.50.

sayingwhenasituationends

8.20 Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationstoppedwhensomethinghappened,youuseuntilortill.IstayedtheretalkingtothemuntilIsawSamWardleavethebuilding.Wewaitedtilltheyarrived.Youalsouseuntilortilltosaythatasituationwillstopwhensomethinghappensinthefuture.Inthetimeclauseyouusethepresentsimpleorthepresentperfect.StaywithmeuntilIgo.

We’llsupportthemtilltheyfindwork.TellhimIwon’tdiscussanythinguntilI’vespokentomywife.

8.21 Bywhich time, at which point, after which, whereupon, and uponwhich are also used at thebeginningoftimeclauses.Youusebywhichtimetosaythatsomethinghadalreadyhappenedorwillalreadyhavehappenedbeforetheeventyouhavejustmentioned.Hewasdiagnosedin1999,bywhichtimehewasalreadyveryill.Youuseatwhichpointtosaythatsomethinghappenedimmediatelyaftertheeventyouhavejustmentioned.Thecompanyclosedinthelateseventies,atwhichpointheretired.Youuseafterwhichtosaythatasituationstartedtoexistorwillstarttoexistaftertheeventyouhavejustmentioned.Theitemswereremovedforchemicalanalysis,afterwhichtheywereneverseenagain.Youusewhereuponoruponwhichtosaythatsomethinghappenedimmediatelyaftertheeventyouhavejustmentionedandwasaresultofit.Bothoftheseusesareratherformal.Hisdepartmentwasshutdown,whereuponhereturnedtoCalcutta.ItoldDrJohnsonofthis,uponwhichhecalledforJoseph.

USAGENOTE

8.22 Youcanuseaclausebeginningwithwhenafteraquestionbeginningwithwhy.Forexample,youcan sayWhy should I help her when she never helps me? However this clause is not a timeclause. Inyourquestion,youareexpressingsurpriseordisagreementat something thathasbeensaid,andthewhen-clauseindicatesthereasonforyoursurpriseordisagreement.Whyshouldhedomeaninjurywhenhehasalreadysavedmylife?Whyworryherwhenit’sallover?

usingnon-finiteclauses

8.23 Insteadofusinga finite timeclause,youcanoftenuseanon-finiteclause, that is, aclause thatcontainsan-ingor-edparticiple.Forexample,youcansayIoftenreadabookwhentravellingby train,meaning IoftenreadabookwhenIamtravellingbytrain,andyoucansayWhenfinished,thebuildingwillbeopenedbythePrinceofWales,meaningWhenitisfinished,thebuildingwillbeopenedbythePrinceofWales.Adultssometimesdonotrealizetheirownstrengthwhendealingwithchildren.Markwatcheduswhilepretendingnotto.Ideliberatelydidn’treadthebookbeforegoingtoseethefilm.Aftercomplainingofaheadacheforafewdays,Gerryagreedtoseeadoctor.Theyhadnotspokenawordsinceleavingtheparty.Michaelusedtolooksurprisedwhenpraised.

Onceconvincedaboutanidea,hepursueditrelentlessly.Notethatyoucanonlyuseaclauselikethiswhenitdoesnotneedtohaveanewsubject,thatis,whenitisaboutthesamethingasthemainclause.

usingprepositionalphrasesandadjectives

8.24 Forsomestatementsabout time,youcanuseaphraseconsistingofwhen,while,once,until, ortill,followedbyaprepositionalphraseoranadjective.Forexample,youcansay,WheninParis,youshouldvisittheLouvre,meaningWhenyouareinParis,youshouldvisittheLouvre.HehadreadofherexperienceswhileatOxford.Whenunderthreat,theycanbecomeviolent.Steamorboilthemuntiljusttender.Youcanuseaphraseconsistingofwhen,whenever,where,orwhereverandanadjectivesuchasnecessaryorpossible.Forexample,youcansayYoushouldtakeexercisewheneverpossible,meaningYoushouldtakeexercisewheneveritispossible.Shespokerarely,andthenonlywhennecessary.Trytospeakthetruthwheneverpossible.Helpmustbegivenwherenecessary.Allexpertsagreethat,whereverpossible,childrenshouldlearntoreadintheirownway.

Conditionalclauses:IfIhadmoremoney,…8.25 When you want to talk about a possible situation and its consequences, you use a conditional

clause.Conditionalclausesareused:totalkaboutasituationthatsometimesexistsorexisted

Iftheyloseweightduringanillness,theysoonregainitafterwards.Governmentcannotoperateeffectivelyunlessitisfreetotakeitsowndecisions.IfIsawhiminthestreet,he’djustsayGoodmorning.totalkaboutasituationthatyouknowdoesnotexist

IfEnglandhadahotclimate,theattitudewouldbedifferent.IfIcouldafforditIwouldbuyaboat.totalkaboutasituationwhenyoudonotknowwhetheritexistsornot

Ifheisrightitwouldbepossibleoncemoretomanagetheeconomyintheoldway.Theintervalseemedunnecessary,unlessitwastogivethemabreak.totalkaboutasituationthatmayexistinthefuture.

IfIleavemyjobI’llhavenomoneytoliveon.IfIwentbackonthetrainit’dbecheaper.

Don’tbringherunlessshe’sready.8.26 Conditionalclausesusuallybeginwithiforunless.

You use if to say that a consequence of something happening or being the case would be thatsomethingelsewouldhappenorbethecase.IfyoudothatIshallbeverypleased.IfIaskedforsomethingIgotit.Theywillevencleanyourcarifyouaskthemto.Whenanif-clauseisputfirst,thenissometimesputatthebeginningofthemainclause.IfthisiswhatwashappeningintheSixties,thenI’mgladIwasn’taroundthen.Unlessmeansexceptif.Forexample,YouwillfailyourexamsunlessyouworkhardermeansYouwillfailyourexamsexceptifyouworkharder.Therecanbenonewgrowthunlessthegroundiscleared.Nobodygetsanythingunlesstheyaskforit.Clausesbeginningwithunlessusuallygoafteramainclause.

modalsandimperatives

8.27 Whenyouareusingaconditionalclause,youoftenuseamodalinthemainclause.Youalwaysuseamodal in themainclausewhenyouare talkingabouta situation thatdoesnotexist.Ifyouweren’there,shewouldgetridofmeinnotime.Ifanybodyhadaskedme,Icouldhavetoldthemwhathappened.Modalsareexplainedinparagraphs5.94to5.258.Conditionalclausesareoftenusedwithimperativestructures.Ifyoudryyourwashingoutdoors,wipethelinefirst.Ifit’sfouro’clockinthemorning,don’texpectthemtobepleasedtoseeyou.Imperativestructuresareexplainedinparagraphs5.4and5.37to5.41.

verbformsinconditionalsentences

8.28 Therearespecialrulesaboutwhichverbformtouseinconditionalsentences.People often describe conditional structures in terms of three, or sometimes four (see zeroconditionalbelow),categories:thefirstconditional, inwhich theverb in themainclause iswillorshalland theverb in the

conditionalclauseisinthepresentsimple.I’llscreamifyousaythatagain.thesecondconditional,inwhichtheverbinthemainclauseiswouldorshouldandtheverbin

theconditionalclauseisinthepastsimple.IfIhadmoretime,Iwouldhappilyoffertohelp.

thethirdconditional,inwhichtheverbinthemainclauseiswouldhaveorshouldhaveandtheverbintheconditionalclauseisinthepastperfect.IfIhadtriedabitharder,Iwouldhavepassedthatexam.thezeroconditional,inwhichtheverbinbothclausesisinthepresentsimple.

Waterboilsifyouheatitto100°C.Manyconditionalsdofollowthesepatterns.Thereare,however,variousothernormalpatternsoftenseinconditionalclauses,whicharesetoutinthefollowingparagraphs.

talkingaboutthingsthatoftenhappen

8.29 When you are talking about something that often happens, you use the present simple or thepresentprogressiveintheconditionalclauseandinthemainclause.Ifabigdogapproachesme,Ipanic.Heneverringsmeupunlesshewantssomething.Ifthebaby’scrying,sheprobablyneedsfeeding.If an advertisement conveys information which is false or misleading, the advertiser iscommittinganoffence.

talkingaboutthingsthatoftenhappenedinthepast

8.30 Whenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingthatoftenhappenedinthepast,youusethepastsimpleorthepastprogressive in theconditionalclause. In themainclause,youuse thepastsimple or amodal.Theysatonthegrassifitwasfine.Ifitwasraining,weusuallystayedindoors.Ifanyonecame,they’dsayHowareyou?Iftheywantedtogoout,Iwouldstaywiththebaby.IcouldnotfallasleepunlessIdidanhourofyoga.

possiblesituations

8.31 Whenyouaretalkingaboutapossiblesituationinthepresent,youusuallyusethepresentsimpleorthepresentperfectintheconditionalclause.Inthemainclauseyouusuallyuseamodal.Ifanyonedoubtsthis,theyshouldlookatthefacts.Unlessyou’vetriedit,youcan’timaginehowpleasantitis.If-clauses of this kind are sometimes used when you are offering to do something, or givingpermission for something to be done.You use amodal in themain clause, and the subordinateclauseconsistsofif,apronoun,andwant,like,orwish.I’llteachyou,ifyouwant.Youcanleaveifyoulike.

thingsthatmighthappeninthefuture

8.32 Whenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingthatmighthappeninthefuture,youusethepresentsimpleintheconditionalclause,andwillorshallinthemainclause.IfIsurvivethisexperience,I’llneverleaveyouagain.Williewillneverachieveanythingunlessheispushed.

USAGENOTE

8.33 Amoreformalwayoftalkingaboutapossiblefuturesituationistouseshould intheconditionalclause.Forexample,insteadofsayingIfanythinghappens,Iwillreturnimmediately,youcansayIfanythingshouldhappen,Iwillreturnimmediately.Inthemainclauseyouuseamodal,usuallywillorwould.Ifthatshouldhappen,youwillbeblamed.Anotherway of talking about a possible future situation is to usewere and a to-infinitive in aconditionalclause.Forexample,insteadofsayingIfhegoes,Iwillgotoo,youcansayIfheweretogo,Iwouldgotoo.Inthemainclauseyouusewould,should,ormight.Ifweweretomovenorth,wewouldbeabletobuyabiggerhouse.

unlikelysituations

8.34 Whenyouaretalkingaboutanunlikelysituation,youusethepastsimpleintheconditionalclause,andwould,should,ormightinthemainclause.Theoldermenwouldfinditdifficulttogetajobiftheyleftthefarm.Ishouldbesurprisedifitwaslessthanfivepounds.IfIfrightenedthem,theymightrunawayandIwouldneverseethemagain.Intheconditionalclause,wereissometimesusedinsteadofwas,especiallyafterI.IfIwereaguy,Iwouldlooklikemydad.IfIwereaskedtodefinemycondition,I’dsaybored.

whatmighthavebeen

8.35 Whenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingthatmighthavehappenedinthepastbutdidnothappen,youusethepastperfectintheconditionalclause.Inthemainclause,youusewouldhave,couldhave,shouldhave,ormighthave.Perhapsifhehadrealizedthat,hewouldhaverunawaywhiletherewasstilltime.Ifshehadnotbeenill,shewouldprobablyhavewonthatrace.

puttingtheverbfirst

8.36 InformalorliteraryEnglish,ifthefirstverbinanif-clauseisshould,were,orhad, thisverb issometimesputatthebeginningoftheclauseandifisomitted.Forexample,insteadofsayingIfanyvisitorsshouldcome,Iwillsayyouarenothere,someonemightsayShouldanyvisitorscome,Iwillsayyouarenothere.

Shouldministersdemandaninquiry,wewouldwelcomeit.Wereitalltrue,itwouldstillnotexcusetheiractions.Weretheytostopadvertising,priceswouldbesignificantlyreduced.HadIknownhowimportantitwas,Iwouldhavefilmedtheoccasion.

USAGENOTE

8.37 Instead of using a conditional clause containing the word be, you can sometimes use a phraseconsistingofiffollowedbyanadjectiveoraprepositionalphrase.Forexample,insteadofsayingWewillsellthecar,ifitisnecessary,youcansayWewillsellthecar,ifnecessary.Thisunfortunatesituationistobeavoidedifpossible.IfIwereinnocent,I’dratherbetriedhere;ifguilty,inAmerica.Ifindoubt,askatyourlocallibrary.

necessaryconditions

8.38 Ifyouwanttosaythatonesituationisnecessaryforanother,youuseprovided,providing,aslongas,solongas,oronlyif.Providedandprovidingareoftenfollowedbythat.Orderingisquickandeasyprovidedyouhaveaccesstotheinternet.Providedthatit’snottoomuchmoneyI’dlovetocometoSpain.Theovenbakesmagnificentbreadprovidingitishotenough.Theyarehappyfortheworldtostayasitis,aslongastheyarecomfortable.Theseactivitiescanflourishonlyifagricultureandruralindustryareflourishing.Whenyouareusingonly if, youcanput theonly in themain clause, separated from the if. Forexample, insteadofsaying Iwillcomeonly ifhewantsme,youcansay Iwillonlycome ifhewantsme.HetoldthemthatdisarmamentwasonlypossibleifBritainchangedherforeignpolicy.Anotherwayof saying thatone situation isnecessary for another is touseaconditional clauseconsistingofiffollowedbythesubject,aformofbe,andato-infinitiveclause.Inthemainclause,yousaywhatisnecessaryusingmust.It’slate,andifIamtogetanysleepImustgo.Ifyouaretoescape,youmustleavemeandgoonalone.

8.39 Ifyouwanttosaythatonesituationwouldnotaffectanother,youcanuseevenif.Iwouldhavemarriedherevenifshehadbeenpenniless.Evenifyoudon’tgetthejobthistime,therewillbemanyexcitingopportunitiesinthefuture.Evenifisalsousedinconcessiveclauses.Thisisexplainedinparagraph8.67.

8.40 If youwant to say that a situationwouldnot be affectedby anyof twoormore things, youusewhether.Youputorbetweenthedifferentpossibilities.Catchingafrogcanbeadifficultbusiness,whetheryou’reahumanorabirdorareptile.Whetheryougotoalaunderetteordoyourwashingathome,theroutineisthesame.Ifyouwanttosaythatwhathappenswouldnotbeaffectedbyeitheroftwooppositesituations,you

useaclausebeginningwithwhetherornot.Whetherornotpeoplehavereligiousfaith,theycanbelieveinthepoweroflove.Igetanelectriciantocheckallmyelectricalapplianceseveryautumn,whetherornottheyaregivingtrouble.Ornotcanbeputattheendoftheclause.WhetherIagreedornot,thesearchwouldtakeplace.

USAGENOTE

8.41 Whentheverb inawhether-clause isbe, thesubjunctive is sometimesused.Whenyouuse thesubjunctive, you use the base form of a verb rather than the third person singular. This isconsideredratherformalinBritishEnglish,butiscommoninAmericanEnglish.

Alwaysreportsuchbehaviourtothenearestpersoninauthority,whetheritbeaschoolteacherorapoliceman,oranyoneelse.Whentheverbinawhether-clauseisbeandthesubjectisapersonalpronounsuchastheyorit,youcanomitbeandthepronoun.Forexample,insteadofsayingAll thevillagers,whether theyareyoungorold,helpwiththeharvest,youcansayAllthevillagers,whetheryoungorold,helpwiththeharvest.Afreshpepper,whetherredorgreen,lastsaboutthreeweeks.Theyhelppeople,whethertouristsorstudents,tolearnmoreofourpast.

8.42 Whenyouwanttosaythatsomethingisthecaseandthatitdoesnotmatterwhichperson,place,cause,method,orthingisinvolved,youusewhoever,wherever,however,whatever,orwhichever.Whoeverwinsthiscivilwar,therewillbelittlerejoicingatthevictory.Whereveritis,youaren’tgoing.Howeveritbegan,thebattlewouldalwaysdevelopintoalarge-scaleconflict.Whateverandwhicheverareusedeitherasdeterminersorpronouns.Whatevercaryoudrive,keepfixingitandkeepitforever.Thedeficitisextremelyimportantthisyear,whatevertheysay.Whicheverwayyoudoit,it’shardwork.Whicheveryoudecide,I’msureitwillbejustfine.Anotherwayofsayingthatitdoesnotmatterwhoorwhatisinvolvedistousenomatterfollowedbywho,where,how,what,orwhich.Mostpeople,nomatterwhotheyare,seemtohaveatleastone.Ouraimistorecruitthebestpersonforthejob,nomatterwheretheyarefrom.NomatterhowI’mplaying,Ialwaysgetthatspecialfeeling.

Purposeclauses:Hediditinordertomakeherhappy8.43 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutthepurposeofanaction,youuseapurposeclause.

Hereisalistofthemostcommonconjunctionsusedinpurposeclauses:

inorderthatinordertososoastosothatto

typesofpurposeclause

8.44 Therearetwokindsofpurposeclause.Clausescontainingato-infinitivearethemostcommon.Theyhadtotakesomeofhislandinordertoextendthechurchyard.Farmershaveputupbarricadestopreventpeoplemovingontotheirland.Thesubjectofthistypeofpurposeclauseisalwaysthesameasthesubjectofthemainclause.Thistypeofpurposeclauseisexplainedinparagraphs8.45to8.46.Otherpurposeclausesusuallycontainthat.Beasclearandfactualaspossibleinorderthattheremaybenomisunderstanding.Thistypeofpurposeclauseisexplainedinparagraphs8.47to8.48.

to-infinitiveclauses

8.45 To-infinitivepurposeclausesusuallybeginwithinordertoorsoasto.Theywerepushinginordertogettothefront.Wehadtoborrowmoneyinordertobuythehouse.Wefixedupascreensoastoletinthefreshairandkeepouttheflies.Ifyouwanttomakeoneoftheseclausesnegative,youputnotinfrontoftheto.Rosetrodwithcareinordernottospreadthedirt.Whenremovingastain,workfromtheedgeinwardssoasnottoenlargetheareaaffected.

8.46 Somepurposeclausescansimplybeto-infinitiveclauses.Peoplewouldstrolldownthepathtoadmirethegarden.Thechildrensleeptogethertokeepwarm.Tounderstandwhatishappeningnow,weneedtothinkaboutwhathasbeenachieved.However,youcannotuseanegativewithoneofthesestructures.Youcannotsay,forexample,Wekeepthewindowshutnottoletthefliesin.Youwouldhavetosay,Wekeepthewindowshutinordernottoletthefliesin.

that-clauses

8.47 Other purpose clauses usually beginwith in order that, so that, or so. They usually contain amodal.Iftheverbinthemainclauseisinthepresentorinthepresentperfect,youusuallyuseoneofthe

modalscan,may,will,orshallinthepurposeclause.…peoplewhoarelearningEnglishinorderthattheycanstudyaparticularsubject.Iftheverbinthemainclauseisinthepast,youusuallyusecould,might,should,orwouldinthepurposeclause.AstrangerhadliftedPhilipuponhisshouldersothathecouldseebetter.Iboughtsixcowssothatwewouldhavesomemilktosell.Shewantedthemealreadyatsixsoshecouldgooutateight.Ordinaryverbsareoccasionallyusedinsteadofmodals,especiallyinnegativepurposeclauses.Makesureyougetplentyofrest,sothatyoudon’tfallasleepatwork.Sothatisalsousedinresultclauses.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs8.55and8.56.

8.48 Informalorold-fashionedEnglish,lestissometimesusedatthebeginningofapurposeclausetosaywhatanactionisintendedtoprevent.Forexample,Theybuiltastatueofhimlestpeopleshould forgetwhathehaddonemeans thesameasTheybuiltastatueofhimsothatpeoplewouldnotforgetwhathehaddone.Hespokeinwhisperslesttheservantsshouldhearhim.Inclausesbeginningwithlest,youuseeitherthesubjunctiveoramodal.

Reasonclauses:…becauseIwantedtowin8.49 Whenyouwanttogivethereasonforsomething,youuseareasonclause.

Hereisalistofthemainconjunctionsusedinreasonclauses:

asbecauseincasejustincasesince

8.50 Ifyouaresimplygivingthereasonforsomething,youusebecause,since,oras.Icouldn’tbeangrywithhimbecauseIlikedhimtoomuch.Ididn’tknowthatshewasmarried,sincesherarelytalkedaboutherself.Aswehadplentyoftime,wedecidedtogoforacoffee.

8.51 You use in case or just in case when you are mentioning a possible future situation which issomeone’sreasonfordoingsomething.Inthereasonclause,youusethepresentsimple.MrWoods,Iamherejustincaseanythingoutoftheordinaryhappens.Whenyou are talking about someone’s reason for doing something in thepast, youuse thepastsimpleinthereasonclause.Hedidnotsitdownincasehistrousersgotcreased.

8.52 Inthat,inasmuchas,insofaras,andtotheextentthatareusedtosaywhyastatementyouhave

justmadeistrue.Theseareformalexpressions.I’minadifficultsituationinthatIhavebeenofferedtwojobsandtheybothsoundinteresting.Censorshipisineffectiveinasmuchasitdoesnotprotectanyone.We are traditional insofar as we write traditional-style songs, but we try and write aboutmodernissues.Hefeelshimselftobedependenttotheextentthatheisnotfreetomakehisowndecisions.InasmuchasissometimeswrittenasInasmuchas,andinsofarasissometimeswrittenasinsofaras.

8.53 Peoplesometimesuse reasonclausesbeginningwith fororseeing that.Formeans the same asbecause.Itsuseinreasonclausesisnowconsideredtobeold-fashioned.Ihesitate,forIamnotquitesureofmyfacts.

Seeingthatmeansthesameassince.Itisusedonlyininformalspeech.Seeingthatyou’re thegueston this little trip, Iwon’t tellyouwhatI thinkofyourbehaviourlastnight.Now and now that are used to say that a new situation is the reason for something. Clausesbeginningwithnowornowthataredealtwithastimeclauses.Theyareexplainedinparagraph8.18.

Resultclauses:I’lldriveyoutheresothatyouwon’tbelate8.54 Whenyouwanttotalkabouttheresultofsomething,youusearesultclause.

Resultclausesalwayscomeafterthemainclause.8.55 Resultclausesusuallybeginwithsothat.

Youcanusesothatsimplytosaywhattheresultofaneventorsituationwas.Mysuitcasehadbecomedamaged,sothatthelidwouldnotstayclosed.Astormhadbroughttheseaintothehouse,sothattheyhadbeenforcedtoescapebyawindow.There’sawindowabovethebathsothatwhenI’mrelaxinghereIcanwatchthesky.So,andso,andandcanalsobeused.Shewashavinggreatdifficultygettinghercarout,andsoIhadtomovemycartoletherout.Hewasshotinthechestanddied.Withtheseresultclauses,youusuallyputacommaafterthemainclause.

8.56 Youcanalsouseso that to say that something isorwasdone in aparticularway to achieve adesiredresult.Forexample,Hefixed thebellso that itwouldringwhenanyonecameinmeansHefixed thebellinsuchawaythatitwouldringwhenanyonecamein.Explainitsothata10-year-oldcouldunderstandit.Theyarrangedthingssothattheynevermet.Withtheseresultclauses,youdonotputacommaafterthemainclause.

8.57 Sothatisalsousedinpurposeclauses.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph8.47.

USAGENOTE

8.58 So and that are also used in a special kind of structure to say that a result happens becausesomethinghasaqualitytoaparticularextent,orbecausesomethingisdoneinanextremeway.Inthesestructures,soisusedinfrontofanadjectiveoradverb.Athat-clauseisthenadded.Thecrowdwassolargethatitoverflowedtheauditorium.Theyweresosurprisedtheydidn’ttrytostophim.Hedressedsoquicklythatheputhisbootsonthewrongfeet.Shehadfallendownsooftenthatshewascoveredinmud.Sometimesasisusedinsteadofthat.Asisfollowedbyato-infinitiveclause.…smallbeachesofsandsowhiteastodazzletheeye.Ihopethatnobodywassostupidastogoaroundsayingthosethings.

8.59 Soandthatcanalsobeusedinthiswaywithmany,few,much,andlittle.Wefoundsomuchtotalkaboutthatitwaslateatnightwhenwerememberedthetime.Thereweresomanychildrenyoucouldhardlygetintheroom.

USAGENOTE

8.60 Whentheverbinthemainclauseisbeorwhenanauxiliaryisused,thenormalorderofwordsisoften changed for greater emphasis.So is put at the beginning of the sentence, followed by theadjective,adverb,ornoun.Beortheauxiliaryisplacedinfrontofthesubject.Forexample,insteadofsayingTheroomwassotinythatyoucouldnotgetabedintoit,youcansaySotinywastheroomthatyoucouldnotgetabedintoit.SosuccessfulhavetheybeenthattheyaremovingtoBondStreet.Sorapidistherateofprogressthatadvanceseemstobefollowingadvanceonalmostamonthlybasis.

8.61 Such and that are also used to say that a result happens because something has a quality to aparticularextent.Youputsuchinfrontofanoun,andthenaddathat-clause.Ifthenounisasingularcountablenoun,youputaoraninfrontofit.Islappedherhandandshegotsuchashockthatshedroppedthebag.Shewasinsuchpainthatshealmostcollapsed.Thesebirdshavesuchsmallwingsthattheycannotgetintotheair.

8.62 Suchissometimesusedinasimilarstructureasanadjectivewiththemeaningsogreat.Thethat-clausegoesimmediatelyafterit.Theextentofthedisasterwassuchthatthelocalauthoritieswerequiteunabletocope.Sometimessuchisputatthebeginningofasentence,followedbybe,anounphrase,andthethat-clause.Forexample,insteadofsayingHerbeautywassuchthattheycouldonlystare,youcansaySuchwasherbeautythattheycouldonlystare.Suchisthepowerofsuggestionthatwithinaveryfewminutesshefellasleep.

8.63 You can also use such as an adjective to say that a result is obtained by something being of a

particularkind.Suchisfollowedbyathat-clauseorbyasandato-infinitiveclause.Thedangersaresuchthatanorganizedtourisamoresensibleoption.Conditionsinprisonshouldbesuchastolessenthechancesofprisonersreoffending.Youcanusetheexpressioninsuchawaytosaythataresultisobtainedbysomethingbeingdoneinaparticularway.Itisfollowedbyathat-clauseorbyasandato-infinitiveclause.Shehadbeen taught to behave in such away that her parentswould have as quiet a life aspossible.Is it right that this high tax should be spent in such a way as to give benefit mainly to themotorist?

8.64 Youuseotherwise,else,ororelsetosaythataresultofsomethingnothappeningornotbeingthecasewouldbethatsomethingelsewouldhappenorbethecase.Forexample,Givemebackmymoney,otherwiseI’llringthepolicemeansIfyoudon’tgivemebackmymoney,I’llringthepolice.IwantahouseI’lllike,otherwiseI’llgetdepressed.Imusthavedonesomethingwrong,orelsetheywouldn’thavekeptmehere.

Concessiveclauses:Ilovebooks,althoughIdon’treadmuch8.65 Sometimes youwant tomake two statements, one ofwhich contrastswith the other ormakes it

seemsurprising.Youcanputbothstatementsintoonesentencebyusingaconcessiveclause.Hereisalistofconjunctionsusedinconcessiveclauses:

althoughdespiteevenifeventhoughexceptthatinspiteofmuchasnotthatthoughwhereaswhilewhilst

contrast

8.66 Ifyousimplywanttocontrasttwostatements,youusealthough,though,eventhough,orwhile.IusedtoreadalotalthoughIdon’tgetmuchtimeforbooksnow.ThoughhehaslivedforyearsinLondon,hewritesinGerman.Iusedtolovelisteningtoher,eventhoughIcouldn’tunderstandwhatshesaid.WhileIdidwellinclass,Iwasapoorperformeratgames.Thefairlyformalwordswhilstandwhereascanalsobeused.

Raspberrieshaveahairysurfacewhilstblackberrieshaveashinyskin.To every child, adult approvalmeans love,whereas disapproval can cause strong feelings ofrejection.

WhilstisnotusedinAmericanEnglish.8.67 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingwhichisprobablytruedoesnotaffectthetruthofsomethingelse,

youuseevenif.Allthisispartofmoderncommerciallife(evenifitisanessentialactivity).He’sbeginningtobeadifferentperson,evenifhedoesn’trealizeit.Evenifisalsousedinconditionalclauses.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph8.39.

8.68 Youcanusenot that insteadofusingalthoughandanegative.Forexample, insteadofsaying Ihavedecidedtoleave,althoughnoonewillmissme,youcansayIhavedecidedtoleave,notthatanyonewillmissme.Clausesbeginningwithnotthatalwaysgoafteramainclause.He’sgotanewgirlfriend,notthatIcare.IthinkIlookedverychicfortheparty,notthatanyonenoticed.

exceptions

8.69 Ifyouwanttomentionanexceptiontoastatementthatyouhavejustmade,youuseexceptthat.Shetreatsherdaughterthesameasheryoungerboyexceptthatshetakesherseveraltimesaweektoaspecialclinic.NobodysaidathingexceptthatoneortwoaskedmeifIwasbetter.Thiskindofclauseissometimescalledanexceptionclause.

USAGENOTE

8.70 Whenaclausebeginningwiththoughendswithalinkingverblikebeorseemandanounoranadjective (= a complement), the complement can be brought forward to the beginning of theclause.Forexample,insteadofsayingThoughhewastired,heinsistedoncomingtothemeeting,youcansayTiredthoughhewas,heinsistedoncomingtothemeeting.Temptingthoughitmaybetodiscussthispoint,itisnotreallyrelevant.Ihadtoacceptthefact,improbablethoughitwas.Astutebusinessmanthoughhewas,Philipwascapableofmakingmistakes.Whenthecomplementisanadjective,youcanuseasinsteadofthough.Stupidasitsounds,Ibelievedher.Whena clausebeginningwith though endswith an adverb, you can often put the adverb at thebeginningoftheclause.Somemembersofstaffcouldn’thandleMurray’scondition,hardthoughtheytried.Whenyouaretalkingaboutastrongfeelingordesire,youcanusemuchas insteadofalthough.Forexample,insteadofsayingAlthoughIlikeVenice,Icouldn’tlivethereyoucansayMuchasI

likeVenice,Icouldn’tlivethere.Muchasheadmiredher,hehadnowishtomarryher.

-ingparticipleclauses

8.71 Although,though,while,andwhilstaresometimesusedin-ingparticipleclauses.Forexample,insteadofsayingWhilehelikedcats,heneverletthemcomeintohishouse,youcansayWhilelikingcats,heneverletthemcomeintohishouse.While accepting the importance of freedom of speech, I believe it must be exercised withresponsibility.Despiteandinspiteofcanalsobeusedatthebeginningof-ingparticipleclauses.Despiteworkinghard,IfailedmyexamsmeansAlthoughIworkedhard,Ifailedmyexams.Sensible, interestedparentsstillplayabigpart intheirchildren’slives,despiteworking longhours.Wehadtwomoreyearsofprofitinspiteofpayinghigherwagesthanthepreviousowner.

8.72 Although,though,while,andwhilstarealsousedinfrontofnoun,adjective,andadverbphrases.Forexample,insteadofsayingAlthoughshewasfondofGregory,shedidnotlovehim,youcansayAlthoughfondofGregory,shedidnotlovehim.Similarly,insteadofsayingTheyagreedtohis proposal, though they had many reservations, you can say They agreed to his proposal,thoughwithmanyreservations.Itwasanunequalmarriage,althoughastableandlong-lastingone.Thoughnotveryattractivephysically,shepossessedasenseofhumour.Theyhadfollowedhersuggestion,thoughwithoutmuchenthusiasm.Evenif,if,andalbeitcanalsobeusedinthisway.Albeitisaformalword.Otherspecieshavecognitiveabilities,evenifnotasdevelopedasourown.…apleasant,ifunexciting,novel.Likemercury,leadaffectsthebrain,albeitindifferentways.

Placeclauses:Staywhereyouare8.73 Sometimes,whenyouwanttotalkaboutthelocationorpositionofsomething,youneedtousea

clause.Thekindofclauseyouuseiscalledaplaceclause.8.74 Placeclausesusuallybeginwithwhere.

Hesaidhewashappywherehewas.Heleftitwhereitlay.Staywhereyouare.Whereisalsousedinrelativeclauses.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs8.104to8.106.

8.75 InformalorliteraryEnglish,where-clausesaresometimesputinfrontofamainclause.WhereKatehadstoodlastnight,Maureennowstood.Wherethepinkcliffsroseoutofthegroundtherewereoftennarrowtrackswindingupwards.

8.76 Whenyouwanttosaythatsomethinghappensorwillhappenineveryplacewheresomethingelse

happens,youusewherever.

Softfernsspreadacrossthegroundwherevertherewasenoughlight.InBali,whereveryougo,youcomeacrossceremonies.WhereverIlooked,Ifoundpatterns.Everywherecanbeusedinsteadofwherever.EverywhereIwent,peoplewereangryorsuspicious.

8.77 Whereandwherever are sometimesused in front of adjectives such aspossible andnecessary.When they are used like this, they mean when or whenever, rather than where. For a fullexplanationofthisuse,seeparagraph8.24.

Clausesofmanner:Idon’tknowwhyhebehavesashedoes8.78 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutsomeone’sbehaviourorthewaysomethingisdone,youuseaclause

ofmanner.Hereisalistofconjunctionsusedinclausesofmanner:

asasthoughlikeasifjustasmuchas

The way, in a way, and in the way are also used in clauses of manner in a similar way toconjunctions.Theseexpressionsareoftenfollowedbythat.

sayinghowsomethingisdone

8.79 Ifyousimplywanttotalkaboutsomeone’sbehaviourorthewaysomethingisdone,youuselike,as,theway,inaway,orintheway.Issheoftenrudeandcrosslikeshe’sbeenthislastmonth?Idon’tunderstandwhyhebehavesashedoes.IwasneverallowedtodothingsthewayIwantedtodothem.Hewaslookingatherinawayshedidnotrecognize.Wehavetomakeitworkinthewaythatwewantitto.

makingcomparisons

8.80 Youcanalsousetheseexpressionstocomparethewaysomethingisdonewiththewaysomeoneorsomethingelsedoesit.Surelyyoudon’tintendtolivebyyourselflikeshedoes?Joycelookedatherthewayalotofgirlsdid.

Ifyouwanttomakeastrongcomparison,youusejustas.Youcanthinkofhimandfeelproud,justasIdo.Ifyouwanttomakeafairlyweakcomparison,youusemuchas.Thesetanksspeedacrossthedesert,muchastheydidinWorldWarII.

8.81 Yousometimeswanttosaythatsomethingisdoneinthewaythat itwouldbedoneifsomethingwerethecase.Youdothisbyusingasiforasthough.Youuseapasttenseintheclauseofmanner.Heholdshisheadforwardasifhehashitittoooftenonlowdoorways.Presidentscan’tdisposeofcompaniesasifpeopledidn’texist.IputsomewateronmyclothestomakeitlookasthoughIhadbeensweating.Hebehavedasthoughitwasnothingtobeashamedof.Youalsouseasiforasthoughafterlinkingverbssuchasfeelorlook.Youdothiswhenyouarecomparing someone’s feelings or appearance to the feelings or appearance they would have ifsomethingwerethecase.Shefeltasifshehadafever.Hishairlookedasifithadbeencombedwithhisfingers.Herpinkdressandherfrillyumbrellamadeherlookasthoughshehadcometoagardenparty.In formalEnglish,were is sometimesused insteadofwas in clauses beginningwithas if orasthough.Sheshookasifshewerecrying,butshemadenosound.IfeltasifIwerethecentreoftheuniverse.Youtalkasthoughhewerealreadydead.Youcanusejustinfrontofasiforasthoughforemphasis.Heshouldn’thaveleftheralone,justasifshewassomeoneofnoimportanceatall.

8.82 Youcanalsouseasifandasthoughinclausesthatbeginwithato-infinitiveoraparticiple.Forafewmoments,hesatasifstunned.Heranofftothehouseasifescaping.Heshookhisheadasthoughdazzledbyhisownvision.Youcanalsouseasifandasthoughinfrontofadjectivesandprepositionalphrases.Onemustrowsteadilyonwardsasifintentonone’sownbusiness.Heshiveredasthoughwithcold.

Relativeclauses8.83 Whenyoumentionsomeoneorsomethinginasentence,youoftenwanttogivefurtherinformation

aboutthem.Onewaytodothisistousearelativeclause.Youputarelativeclauseimmediatelyafterthenounthatreferstotheperson,thing,orgroupyouaretalkingabout.Themanwhocameintotheroomwassmallandslender.OppositeisSt.Paul’sChurch,whereyoucanhearsomelovelymusic.

Relativeclauseshaveasimilar function toadjectives,and theyaresometimescalledadjectivalclauses.Nominal relative clauses, which have a similar function to noun phrases, are explained inparagraphs8.112to8.116.

relativepronouns

8.84 Many relative clauses beginwith a relative pronoun. The relative pronoun usually acts as thesubjectorobjectoftheverbintherelativeclause.Heistheonlypersonwhomightbeabletohelp.Mostofthemhaveajob,whichtheytakebothforthemoneyandthecompany.Hereisalistofthemostcommonrelativepronouns:

thatwhichwhowhomwhose

Relativepronounsdonothavemasculine,feminine,orpluralforms.Thesamepronouncanbeusedtorefertoaman,awoman,oragroupofpeople.Shedidn’trecognizethemanwhohadspoken.ImetagirlwhoknewMrsTownsend.Therearemanypeoplewhofindthisintolerable.Somerelativeclausesdonothavearelativepronoun.NearlyallthepeopleIusedtoknowhavegone.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs8.90,8.91,and8.96.

typesofrelativeclause

8.85 Therearetwotypesofrelativeclause.Somerelativeclausesexplainwhichpersonorthingyouaretalkingabout.Forexample,ifyousayImetthewoman,itmightnotbeclearwhoyoumean,soyoumightsay,Imetthewomanwholivesnextdoor.Inthissentence,wholivesnextdooriscalledadefiningrelativeclause.Shortlyaftertheshooting,themanwhohaddoneitwasarrested.MooresvilleisthetownthatJohnDillingercamefrom.Otherrelativeclausesgivefurther information that isnotneeded to identify theperson, thing,orgroupyouaretalkingabout.Forexample,ifyousayIsawMileyCyrus,itisclearwhoyoumean.ButyoumightwanttoaddmoreinformationaboutMileyCyrus,soyoumightsay,forexample,IsawMileyCyrus,whowasstayingatthehotelopposite.Inthissentence,whowasstayingatthehoteloppositeiscalledanon-definingrelativeclause.

Hewaswavingtothegirl,whowasrunningalongtheplatform.HewalkeddowntoBroadway,themainstreetofthetown,whichranparalleltotheriver.Thistypeofrelativeclauseisusedmainlyinwritingratherthanspeech.Notethatyoucannotbeginanon-definingrelativeclausewiththat.

punctuation

8.86 A relative clause that simply gives extra information usually has a comma in front of it and acommaafterit,unlessitisattheendofasentence,inwhichcaseyoujustputafullstop.Dashesaresometimesusedinsteadofcommas.Myson,whoisfour,lovesSpiderman.Youneverputacommaoradashinfrontofadefiningrelativeclause.Thewomanwhoownsthiscabinwillcomebackintheautumn.

useafterpronouns

8.87 Relativeclausesthatdistinguishonenounfromallotherscanbeusedaftersomepronouns.Theyareusedafterindefinitepronounssuchassomeone,anyone,andeverything.ThisissomethingthatI’mveryproudof.Intheoryanyonewholivesorworksintheareamaybeatrisk.Wewanttothankeveryonewhosupportedusthroughthis.Theyaresometimesusedaftersome,many,much,several,all,orthose.LikemanywhomethimIwassooninlove.…thefeelingsofthosewhohavesufferedfromtheeffectsofcrime.Theycanalsobeusedafterpersonalpronouns,butonlyinformalorold-fashionedEnglish.Hewhoisnotforreformisagainstit.…wewhoaresupposedtobesogoodatwriting.

-ingparticipleclauses

8.88 Relativeclausescansometimesbereducedto-ingparticipleclauses.Forexample, insteadof sayingGive it to themanwho iswearing the sunglasses, you can sayGive it to the man wearing the sunglasses. Similarly, instead of saying The bride, who wassmiling happily, chatted to the guests, you can sayThe bride, smiling happily, chatted to theguests.Theseusesareexplainedinparagraphs8.129to8.145.Seealsoparagraphs2.300and2.301.

Usingrelativepronounsindefiningclauses8.89 Thefollowingparagraphsexplainwhichpronounsyouuseindefiningrelativeclauses.

referringtopeople

8.90 Whenyouarereferring toapersonorgroupofpeople,youusewhoor thatas thesubjectofadefiningclause.Whoismorecommonthanthat.ThemanwhoemployedmewascalledTom.…thepeoplewholiveinthecottage.…somebodywhoisreallyill.…themanthatmadeit.Youusewho,that,orwhomastheobjectofadefiningclause,oryoudonotuseapronounatall.…someonewhoIhaven’tseenforalongtime.…awomanthatIdislike.…distantrelativeswhomhehadneverseen.…amanIknow.Youusethatasthecomplementofadefiningclause,oryoudonotuseapronoun.…thedistinguishedactressthatshelaterbecame.Littleisknownaboutthekindofpersonshewas.Afterasuperlative,youdonotusuallyuseapronoun.HewasthecleverestmanIeverknew.…thebestthingIeverdid.Formoreinformationaboutsuperlativesseeparagraphs2.112to2.122.

referringtothings

8.91 Whenyouare referring toa thingorgroupof things,youusewhichor that as the subject of adefiningclause.ThatismuchmorecommonthanwhichinAmericanEnglish.…pastawhichcamefromMilan.Weneedtounderstandthethingswhichareimportanttopeople.Therearealotofthingsthatarewrong.Youusewhichorthatastheobjectofadefiningclause,oryoudonotuseapronoun.…shellswhichmysisterhadcollected.…theoxygenthatitneeds.…oneofthethingsI’llneverforget.Aftermuchorall,youusethat.Youdonotusewhich.Therewasnotmuchthatthemilitarymencoulddo.Happinessisallthatmatters.

Usingrelativepronounsinnon-definingclauses8.92 Thefollowingparagraphsexplainwhichpronounsyouuseinnon-definingrelativeclauses.

Theseclausescannotbeusedwithoutarelativepronoun.

referringtopeople

8.93 When you are referring to a person or group of people, you usewho as the subject of a non-definingclause.HeathRobinson,whodiedin1944,wasagraphicartistandcartoonist.Thehorse’srider,whohasnotbeennamed,wastoodistressedtotalktopolice.Youusewhoorwhomastheobjectofanon-definingclause.Brian,whoIdonotlike,hadnoideahowtobehaveproperly.Hethenbecameinvolvedinarowwiththepartychairman,whomheaccusedoflying.

referringtothings

8.94 Whenyouarereferringtoathingorgroupofthings,youusewhichas thesubjectorobjectofanon-definingclause.Thetreatment,whichisbeingtriedbyresearchers,hashelpedalargenumberofpatients.Thecompany,whichhasabout160shops,isinfinancialtrouble.Hewasamanofconsiderablewealth,whichhespentonhisexperiments.…thisoffer,whichfewcanresist.

Usingrelativepronounswithprepositions8.95 Arelativepronouncanbetheobjectofapreposition.Usuallytheprepositiongoestowardstheend

oftheclause,andnotinfrontofthepronoun.…thejobwhichI’dbeentrainingfor.…theuniversethatwelivein.…thewomanwhoMullerlefthismoneyto.

nopronoun

8.96 Often,inordinaryspeech,nopronounisused.

AngelawastheonlypersonIcouldtalkto.…thatplaceIusedtogotolastterm.That’sallwehavetimeforthisweek.

indirectobjects

8.97 Whenarelativepronounistheindirectobjectofaverb,youusetoorfor.Forexample,yousaythemanthatshewrotetheletterto,notthemanthatshewrotetheletter.…piecesofworkthatwegiveamarkto.Youalsousetoorforwhenthereisnorelativepronoun.…thegirlIsangthesongfor.

formaluse

8.98 InformalEnglish,theprepositioncangoatthebeginningofaclauseinfrontofwhomorwhich.ThesearethepeopletowhomCatherinewasreferring.…awomanfriendwithwhomRoseusedtogoforwalks.…questionstowhichtherewerenoanswers.Notehowever thatyoucannotput theprepositionat thebeginningofaclause infrontofwhoorthat.

phrasalverbs

8.99 Iftheverbinarelativeclauseisaphrasalverbendingwithapreposition,youcannotmovetheprepositiontothebeginningoftheclause.…allthethingsI’vehadtoputupwith.…thekindoflifehewaslookingforwardto.Thereareotherproblems,whichIdon’tproposetogointoatthemoment.

USAGENOTE

8.100 Wordssuchassome,many,andmostcanbeputinfrontofofwhomorofwhichatthebeginningofanon-definingrelativeclause.Attheschoolweweregreetedbytheteachers,mostofwhomwerewomen.Itisalanguagesharedbyseveralquitediversecultures,eachofwhichusesitdifferently.Numberscanbeputbeforeorafterofwhom.Theyactmostlyonsuggestionsfrompresentmembers(fourofwhomarewomen).Therewere80patients,ofwhomonlyonedied.

Usingwhose8.101 Ifyouwanttotalkaboutsomethingrelatingtotheperson,thing,orgroupyouaretalkingabout,you

usearelativeclausebeginningwithwhoseandanounornounphrase.Forexample,insteadofsayingIamwritingalettertoNigel.Hisfatherisill,youcansayIamwritingalettertoNigel,whosefatherisill.Whosecanbeusedindefiningornon-definingclauses.…workerswhosebargainingpowerisweak.…anyonewhosecreditcardisstolen.Sheaskedfriendswhoseopinionsherespected.…acountrywhosepopulationwasgrowing.Theman,whoseidentitywasnotreleased,wasattackedat10p.m.lastnight.Thenounafterwhosecanbethesubjectorobjectoftheverbintheclause,oritcanbetheobjectofapreposition.If it is theobjectofapreposition,theprepositioncancomeatthebeginningorendoftheclause.

…thegovernmentsinwhoseterritoriestheyoperate.…writerswhosecompanyhedidnotcarefor.

8.102 InwrittenEnglish,ofwhich andof whom are sometimes used instead ofwhose. You put theseexpressionsafteranounphrasebeginningwiththe.Forexample,insteadofwritingatownwhoseinhabitantsspeakFrench,youcanwriteatowntheinhabitantsofwhichspeakFrench.…acompetitiontheresultsofwhichwillbeannouncedtoday.Itravelledinalorrythebackofwhichtheownerhadloadedwithyams.

Usingotherrelativepronouns8.103 Someotherwordsandexpressionscanbeusedasrelativepronouns.

non-definingclauses

8.104 When and where are used in non-defining clauses (that is, clauses that simply add extrainformation).Iwanttoseeyouat12o’clock,whenyougotoyourlunch.Myfavouriteholidaywasin2009,whenIwenttoJamaica.HecamefromBrighton,whereLisahadoncespentaholiday.Shetookthemupthestairstotheartroom,wherethebrushesandpaintshadbeensetout.

definingclauses

8.105 Whenandwherecanalsobeused indefiningclauses (that is, clauses thatdistinguishonenounfromallothers),butonlywhentheclauseisprecededbyaparticularkindofnoun.When-clausesmustbeprecededbythewordtimeorbythenameofaperiodoftimesuchasdayoryear.Therewasatimewhenshethoughttheywerewonderful.Thisistheyearwhentheprofitsshouldstart.Where-clausesmustbeprecededbythewordplaceorbythenameofakindofplacesuchasroomorstreet.…theplacewheretheywork.…theroomwhereIdidmyhomework.…thestreetwheremygrandmotherhadlived.NotethatplacenamessuchasChinaarepropernounsandsodonotneedtohavedefiningrelativeclausesafterthem.

8.106 Where canalsobeused indefiningclausesafterwords suchascircumstances, point, situationandstage.Increasingpovertyhasledtoasituationwherethepoorestcannotaffordtohavechildren.Intimewereachedastagewherewehadmoremalereadersthanfemaleones.Therecomesapointwhereit’simpossibletoanswer.

Compensationwassometimesgrantedevenincircumstanceswherenoinjuryhadoccurred.8.107 Whyisusedindefiningclausesafterthewordreason.

Thatisamajorreasonwhytheyweresuchpoorcountries.Wherebyisusedindefiningclausesafterwordssuchasarrangementandsystem.…thenewsystemwherebyeveryonepaysafixedamount.Counselling is a process whereby the person concerned can learn to manage the emotionalrealitiesthatfacethem.

USAGENOTE

8.108 Otherexpressionscanbeusedindefiningclausesinplaceofwhen,where,why,andwhereby.Aftertimeyoucanuseatwhichinsteadofwhen.…thetimeatwhichtheoriginalmineralwasformed.Afterplace, room, street, andwords such asyear andmonth, you can use in which instead ofwhereorwhen.…theplaceinwhichtheyfoundthemselves.…theroominwhichthemeetingwouldbeheld.…theyearinwhichLloydGeorgelostpower.Afterdayyoucanuseonwhichinsteadofwhen.Sundaywasthedayonwhichwewereexpectedtospendsometimewithmyfather.Afterreasonyoucanusethatornopronouninsteadofwhy.…thereasonthatnon-violenceisconsideredtobeavirtue.That’sthereasonI’mcheckingitnow.Afterwords such as situation, stage, arrangement, or system you can use in which instead ofwhereorwhereby.…asituationinwhichthere’sarealpoliticalvacuum.

Additionalpointsaboutnon-definingrelativeclauses8.109 In written English, you can use a non-defining clause, that is, a clause that simply gives extra

information,tosaythatoneeventhappenedafteranother.Forexample,insteadofsayingIgavethebooktoGeorge.GeorgethengaveittoMary,youcansayIgavethebooktoGeorge,whogaveittoMary.Isoldmycartoagarage,whosoldittoacustomerattwicetheprice.Thehotwaterranontotheice,whichpromptlymelted.LaterhewenttoNewZealand,wherehebecameateacher.

commentingonafact

8.110 Youcanuseanon-definingclausebeginningwithwhichtosaysomethingaboutthewholesituation

describedinamainclause,ratherthanaboutsomeoneorsomethingmentionedinit.

These computers need only tiny amounts of power, whichmeans that they will run on smallbatteries.InevermetBrandoagain,whichwasapity.Beforetheexamshewasalittletense,whichwasunderstandable.

commentingonatimeorsituation

8.111 Whenyouwanttoaddsomethingtowhatyouhavesaid,yousometimesuseanon-definingclausebeginningwithapreposition,which,andanoun,toaddextrainformation.Thenounisoftenawordliketimeorpoint,oraverygeneralwordforasituationlikecaseorevent.Theyremaininthepouchforsomesevenweeks,bywhichtimetheyareabout10cmlong.Iwastoldmyworkwasnotgoodenough,atwhichpointIdecidedtogetanotherjob.Sometimesyoumay feel tooweak tocopewith things, inwhichcasedo themassoonas it isconvenient.

Nominalrelativeclauses:Whatyouneedis…8.112 Whenitisdifficulttorefertosomethingbyusinganounphrase,youcansometimesuseaspecial

typeofrelativeclausecalledanominalrelativeclause.Whathereallyneedsisanicecupoftea.Whatevershedoeswillaffectthewholefamily.

8.113 Nominalrelativeclausesthatbeginwithwhatcanbeused.Whatcanmeaneitherthethingthatorthethingsthat.Whathesaidwasperfectlytrue.Theydidnotlikewhathewrote.Ibelievethatisaverygoodaccountofwhathappened.I’mwhat’sgenerallycalledadustman.Peopleoftenuseawhat-clause in frontof isorwas to saywhatkindof thing theyareabout tomention.WhatIneedisalawyer.Whatyouhavetodoistochoosefivecompaniestoinvestin.Thesestructuresareexplainedinparagraphs9.28to9.30.Foranotheruseofwhatinnominalrelativeclausesseeparagraph8.116.

8.114 Nominal relative clauses that beginwithwhere are usually used after a preposition or after theverbbe.Wheremeanstheplacewhere.Icrossedtheroomtowhereshewassitting.HelivestwostreetsdownfromwhereMrSuttonworks.ThisiswhereIcrashedthecar.

8.115 Nominal relative clauses beginningwithwhatever, whoever, orwhichever are used to refer tosomethingorsomeonethatisunknownorindefinite.

Whateverisusedonlytorefertothings.Whoeverisusedtorefertopeople.Whicheverisusedtorefertoeitherthingsorpeople.Whatever,whoever,andwhichevercanbeusedaspronouns.Whicheverisoftenfollowedbyof.I’lldowhateveryouwant.IwanttodowhateverIcantohelpthem.You’llneedwrittenpermissionfromwhoeverisincharge.Peoplewillchoosewhicheverofthesesystemstheyfindsuitsthembest.Whateverandwhichevercanalsobeusedasdeterminers.Shehadhadtorelyonwhateverbookswerelyingaroundthere.Choosewhicheveroneofthethreemethodsyoufancy.Formoreinformationaboutwhatever,whoever,andwhicheverseeparagraph8.42.

8.116 Whatcanbeusedwiththesamemeaningaswhatever,bothasapronounandadeterminer.Dowhatyoulike.Wegivewhathelpwecan.Themainuseofwhatinnominalrelativeclausesisexplainedinparagraph8.113.

Nominalthat-clauses8.117 Anominalthat-clauseisatypeofsubordinateclausethatfunctionslikeanoun,andisintroduced

bythat.Whenthistypeofclauseisusedtosaywhatsomeonesaysorthinks(e.g.Shesaid(that)shewasleaving),thisgrammarreferstoitasareportedclause.Therearesomeverbsandadjectives,however,thatdonotrefertosayingorthinking,butthatarefollowedbythat-clausesbecausetheyrefertoactionsrelatingtofacts:forexample,checkingorprovingfacts.Hecheckedthatbothreardoorsweresafelyshut.Researchwithanimalsshowsthatmaleswillmotheraninfantaswellasanyfemale.Hereisalistofverbsthatarenotverbsofspeechorthought,butcanbefollowedbyathat-clause:

arrangecheckdemonstratedetermineensureindicatepretendproverequirerevealshow

Notethatdeterminecanalsobeaverbofthought,andrevealcanalsobeaverbofspeech.See

paragraphs7.30,7.38,and7.48.

Arrangeandrequireareusedwithathat-clausecontainingamodalorasubjunctive.Arrangecanalsobeusedwithato-infinitive.TheyhadarrangedthatIwouldspendChristmaswiththem.They’darrangedtoleaveatfouro’clock.Demonstrate,prove,reveal,andshowcanalsobefollowedbyaclausebeginningwithawh-wordthatreferstoacircumstanceinvolvedinafact.Shetookthegunandshowedhowthecylinderslottedintothebarrel.Prove,require,andshowcanalsobeusedinthepassivefollowedbyato-infinitive.NoplaceonEarthcanbeshowntobesafe.Ifyouwanttomentionanotherpersoninvolvedintheseactions,youcanputanobjectaftershow,usetoafterdemonstrate,indicate,prove,andreveal,andusewithafterarrangeandcheck.Thechildren’sattitudeshowedmethatwatchingviolencecanaffectachild’sbehaviour.ThisincidentprovedtomethatIancannotbetrusted.Shearrangedwiththeprincipalofherschooltotakesometimeoff.

8.118 Ifyouwant tosay thatsomethinghappens, thatsomething is thecase,or thatsomethingbecomesknown, you can use a that-clause afterhappen, transpire, or emerge. The subject of the mainclauseisimpersonalit.Itoftenhappensthatsomeoneasksforadviceanddoesnotgetit.Itjusthappenedthathehadaclientwhoratherlikedthatsortofthing.Ittranspiredthattherewasnotawordoftruthintheletter.Itemergedthat,duringtheafternoon,shehadgonehomeunwell.Notethatthethat-clausemustbeintroducedbythat.

adjectiveswithnominalthat-clauses:Iwasafraidthathewouldfall

8.119 There aremanyadjectives that canbe followedby that-clauseswhen they come after a linkingverb,usuallybe.

mentioningthecauseofafeeling

8.120 Ifyouwanttosaywhatcausessomeonetohaveaparticularfeeling,youcanmentionthecauseofthefeelinginathat-clauseafteranadjectivedescribingthefeeling.EverybodywassadthatshehadtoreturntoAmerica.IamconfidentthatIshallbeabletopersuadethemtogo.Iwasworriedthatshe’dsayno.Hereisalistofadjectivesdescribingfeelings:

afraid

angryanxiousconfidentfrightenedgladhappypleasedproudsadsorrysurprisedupsetworried

sayingwhatsomeoneknows

8.121 Ifyouwant to say that someoneknows something,youcan saywhat theyknow ina that-clauseafteranadjectivesuchasawareorconscious.Hewasawarethathehadeatentoomuch.Sheisconsciousthatsomepeoplemightbeoffended.Hereisalistofadjectivesindicatingknowledge:

awarecertainconsciousconvincedpositivesureunaware

Awareisoccasionallyusedwithathat-clausebeginningwithawh-word.Noneofourstaffwereawarewhatwasgoingon.

commentingonafact

8.122 Ifyouwanttocommentonafact,youcanuseanadjectivedescribingthefactfollowedbyathat-clause.Thelinkingverbhasimpersonalitasitssubject.Itwassadthatpeoplehadreactedinthewaytheydid.Itistruethattheauthorityofparliamenthasdeclined.Itseemsprobablethattheworldcangoonproducingenoughfoodforeveryone.Hereisalistofadjectivesusedtocommentonfacts:

apparentappropriate

awfulbadclearessentialevidentextraordinaryfairfunnygoodimportantinevitableinterestinglikelyluckynaturalobviousplainpossibleprobablesadtrueunlikely

Afterafewadjectives,aclausebeginningwithawh-wordcanbeused.It’sfunnyhowtheydon’tgeton.Itwasneverclearwhyshetookadifferentroutethatnight.Formoreinformation,seeparagraph9.43.

commentingonafactoridea

8.123 That-clausescanbeusedafterbetorefertoafactoridea.Thesubjectisusuallyoneofthenounslistedinparagraph7.86.Thefactisthatahappypersonmakesabetterworker.Theanswerissimplythattheyareinterestedindoingit.Themostfavouredexplanationwasthathewasfinallygettingtired.Ourhopeisthatthistimeallpartieswillcooperate.

8.124 InformalEnglish,that-clausesaresometimesusedasthesubjectofaverb,whenpeoplewanttocommentonafact.Thatsheisnotstupidisself-evident.Thatheisatroubledmanisobvious.In less formalEnglish, the factplusa that-clause isoftenusedasa subject insteadofa simplethat-clause.Thefactthatwhattheyaredoingisdangerousisnotimportanthere.Thefactthatyourbossisofferingtodoyourjobforyouworriesme.Thenormalwayofcommentingonafactistouseanimpersonalitstructure.Seeparagraph8.122.

8.125 Peoplealsousethefactplusathat-clauseastheobjectofprepositionsandofverbsthatcannotbefollowedbyasimplethat-clause.Heisproudofthefactthatallhischildrenwenttouniversity.Wemissedthefactthatthechildrenwerestrugglingtounderstandtheexercise.

nominaluseofwh-clauses

8.126 Whenyouwanttotalkaboutsomethingthatisnotcertainordefinite,oraboutwhichachoicehastobemade,youcanuseclausesbeginningwithawh-wordorwhether, liketheclausesusedforreportedquestions.Theycanbeusedafterprepositions,andasthesubjectofverbssuchasbe,depend,andmatter.…thequestionofwhoshouldbePresident.Theteacherisuncertainaboutwhatshewantsstudentstodo.Whatyougetdependsonhowbadlyyouwereinjured.WhetherIwenttwiceornotdoesn’tmatter.Whetheryouthinktheyaregoodornotisnotimportant.

8.127 Structuresconsistingofawh-wordplusato-infinitive,whichrefertoapossiblecourseofaction,areusedafterprepositionsbutnotusuallyassubjects.…theproblemofwhattotelltheadoptedchild.…abookonhowtoavoidhavingaheartattack.Peopleareworriedabouthowtofilltheirincreasedleisuretime.

BECAREFUL

8.128 Notethatif-clauses,whichareusedforreportedquestions,cannotbeusedafterprepositionsorasthesubjectofaverb.

Non-finiteclauses8.129 Anon-finiteclauseisasubordinateclausethatcontainsaparticipleoraninfinitive,andthatdoes

notcontainastatedsubject.Therearetwotypesofnon-finiteclause.Onetypebeginswithasubordinatingconjunction.Shefaintedwhilegivingevidenceincourt.You’vegottodosomethingindepthinordertounderstandit.Thistypeofclauseisdealtwithinthesectionsonadverbialclauses(paragraphs8.6to8.82).Theothertypeofnon-finiteclausedoesnotbeginwithasubordinatingconjunction.Heprancedabout,feelingveryimportantindeed.Iwantedtotalktoher.Thistypeofclausesometimesconsistsofaparticipleandnothingelse.Ellenshookherhead,smiling.Rosie,grumbling,hadgonetoherpianolesson.

Clausesthatcontainaparticipleanddonotbeginwithasubordinatingconjunctionareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.

typesofnon-finiteclause

8.130 Thenon-finite clausesdiscussed in this sectionwork ina similarway torelativeclauses, and,likerelativeclauses, theymaybeusedfordistinguishinganounfromothersor theymaysimplyaddextrainformation.Someclausessimplyaddextrainformation.Thesearecallednon-definingclauses.Theyaredealtwithinparagraphs8.132to8.143.Theseclausesareoftenusedinwriting,butarenotusuallyusedinspokenEnglish.Others are used to distinguish a noun from all other possibilities. These are called definingclauses.Theyaredealtwithinparagraphs8.144and8.145.TheseclausesareoccasionallyusedinbothwrittenandspokenEnglish.

positionofnon-definingclauses

8.131 Non-definingclausescangoinfrontofamainclause,afteramainclause,orinthemiddleofone.Anon-definingclauseisusuallyseparatedbyacommafromthewordsinfrontofitandafterit.

Usingnon-definingclauses8.132 Non-defining clauses give further information that is not needed to identify theperson, thing, or

groupyouaretalkingabout.Thefollowingparagraphs8.133to8.138explainhowtheseclausesareusedwhentheyrelatetothesubjectoftheverbinamainclause.Thesubjectisnotmentionedinthenon-definingclause.

-ingparticiple:eventshappeningatthesametime

8.133 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneisdoingorexperiencingtwothingsatthesametime,youmentiononeoftheminthemainclauseandtheotherinaclausecontainingan-ingparticiple.Laughingandshrieking,thecrowdrushedunderthenearesttrees.Janewatched,weeping,fromthedoorway.Feelingalittlefoolish,Pluskathungup.Walkingabout,younoticesomethingisdifferent.Peoplestaredather.Seeingherselfinashopwindow,shecouldunderstandwhy.

BECAREFUL

Notethatthe-ingparticipleshouldalwaysdescribeanactionperformedbythesubjectofthemainpart of the sentence. So, for example, you should not sayGoing to school, it started to rain.Instead,youshouldsayGoingtoschool,Inoticedthatithadstartedtorain.

-ingparticiple:oneactionafteranother

8.134 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeonedidonethingimmediatelyafteranother,youmentionthefirstactioninaclausecontainingan-ingparticipleandthesecondoneinthemainclause.Leapingoutofbed,hedressedsoquicklythatheputhisbootsonthewrongfeet.

-ingparticiple:reasons

8.135 If youwant to explain why someone does something or why something happens, you saywhathappensinthemainclauseandgivethereasoninaclausecontainingan-ingparticiple.AtonepointIdecidedtogoandtalktoUncleSam.ThenIchangedmymind,realisingthathecoulddonothingtohelp.Thepuppywouldprobablynotlivetogrowup,beingatiny,weaklittlething.

8.136 Youcanalsousean-ingparticipledirectlyafteraverbinasentencesuchasIstoodshiveringattheroadside.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs3.189to3.201.

havingand-edparticiple:results

8.137 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeonedidorexperiencedonethingbeforeanother,youmentionthefirstthinginaclausecontaininghavingandan-edparticiple.Oftenthiskindofconstructionshowsthatthesecondeventwasaresultofthefirstone.Ididnotfeelterriblyshocked,havingexpectedhimtotaketheeasiestwayout.Havingadmittedhewaswrong,myhusbandsuddenlyfellsilent.

-edparticiple:earlierevents

8.138 Ifyouwanttosaywhathappenedtosomeoneorsomethingbeforeasituationoreventdescribedinthemainclause,yousaywhathappenedinaclausecontainingan-edparticipleonitsown.Angeredbythepoliciesoftheunion,shewrotealettertotheGeneralSecretary.

mentioningthesubject

8.139 Sometimesyouwanttouseanon-definingclausethathasadifferentsubjectfromthesubjectofthemainclause.Theseclausesareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs8.140to8.143.

8.140 Inthiskindofnon-definingclause,youusuallyhavetomentionthesubject.Jackbeinggone,Stephenopenedhissecondletter.However, if thenon-definingclausecomesafter themainclause,andit isclearfromthecontextthatitrelatestotheobjectofthemainclause,youdonotneedtomentiontheobjectagain.Theypickedmeup,kickingandscreaming,andcarriedmeuptotheroad.

-ingparticiple

8.141 Youuseanon-definingclausecontainingasubjectandan-ingparticiple:

whenyouwanttomentionsomethingthatishappeningatthesametimeastheeventorsituationdescribedinthemainclauseTheembarrassedyoungmanstaredatme,hisfacereddening.whenyouwanttomentionafactthatisrelevanttothefactstatedinthemainclause.

Bats are surprisingly long-lived creatures, some having a life-expectancy of around twentyyears.Withissometimesaddedatthebeginningofthenon-finiteclause.Theoldmanstoodupwithtearsrunningdownhisface.

-edparticiple

8.142 You use having and an -ed participle to mention something that happened before the thingdescribedinthemainclause.Theargumenthavingfinished,MrLucaswasreadytoleave.Georgehavinggonetobed,Mickhadstartedwatchingamovie.Thequestionhavingbeenasked,hehadtodealwithit.Youusean-edparticipleonitsowntosaythatsomethingwasdoneorcompletedbeforetheeventorsituationdescribedinthemainclause.Heproceededtolighthispipe.Thatdone,heputonhiswoollenscarfandwentout.

USAGENOTE

8.143 Inanegativenon-definingclause,youputnotinfrontoftheparticiple,orinfrontofhaving.Hepaused,notwishingtoboast.Hedidn’trecognizeheratfirst,nothavingseenherforfifteenyearsorso.Hebegantoshout,theirreplynothavingcomeasquicklyashewanted.

Usingdefiningclauses8.144 Definingnon-finiteclausesexplainwhichpersonorthingyouaretalkingabout.Theyarealways

placedafterthenouninanounphrase.Theoldladydrivingthehorsewasdressedinblack.Thebuscarryingthemusiciansarrivedjustbeforenoon.

useafterpronouns

8.145 Definingclausescanbeusedafterindefinitepronounssuchasanyone.Anyonefollowingthisadvicecouldgetintrouble.Askanybodynearingtheageofretirementwhattheythink.

Otherstructuresusedlikenon-finiteclauses8.146 Phrases that donot contain a verb are sometimesused inwriting in a similarway tonon-finite

clauses.8.147 Inwriting,youcanaddaphrasecontainingoneormoreadjectivestoasentence.Thisisanother

wayofmakingtwostatementsinonesentence.Forexample,insteadofwritingWeweretiredandhungry.Wereachedthefarm,youcouldwriteTiredandhungry,wereachedthefarm.Surprisedatmyreaction,shetriedtoconsoleme.Muchdiscouraged,ImovedontoPhiladelphia.Theboynodded,paleandscared.Heknockedatthedoor,sickwithfear.Ofcourse,saidAlison,astonished.

8.148 Inasimilarway,youcanuseaphrasetodescribesomethingthatisconnectedwiththesubjectofasentence.Thephraseconsistsofanoun,followedbyanadjective,anadverbial,oranothernoun.Forexample,insteadofwritingHecameintotheroom.Hishatwasinhishand,youcouldwriteHecameintotheroom,hishatinhishand.Whatdoyoumeanbythat?saidHugh,hisfacepale.Shestoodverystraight,herbodyabsolutelystiffwithfury.Hewaswaiting,drummingwithhisfingers,hiseyesonhisnapkin.Withissometimesaddedatthebeginningofaphrase.Shewalkedon,withhereyesstraightahead.Itwasahot,calmday,witheveryobjectvisibleformiles.

Linkingwords,phrases,andclausestogether8.149 Whenyou say orwrite something, you oftenwant to put together twoormore clauses of equal

importance.Youdothisbyusingacoordinatingconjunction.AnnahadtogointotownandshewantedtogotoBrideStreet.IaskedifIcouldborrowherbicyclebutsherefused.Hewasagreatplayer,yetheneverplayedforIreland.Hereisalistofthemostcommoncoordinatingconjunctions:

andbutnororthenyet

Coordinatingconjunctionsarealsousedtolinkwordsandphrases.Theboysshoutedandrushedforward.…domesticanimalssuchasdogsandcats.

Hermannerwashurriedyetpolite.Shespokeslowlybutfirmly.Sometimescoordinatingconjunctionsareusedtogether.Thesoftwareisquitesophisticatedandyeteasytouse.Ericmoanedsomethingandthenlaystill.Thelinkingofclauses,words,orphrasesusingcoordinatingconjunctionsiscalledcoordination.Coordinatingconjunctionsaresometimescalledcoordinators.

8.150 Thedifferentusesofcoordinatingconjunctionsareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs:clauses paragraphs8.151to8.163verbs paragraphs8.164to8.170nounphrases paragraphs8.171to8.179adjectivesandadverbs paragraphs8.180to8.189otherwordsandphrases paragraphs8.190to8.193

Waysofemphasizingcoordinatingconjunctionsaredescribedinparagraphs8.194to8.199.The linking ofmore than two clauses,words, or phrases is explained in paragraphs 8.200 and8.201.

Linkingclauses8.151 Youcanuseacoordinatingconjunctiontolinkclausesthathavethesamesubject,orclausesthat

havedifferentsubjects.

omittingwordsinthesecondclause

8.152 Whenyoulinkclausesthathavethesamesubject,youdonotalwaysneedtorepeatthesubjectinthesecondclause.Iftheconjunctionisand,or,orthen,youdonotusuallyrepeatthesubject.Ipickeduptheglassandraisedittomylips.It’salongtimesinceyou’veboughtthemadrinkortalkedtothem.WhensherecognizedMorrisshewentpale,thenblushed.Iftheconjunctionisbut,so,oryet,itisusualtorepeatthesubject.Itryandseeittheirway,butIcan’t.Ihadnocar,soIhiredoneforthejourney.Helostthefight,yetsomehowheemergedwithhisdignity.Whenyoulinkclausesthathavedifferentsubjectsbutthathavesomecommonelements,youdonotneedtorepeatalltheelementsinthesecondclause.Forexample,insteadofsayingSomeofthemwenttoonerestaurantandsomeofthemwenttotheotherrestaurant,youcansaySomeofthemwenttoonerestaurantandsometotheother.Onesoldierwaskilledandanotherwounded.Onesidewaspaintedblackandtheotherwhite.

functionsofcoordinatingconjunctions

8.153 Acoordinating conjunction can be used simply to link clauses, or it can be used in addition toindicatearelationshipbetweenthem.Theseusesareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.

relatedfacts

8.154 Ifyousimplywanttomentiontworelatedfacts,youuseand.Hehasbeensuccessful inHollywoodandhasworkedwith suchdirectorsasMikeLeighandRichardAttenborough.ThecompanywillnotcloseandwillcontinuetooperatefromBelfast.HegainedaBinEnglishandnowplanstostudylanguages.Youalsouseandtoshowthattwothingshappenedorarehappeningatthesametime.Isatandwatchedhim.Otherusesofandareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.

sequence

8.155 Ifyouuseandbetweentwoclausesthatdescribeevents,youaresayingthattheeventdescribedinthefirstclausehappensorhappenedbeforetheeventdescribedinthesecondone.ShewasborninBudapestandraisedinManhattan.Heopenedthecardoorandgotout.Thencanbeusedinthesameway,butitislesscommon.Wefinishedourdrinksthenleft.

twonegativefacts

8.156 Whenyouwanttolinktwonegativeclauses,youusuallyuseand.Whenhiscontractendedhedidnotreturnhomeandhehasnotbeentheresince1979.However,youcanuseorwhentheclauseshavethesamesubjectandthesameauxiliaries.Inthesecondclause,youomitthesubject,theauxiliaries,andnot.Forexample, insteadof sayingShedoesn’t eatmeatand shedoesn’t eat fish, you can sayShedoesn’teatmeatorfish.Wewillnotdamageordestroythesamples.Hedidn’tyellorscream.You can also link negative clauses by using and neither, and nor, or nor. You put be or theauxiliaryatthebeginningofthesecondclause,infrontofthesubject.Forexample,insteadofsayingMysisterdoesn’tlikehim,andIdon’tlikehim,youcansayMysisterdoesn’tlikehim,andneitherdoI.Iwasnothappyandneitherwerethey.

IcouldnotaffordtoeatinrestaurantsandnorcouldanyoneelseIknew.Thesepeoplearenotcrazy,noraretheyfools.Butneitherandbutnorcanalsobeused.Thisisn’tagreatmovie,butneitherisitrubbish.Idon’twanttomarryhimbutnordoIwantanyoneelseto.Whenyouuseandtolinktwonegativestatements,youcanputeitherafterthesecondstatement.Ihadn’tbeentoarockfestivalbeforeandMikehadn’teither.Electricitydidn’tcomeintoBlackballFarmuntilrecentlyandtheyhadn’tanyhotwatereither.Foremphasis,youcanjointwonegativeclausesbyusingneitherandnor.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph8.198.

contrast

8.157 Whenyouareaddingacontrastingfact,youusuallyusebut.I’monly63,butIfeelahundred.Itcostsquitealotbutit’sworthit.I’vehadaverypleasanttwoyears,butIcan’twaittogetbacktothecity.Ifyouwanttoaddafactthatcontrastsstronglywithwhatyouhavejustsaid,youuseyetorandyet.Everythingaroundhimwasdestroyed,yettheministerescapedwithoutascratch.Iwanttoleave,andyetIfeelIshouldtostay.Youusuallyputacommainfrontofbut,yet,orandyet.

alternatives

8.158 Whenyouwanttomentiontwoalternatives,youuseor.Wecouldtakeapicnicorwecouldfindarestaurantwhenwe’reout.Didhejump,orwashepushed?

USAGENOTE

8.159 Whenyouaregivingadvice,yousometimeswant to tellsomeonewhatwillhappen if theydoaparticular thing. You do this by using an imperative clause, followed by and and a clausecontainingaverbinaformthatexpressesfuturetime.Forexample, insteadof saying If yougoby train, you’llget therequicker,youcan sayGo bytrainandyou’llgettherequicker.Doasyouaretoldandyou’llbealright.Youspeaktomeagainlikethatandyou’regoingtobeinserioustrouble.Whenyouaregivingadvice,awarning,oranorder,yousometimeswanttotellsomeonewhatwillhappeniftheydonotdowhatyousay.Youdothisbyusinganimperativeclause,followedbyorandaclausecontainingaverbinaformthatexpressesfuturetime.

Forexample,insteadofsayingGoaway!Ifyoudon’tgoaway,I’llscream,youcansayGoaway,orI’llscream.Hurryup,oryou’regoingtobelateforschool.Don’tfightoryou’llgethurt.

USAGENOTE

8.160 Inwriting, you can sometimes begin a sentencewith a coordinating conjunction.You do this tomakethesentenceseemmoredramaticorforceful.Somepeoplethinkthisuseisincorrect.The villagers had become accustomed to minor earth tremors. But everyone knew thatsomethingunusualhadwokenthemonMonday.Doyouthinkthereissomethingwrongwithher?Ordoyoujustnotlikeher?Gonow.Andclosethatdoor.

USAGENOTE

8.161 Sometimes, in writing, two clauses can be made into one sentence without a coordinatingconjunctionbeingused.Instead,asemicolonoradashisputbetweentheclauses.Thisisawayofexpressing two statements in one sentence when no particular coordinating conjunction seemsappropriate.Theneighboursdroveby;theycouldn’tbeartolook.Icouldn’tsaythankyou–thosewordswerefartoosmallforsomeonewhohadriskedherlifetosavemine.

non-finiteclauses

8.162 Coordinatingconjunctionscanbeusedtolinknon-finiteclauses.To-infinitiveclausescanbelinkedbyandoror.Weneedtopersuadedriverstoleavetheircarsathomeandtousethetraininstead.Shemaydecidetoremarryortolivewithoneofhersisters.Sometimesthesecondtoisomitted.Theytriedtocleartheroadandremovediscardedobjects.Whenthesecondclauseisnegative,youcanusenotinsteadofandnot.Iampaidtotreatpeople,nottointerrogatethem.Clausesbeginningwithaparticiplecanbelinkedbyandoror.Shelayonthebedgazingatthechildandsmilingathim.Youmaybemorecomfortablewearingacottondressorshirtorsleepingunderacottonblanket.However, if the first clause beginswith standing,sitting, or lying, you do not usually putandbetweentheclauses.Insideweretwolinesofoldpeoplesittingfacingeachother.

8.163 Forinformationonhowtocoordinatemorethantwoclauses,seeparagraph8.200.

Linkingverbstogether8.164 Whenyouaretalkingabouttwoactionsperformedbythesameperson,thing,orgroup,youcanuse

acoordinatingconjunctiontolinktwoverbs.

intransitiveverbs

8.165 Coordinatingconjunctionscanbeusedtolinkintransitiveverbs.Mostly,theyjustsatandchatted.Webothshruggedandlaughed.

transitiveverbs

8.166 When you are describing actions involving the same subject and object, you can link twotransitiveverbs.Youputtheobjectafterthesecondverbonly.Forexample,insteadofsayingHesweptthefloorandpolishedthefloor,yousayHesweptandpolishedthefloor.Washandtrimtheleeks.Similarly,insteadofsayingTheywalktoworkorcycletowork,youcansayTheywalkorcycletowork.Ishoutedandwavedatthem.

leavingouttheauxiliary

8.167 Whenyouare linkingverbphrases thatcontainthesameauxiliary,youdonotneedtorepeat theauxiliaryinthesecondclause.Someonemaybekilledorseriouslyinjured.Nowheispraisedratherthancriticized.Heknewalotabouthorses,havinglivedandworkedwiththemallhislife.

emphasizingrepetitionorduration

8.168 Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeonedoessomethingrepeatedlyorforalongtime,youcanuseand tolinktwoidenticalverbs.Theylaughedandlaughed.Hetriedandtried,butintheendhehadtogiveup.

USAGENOTE

8.169 In informalspeech,and isoftenusedbetween try andanotherverb.For example, someonemight say I’ll try and get a newspaper. However, this means the same as I’ll try to get anewspaper.Formoreinformationaboutthisuseseeparagraph3.200.

8.170 Forinformationonhowtocoordinatemorethantwoverbs,seeparagraph8.200.

Linkingnounphrases8.171 Whenyouare talkingabout twopeopleor things,youcanuseacoordinatingconjunction to link

twonounphrases.8.172 Insimplestatementsabouttwopeopleorthings,youuseand.

Thereweremenandwomenworkinginthefields.I’llgiveyouanicecupofteaandabiscuit.…afriendshipbetweenaboyandagirl.Insteadofandnot,youusenotwithacommainfrontofit.Ipreferromanticcomedies,notactionmovies.Ifbothpeopleorthingsaretheobjectoftheverbinanegativesentence,youuseor.Wedidn’tplaycricketorfootball.

alternatives

8.173 Whenyouaregivingalternatives,youuseor.Servefruitorcheeseafterwards.Doyouhaveanybrothersorsisters?

omittingdeterminers

8.174 Whenyourefertotwopeopleorthingsusingandoror,youusuallyrepeatthedeterminer.Hewasholdingasuitcaseandabirdcage.However,ifthepeopleorthingsarecloselyassociatedinsomeway,youdonotneedtorepeatthedeterminer.Mymotherandfatherworkedhard.Thejacketandskirtwereskilfullydesigned.…amaninasuitandtie.Sometimesbothdeterminersareomitted.Motherandbabyaredoingwell.Allthishadofcoursebeendiscussedbetweenhusbandandwife.

referringtoonepersonorthing

8.175 Youcansometimesusenounphraseslinkedbyandtorefertojustonepersonorthing.He’saracistandasexist.…thenovelistandplaywright,SomersetMaugham.

omittingadjectives

8.176 When you are linking two nouns, an adjective in front of the first noun usually applies to bothnouns.…theyoungmenandwomenofAmerica.…ahousecrammedwithbeautifulfurnitureandchina.

verbagreement

8.177 Whenthesubjectofaclauseconsistsoftwoormorenounslinkedbyand,youuseapluralverb.Mymotherandfatherareill.Time,moneyandeffortwereneeded.However,youdonotuseapluralverbifthenounsrefertothesamepersonorthing.ThewriterandfilmmakerMichaelHeydisagrees.You also do not use a plural verb with uncountable nouns preceded by all, or with singularcountablenounsprecededbyeachorevery.Allthiseffortandsacrificehasnothelpedtoalleviatepoverty.Itbecamenecessarytoinvolveeveryman,womanandchildwhowaswillingtohelp.Whenyoulinktwoormorenounswithor,youuseapluralverbafterpluralnouns,andasingularverbaftersingularnounsoruncountablenouns.Onegeneration’sproblemsorsuccessesarepassedtothenext.CanyousayNotoafriendorrelativewhowantstoinsist?Whenyoulinktwoormorenounswithor,andthenounswouldtakedifferentverbformsif theywereusedalone,apluralverbisgenerallyused.It’sfineifyourparentsorbrotherwanttocome.

linkingpronounstogether

8.178 Youcanputand,or,ornotbetweenapronounandanoun,orbetweentwopronouns.HowardandIareplanningaparty.SheandIhaveaverygoodrelationship.DoyouoryourpartnerspeakGerman?I’mtalkingtoyou,nother.Whenyou say something about yourself and someone else, you usually put the pronounor nounreferringtotheotherpersonfirst,andthepronounreferringtoyourselfsecond.MysisterandIlivedtotallydifferentkindsoflives.YouandImusthaveatalktogether.…adifferenceofopinionbetweenJohnandme.ThefirstpeopletohearweretheForeignSecretaryandmyself.

8.179 Forinformationonhowtocoordinatemorethantwonounphrases,seeparagraph8.200.

Linkingadjectivesandadverbs

8.180 Whenyouusetwoadjectivestodescribesomeoneorsomething,yousometimesputaconjunctionbetweenthem.Thisisexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs8.181to8.187.Conjunctionsarealsosometimesplacedbetweenadverbs.Thisisexplainedinparagraph8.188.

qualitativeadjectives

8.181 Whenyouputtwoqualitativeadjectivesinfrontofanoun,youputandoracommabetweentheadjectives.…anintelligentandambitiouswoman.…anintelligent,generousman.

colouradjectives

8.182 Whenyouputtwocolouradjectivesinfrontofanoun,youputandbetweenthem.…ablackandwhiteswimmingsuit.

classifyingadjectives

8.183 When you put two classifying adjectives in front of a noun, you have to decide whether theadjectivesrelatetothesamesystemofclassificationortodifferentsystems.Forexample,geographicalandgeologicalrelatetothesamesystem;Britishandindustrialrelatetodifferentsystems.Whenyouputtwoclassifyingadjectivesinfrontofanoun,andtheadjectivesrelatetothesameclassifyingsystem,youputandbetweenthem.…asocialandeducationaldilemma.Whentheadjectivesrelate todifferentclassifyingsystems,youdonotputandbetween them,oruseacomma.…theFrenchclassicalpianistsKatiaandMarielleLabeque.…medievalMuslimphilosophers.…asquarewoodentable.…Americanagriculturalexports.

differenttypesofadjective

8.184 When you put two adjectives of different types in front of a noun, for example a qualitativeadjectiveandaclassifyingadjective,youdonotputandbetweenthemoruseacomma.…alargecircularpoolofwater.…abeautifulpinksuit.…rapidtechnologicaladvance.

adjectiveswithpluralnouns

8.185 Whenyouputtwoadjectivesinfrontofapluralnouninordertotalkabouttwogroupsofthingsthathavedifferentoroppositequalities,youputandbetweentheadjectives.…businesspeoplefromlargeandsmallcompanies.…EuropeanandAmericantraditions.

adjectivesafterverbs

8.186 Whenyouusetwoadjectivesafteralinkingverb,youputandbetweenthem.MrsScott’shousewaslargeandimposing.Theroomwaslargeandsquare.Onthispointwecanbeclearandprecise.

usingotherconjunctions

8.187 Youcanalsoputbut,yet,ororbetweenadjectives.Whenyoulinkcontrastingadjectives,youputbutoryetbetweenthem.…asmallbutcomfortablehotel.Wearepoorbuthappy.…afirmyetgentlehand.Whenyouwanttosaythateitheroftwoadjectivescouldapply,ortoaskwhichadjectiveapplies,youuseor.Youcanuseredorblackpaint.Callmeifyoufeellonelyorbored.Isthisgoodorbad?Ifyouwanttosaythatneitheroftwoadjectivesapplies,youuseorinanegativesentence.Hewasnotexcitingorgood-looking.Anotherwayofsayingthatneitheroftwoadjectivesappliesistoputneither infrontof thefirstoneandnorinfrontofthesecondone.Heisneitheryoungnorhandsome.Theirdietisneitherhealthynorvaried.

linkingadverbstogether

8.188 Youcanputandbetweenadverbs.Marywasbreathingquietlyandevenly.Wehavetokeepairportsrunningsmoothlyandefficiently.Theywalkupanddown,smiling.Whenyoulinkcontrastingadverbs,youputbutoryetbetweenthem.Quicklybutsilentlyshedartedoutofthecell.Ifyouwanttosaythatneitheroftwoadverbsapplies,youuseanegativesentencewithorbetween

theadverbs,oryouputneitherinfrontofthefirstadverbandnorinfrontofthesecondone.

Givingbirthdoesnothappeneasilyorpainlessly.Thestoryendsneitherhappilynorunhappily.

8.189 Forinformationonhowtocoordinatemorethantwoadjectives,seeparagraph8.201.

Linkingotherwordsandphrases8.190 Coordinating conjunctions can also be used to link prepositions, prepositional phrases,

modifiers,anddeterminers.

linkingprepositionstogether

8.191 Youcanuseandtolinkprepositionsthatapplytothesamenoun.Weseethemontheirwaytoandfromschool.Youshouldtakethetabletsduringandafteryourvisit.

linkingprepositionalphrasestogether

8.192 Youcanuseandtolinkprepositionalphraseswhenyouaredescribingsimilaractions,situations,orthings.Theywalkedacrossthelawnanddownthegardenpath.Theyhadcrumbsaroundtheirmouthsandundertheirchins.However,ifthephrasesdescribethesameaction,situation,orthing,youdonotputandbetweenthem.Herhusbandwashitovertheheadwithamallet.Theywalkeddownthedrivebetweenthechestnuttrees.…amanofaboutfortywithwidestaringeyes.

linkingmodifiersanddeterminerstogether

8.193 Youcanuseandorortolinkmodifiers.…thelargestfridgeandfreezermanufacturerinGermany.Thiswouldnotapplytoacoaloroilsupplier.Youcanuseortolinkthedeterminershisandher.Yourchild’sschoolwillplayanimportantpartinshapingtherestofhisorherlife.

Emphasizingcoordinatingconjunctions8.194 Whenyouareusingcoordinatingconjunctions,yousometimeswanttoemphasizethatwhatyouare

saying applies to both the words or phrases linked by the conjunction. You usually do this byputtingawordsuchasbothorneitherinfrontofthefirstwordorphrase.

8.195 Whenyouareusingand,themostcommonwayofemphasizingthatwhatyouaresayingappliesto

twophrasesistoputbothinfrontofthefirstphrase.BythattimebothRobinandDrewwereoverseas.Theyfeelbothanxietyandjoy.Theseheadlinesbothmystifiedandinfuriatedhim.Investmentcontinuesbothathomeandabroad.Themedicineisbothexpensiveandingreatdemand.Anotherwayistouseandalsoinsteadofand.Wilkinsdroveracingcarshimselfandalsoracedpowerboats.Thejobofthelibraryistogetbookstopeopleandalsotogetinformationtothem.

8.196 Forstrongeremphasis,youcanputnotonlyornotjustinfrontofthefirstwordorphrase,andbutorbutalsobetweenthetwowordsorphrases.Theteamisplayingreallywell,notonlyinEnglandbutnowinEurope.Employersneedtothinkmoreseriouslynotonlyofattractingstaffbutofkeepingthem.

8.197 Whenyouareusingor,themostcommonwayofemphasizingthatwhatyouaresayingappliestotwowordsorphrasesistoputeitherinfrontofthefirstwordorphrase.Sentencescanbeeithertrueorfalse.Youcaneitherbuyaspecialinsecticideorgethelpfromanexpert.EitherMargaretorJohnshouldcertainlyhavecometoseemebynow.Eitherweraisemoneyfromoutsideorweclosepartofthemuseum.Whenyouarelinkingclausesinthisway,youcanuseorelse,insteadofor.Theyshouldeitherformallychargethemenorelseletthemgo.

8.198 Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatanegativestatementappliestotwowordsorphrases,youputneitherinfrontofthefirstwordorphraseandnorinfrontofthesecondwordorphrase.Forexample,insteadofsayingThegirldidnotspeakorlookup,yousayThegirlneitherspokenorlookedup.Thethoughtneitherupsetnordelightedher.Shehadneitherreceivednorreadtheletter.NeitherMargaretnorJohnwasthere.Note thatyouuseasingularverbaftersingularnounphrasesandapluralverbafterpluralnounphrases.NeitherBelindanoranyoneelsewasgoingtospeak.Neithercitycouncilsnorwealthymanufacturershavemuchneedofpaintersorsculptors.

8.199 Sometimesyouwanttodrawattentiontoanelementofasentencebycontrastingitwithsomethingdifferent.Onewaytodothisistolinkthetwoelementsbyputtingbutbetweenthem.Youputnotinfrontofthefirstelement.Iwasn’tsmiling,notbecauseIwasangrybutbecauseitwaspainfultomovemyface.Ifeltnotjoybutsadness.Theuprightchairswerenotpolishedbutpainted.

Linkingmorethantwoclauses,phrases,orwords8.200 You can link more than two clauses, words, or phrases using and or or. Usually you use the

conjunctiononlyonce,puttingitbetweenthelasttwoclauses,words,orphrases.Aftereachoftheothersyouputacomma.Harrisonmarchedhimtothedoor,threwhimoutandreturned.…coursesinaccountancy,science,mathsorengineering.You can also put a comma in front of the conjunction; this usuallymakes the sentence easier toread, especially if the separated elements contain more than one word or are not completelysimilar.MrsRobertscookedmeals,cleaned,mendedclothes,andwenttomeetingsofthesewingclub.

In informalspeech,peoplesometimesputandororbetweeneachpairofclauses,words,orphrases.Occasionally,youdo this inwritingwhenyouwant toemphasize thatall the statementsyouaremakingaretrue.MrsBarnetthasagateandit’snotlockedandthat’showtheygetout.

linkingadjectivestogether

8.201 Therearespecialrulesforlinkingmorethantwoadjectives.Whenyouputmorethantwoqualitativeadjectives infrontofanoun,youputcommasbetweentheadjectivesanddonotuseaconjunction.…alarge,airy,comfortableroom.Whenyouputmorethantwoclassifyingadjectivesinfrontofanoun,youhavetodecidewhethertheadjectivesrelatetothesamesystemofclassificationortodifferentsystems.(Thisisexplainedinparagraph8.183.)Iftheclassifyingadjectivesrelatetothesamesystem,youputandbetweenthelasttwoadjectivesandacommaaftereachoftheothers.…thecountry’ssocial,economicandpoliticalcrisis.If the classifying adjectives relate to different systemsof classification, youdonot put anythingbetweenanyoftheadjectives.…anunknownmedievalFrenchpoet.Whenyouputbothqualitativeandclassifyingadjectivesinfrontofanoun,youdonotputanythingbetweenthem.…alittlewhitewoodenhouse.Whenyouputmore than two adjectives after a linkingverb, you putand between the last twoadjectivesandacommaaftereachoftheothers.Hewasbig,darkandmysterious.Wefelthot,tiredandthirsty.

Chapter9Changingthefocusinasentence

9.1–7 Introduction

9.8–24 Focusingonthethingaffected:thepassive

9.25–30 Selectingfocus:splitsentences

9.31–45 Takingthefocusoffthesubject:usingimpersonalit

9.34–35 Describingaplaceorsituation9.36–38 Talkingabouttheweatherandthetime9.39–41 Commentingonanaction,activity,orexperience9.42–45 Commentingonafactthatyouareabouttomention

9.46–55 Introducingsomethingnew:thereassubject

9.56–68 Focusingusingadverbials

9.56 Commentingonyourstatement:sentenceadverbials9.57–61 Statingwhatareayouarereferringto9.62–63 Emphasizing9.64–68 Focusingonthemostimportantthing

9.69–78 Otherinformationstructures

9.69–72 Puttingsomethingfirst:Inhispocketwasapen,Whyshe’shereIdon’tknow9.73–78 Introducingyourstatement:Theproblemis…,Thethingis…

9.79–99 Focusingonthespeaker’sattitude

9.80–90 Indicatingyourattitudetowhatyouaresaying9.91–94 Exclamations9.95–99 Addressingpeople

9 Changingthefocusinasentence

Introduction9.1 The structure of a statement usually follows the sequence subject, verb, object, complement,

adverbial.Thesubject,whichiswhatyouaregoingtotalkabout,comesfirst.Ifyoudonotwanttodrawspecialattentiontoanypartoftheclause,thenyoufollowthissequence.subjectDonald

verbwaslying

adverbialonthebed.

subjectShe

verbhasbrought

objectthetape

adverbialwithher.

subjectHe

verbwiped

objecttheglass

complementdry

adverbialwithatea-towel.

The examples above are in the declarative form. Chapter 5 explains how meanings can beexpressedusing thedeclarative, the interrogativeand the imperative forms.Theseother formsinvolveregularchangesinthesequenceofelementsintheclause.Isheill?Putitonthetable.

9.2 However,thereareotherwaysofputtingthepartsofaclauseinadifferentsequence,inordertogivespecialemphasisormeaning.

adverbialInhisenthusiasm,

subjecthe

verboverlooked

objectafewbigproblems.

objectThethirdsheet

subjecthe

verbplaced

adverbialinhispocket.

Thisappliesmainlytomainclauses.Thischaptershowshowyoucanchangethewordorderinamainclausewhenyouwanttogivespecialforcetothewholeclauseortooneofitselements.In most subordinate clauses, you have no choice about the order of the clause elements (seeChapter8).

thepassive

9.3 Onewayof changingwordorder in order to change the focus in a clause is to use thepassiveform.Thepassiveallowsyoutotalkaboutaneventfromthepointofviewofthethingorpersonaffected,andeventoavoidmentioningwhoorwhatwasresponsiblefortheaction.Agirlfrommyclasswaschosentodothereading.Thepassiveisexplainedinparagraphs9.8to9.24.

splitsentences

9.4 Anotherwayofvaryingthesequenceofelementsintheclauseistouseasplitsentence.Therearethreedifferenttypes.Onetypeallowsyoutofocusonthepersonorthingyouaretalkingabout,asinItwasJasonwhotoldthem.Thesecondtypeallowsyoutofocusonanaction,asinWhattheydidwasbreakawindowandgetinthatwayorAllIcoulddowascry.Thethirdtypeallowsyoutofocusonthecircumstancesofanaction,forexamplethetimeortheplace,asinItwasoneo’clockwhentheyleft,orItwasinParisthattheymetforthefirsttime.Splitsentencesaredealtwithinthesectionbeginningatparagraph9.25.

impersonalit

9.5 When you want to say something about a fact, an action, or a particular state, you can use astructurebeginningwithit,forexampleIt’sstrangethathedidn’tcall,It’seasytolaugh,andIt’snofunbeingstupid.Youalsouseanitstructuretotalkabouttheweatherorthetime,forexampleIt’sraining, It’saniceday,andIt’stwoo’clock.Itstructuresaredealtwithinthesectionbeginningatparagraph9.31.

therewithbe

9.6 Thereisusedfollowedbybeandanounphrasetointroducetheideaoftheexistenceorpresenceofsomething.Thismakesthenounphrase,whichisnewinformation,thefocusoftheclause.Formoreinformation,seeparagraphs9.46to9.55.Thereissomeoneinthebushes.

adverbials

9.7 There are also two types of adverbial that you can use to focus on a clause as awhole, or ondifferentelementsoftheclause.Theseincludesentenceadverbials (seethesectionbeginningatparagraph9.56)andfocusingadverbials(seeparagraphs9.79to9.90).Heneverwrites,ofcourse.Frankly,Idon’treallycarewhattheythink.Asachildshewasparticularlyclosetohereldersister.

Focusingonthethingaffected:thepassive9.8 Manyactionsinvolvetwopeopleorthings–onethatperformstheactionandonethatisaffected

bytheaction.Theseactionsaretypicallyreferredtousingtransitiveverbs,thatis,verbsthathaveanobject.TransitiveverbsareexplainedfullyinChapter3.

InEnglishthepersonorthingyouwanttotalkaboutisusuallyputfirstasthesubjectoftheclause.So,when youwant to talk about someone or something that is theperformer of an action, youmakethemthesubjectoftheverbandyouuseanactiveformoftheverb.Theotherpersonorthingismadetheobjectoftheverb.However,youmaywanttofocusonthepersonorthingaffectedbyanaction,whichwouldbetheobjectofanactive formof theverb. In thatcase,youmake thatpersonor thing thesubjectofapassiveformoftheverb.Forexample,youcouldreportthesameeventbyusinganactiveformofaverb,asinThedoghaseatenourdinnerorbyusingapassiveformofaverb,as inOurdinnerhasbeeneatenby thedog,dependingonwhetheryouwantedtofocusonthedogoryourdinner.

formationofthepassive

9.9 Passiveformsconsistofanappropriateformofbefollowedbythe-edparticipleoftheverb.Forexample, thepassive formof thepresent simpleofeat is thepresent simpleofbe followed byeaten:Itiseaten.Sheescapeduninjuredbutherboyfriendwasshotinthechest.Hewasbeingtreatedforastomachulcer.Hethinkssucheventscouldhavebeenavoided.Fordetailsofpassiveformsofverbs,seetheReferencesection.

notmentioningthepersonorthingthatperformedtheaction

9.10 When you use the passive form of a verb, you do not have to mention the person or thingresponsiblefortheaction(theperformer).Youmaywanttodothisforoneofthesereasons:becauseyoudonotknowwhoorwhattheperformeris

He’salmostcertainlybeendelayed.Thefencebetweenthetwopropertieshadbeenremoved.becauseitisnotimportantwhoorwhattheperformeris

Iwastoldthatitwouldbeperfectlyquiet.Suchitemsshouldbecarefullypackedinboxes.becauseitisobviouswhoorwhattheperformeris

Shefoundthatshewasn’tbeingpaidthesamesalaryashim.…thenumberofchildrenwhohavebeenvaccinatedagainstmeasles.becausetheperformerhasalreadybeenmentioned

Hispicturesofdogsweredrawnwithgreathumour.The government responded quickly, and newmeasures were passed which strengthened theirpowers.becausepeopleingeneralaretheperformers

Bothofthesebookscanbeobtainedfromthepubliclibrary.Itisverystrangeandhasneverbeenclearlyexplained.becauseyoudonotwanttosaywhoperformedanaction,oryouwanttodistanceyourselffrom

yourownaction.Theoriginalhasbeendestroyed.I’vebeentoldyouwishedtoseeme.

9.11 In accounts of processes and scientific experiments, the passive is used without the performerbeingmentionedbecausethefocusisonwhathappensandnotonwhoorwhatmakesithappen.The principle of bottling is very simple. Food is put in jars, the jars and their contents areheated toa temperaturewhich ismaintained longenough to ensure thatall bacteria,mouldsandvirusesaredestroyed.

9.12 Thepassive formof reportingverbs isoftenused inan impersonal it structure,when it isclearwhosewordsorthoughtsyouaregivingorwhenyouaregivingthewordsorthoughtsofpeopleingeneral.See9.45inthesectiononimpersonalitstructures.Itwasagreedthathewouldcomeandseeusagainthenextday.Itwasrumouredthathehadbeensentencedtolifeimprisonment,buthadescaped.

USAGENOTE

9.13 Whenpeopleingeneralaretheperformersoftheaction,anactiveformoftheverbissometimesusedinstead,withthegenericpronounsyouortheyasthesubject.Oneisusedasthesubjectinthiskindofclauseinformalspeechandwriting.Youcan’tbuyironnow,onlysteel.Theysayshe’sverybright.Ifonedecidestoliveinthecountrythenoneshouldbepreparedfortheunexpected.Formoreinformationaboutgenericpronouns,seeparagraphs1.119to1.123.Youcanalsouse the indefinitepronounssomeoneorsomething.This allowsyou tomention aperformer, without specifying who or what they are. For more information about indefinitepronouns,seeparagraphs1.128to1.141.Ithinksomeone’scallingyou.Somethinghasupsethim.Ergativeverbscanalsoenableyoutoavoidmentioningtheperformerofanaction.Forexample,insteadofsayingSheopenedthedoor,youcansayThedooropened.Seethesectiononergativeverbsinparagraphs3.59to3.67.

mentioningtheperformerwithby

9.14 Whenyouusethepassive,youcanmentionthepersonorthingthatperformedtheactionattheendoftheclausebyusingby.Thisputsemphasisontheperformerbecausetheendoftheclauseisanimportantposition.Hisbestfriendwaskilledbyagrenade,whichexplodedunderhiscar.

Someofthechildrenwereadoptedbylocalcouples.Thisviewhasbeenchallengedbyanumberofworkers.

mentioningthingsormethodsused

9.15 Aswithactiveformsofverbs,youcanmentionsomethingthattheperformerusedtoperformtheactionaftertheprepositionwith.Acirclewasdrawninthedirtwithastick.Moisturemustbedrawnoutfirstwithsalt.Youcanmentionthemethodusingan-ingformafterby.Thestrongtastecanberemovedbychangingthecookingwater.

passiveofverbsreferringtostates

9.16 Afewtransitiveverbsrefertostatesratherthanactions.Whensomeoftheseverbsareusedinthepassive,thepersonorthingthatcreatesthatstateisputaftertheprepositionwith.Theroomwasfilledwithpeople.Therailingsweredecoratedwiththousandsofbouquets.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsreferringtostatesthatareusedwithwithinthepassive:

covercramcrowddecoratefilllitterornamentpackstuffteemthrong

However,byisusedwithsomeverbsthatdescribeastate.Thebuildingwasilluminatedbythousandsoflights.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsreferringtostatesthatareusedwithbyinthepassive:

concealexceedilluminateinhabitoccupyovershadow

Someverbs,suchasadornandsurroundcanbeusedwithwithorbyafterthem.Herrighthandwascoveredwithblood.OneentirewallwascoveredbyagiganticchartoftheEnglishChannel.Thehousewassurroundedwithpolicemen.Thebuildingwassurroundedbyadeepgreenlawn.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsthatcanbeusedwitheitherwithorbyinthepassive:

adornbesiegecoverencircleoverrunsurround

Therearealsoseveralverbsthatareusedwithin.Sheclaimedthatthedrugwascontainedinacoldcuregiventoherbytheteamdoctor.Freetransportwasnotincludedinthecontract.Thewallsofherflatarecoveredindirt.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsthatcanbeusedwithininthepassive:

containcoverembodyincludeinvolvesubsume

Notethatcovercanbeusedwithin,by,orwith.

phrasalverbs

9.17 Phrasalverbs that consist of a transitive verb followed by an adverb or preposition, or by anadverb and a preposition, can be used in the passive. Lists of phrasal verbs are given inparagraphs3.83to3.116.Twototallyopposingviewshavebeenputforwardtoexplainthisphenomenon.Millionsoftonsofgoodeartharebeingwashedawayeachyear.IwastalkedintomeetingNormanGranzataposhLondonrestaurant.Suchexpectationsaredrummedintoeverygrowingchild.

verbsusuallyusedinthepassive

9.18 Becauseoftheirmeaning,sometransitiveverbsareusuallyusedinthepassive.Theperformerof

theactionisusuallythoughttobenotworthmentioningorisnotknown.

Hewasdeemedtobetheguardianofthechild.ThemeetingisscheduledforFebruary14.Theyoungmenwereallegedtohaverampagedthroughthehotel.Thefollowingtransitiveverbsareusuallyusedinthepassive:

beacclaimedbeallegedbeannihilatedbebaffledbebornbecompressedbeconditionedbeconstruedbecouchedbecrematedbedazedbedeafenedbedebasedbedeemedbedisconcertedbedubbedbedwarfedbeearmarkedbeempoweredbefinedbeguttedbeheadedbehorrifiedbehospitalizedbeindictedbeinundatedbejailedbemesmerizedbemisdirectedbeovercomebeparalysedbepenalizedbeperpetratedbepilloriedbepopulatedbeprizedbepunctuatedberationedbereconciledbereprievedbereunitedberumouredbescheduledbeshippedbeshipwrecked

beshort-listedbeshroudedbestaffedbestrandedbestrewnbesubsumedbesuspendedbeswampedbewounded

Thefollowingphrasalverbsareusuallyusedinthepassive:

bebowledoverbecaughtupbehandeddownbepensionedoffbeploughedupberainedoffbescaleddownbestruckoffbesworninbetakenabackbewritteninto

Theywerebowledoverbythenumberofvisitorswhocametotheshow.Thejournalistsweretakenabackbytheferocityofthelanguage.

verbsthatarerarelyusedinthepassive

9.19 Afewtransitiveverbsarerarelyusedinthepassivebecausethethingaffectedbytheactiontheydescribeisrarelythethingyouareinterestedin.Thefollowingtransitiveverbsarerarelyusedinthepassive:

eludeescapefleegethaveletlikeraceresemblesuitsurvive

Thefollowingphrasalverbscontainingatransitiveverbarerarelyusedinthepassive:

bandtogetherbitebackboomoutbrushupcalldownoncastbackchuckincryouteaseoffekeoutflickovergetbackgetdowngiveoverhaveonhaveoutheaveuphuntupjabatjackinjerkoutletthroughpaceoutphonebackringbackringoutsitoutsoboutstandofftideoverwaitoutwalkoffwhileaway

verbswithtwoobjects

9.20 Inthecaseofverbsthatcanhaveanindirectobjectaswellasadirectobjectsuchasgive,teach,andshow,eitherobjectcanbethesubjectofapassiveclause.Forexample,insteadofHegavethereceptionistthekey,youcansayThekeywasgiventothereceptionist,wherethedirectobjectoftheactiveclauseisthesubjectofthepassiveclause.Theindirectobjectcanbementionedaftertoorfor.Thebuildinghadbeengiventothetownbyaninvestmentbanker.Shelterhadbeenfoundformostpeople.Sometimesitisunnecessarytomentiontheindirectobjectatall.Thevaccinecanbegivenatthesametimeasotherinjections.

Interestischargedat2%amonth.ButyoucanalsosayThereceptionistwasgiventhekey,where the indirectobjectof theactiveclauseis thesubjectof thepassiveclause.Notethat thedirectobject isstillmentionedafter theverb.Theyweregivenapintofwatereveryday.Hehadbeenoffereddrugsbyanolderstudent.Forlistsofverbsthatcanhaveanindirectobjectaswellasadirectobject,seeparagraphs3.73to3.82.

transitiveverbswithobjectcomplement:Thewallwaspaintedblue

9.21 Thereisagroupoftransitiveverbsthatcanhaveacomplementaftertheirobject.Theyarelistedand described in paragraphs 3.161 to 3.171. When these verbs are used in the passive, thecomplementisputdirectlyaftertheverb.HewasshotdeadinSanFrancisco.Ifapersontodaytalksaboutghosts,heisconsideredignorantorcrazy.

reflexiveverbs

9.22 Reflexiveverbs,whoseobjectisareflexivepronounreferringtothesubjectoftheverb,arenotused in the passive. For more information on reflexive verbs, see the section beginning atparagraph3.26.

intransitivephrasalverbswithprepositions

9.23 Many intransitive phrasal verbs can be used in the passive. The verbs are followed by aprepositionandanounphrasereferringtothethingaffectedbytheactiontheverbdescribes.Theobjectoftheprepositioncanbemadethesubjectofthepassiveformoftheverb.Theprepositionremainsaftertheverb,withnoobjectafterit.Insomehouseholds,themanwasreferredtoasthemaster.Twopeopleattheheadofthelinewerebeingdealtwithbyacoupleofclerks.Theperformancehadbeenpaidforbyalocalculturalsociety.Thechildrenwerebeinglookedafterbyfamilyfriends.The following is a list of intransitive phrasal verbswith prepositions that are often used in thepassive:

accedetoaccountforactonadheretoaimatallowforalludeto

approveofaskforaspiretoattendtobargainforbiteintobreakintobudgetforbuildoncallforcalloncareforcaterforcountondealwithdecideondespairofdictatetodispensewithdisposeofenterintofrownuponfussovergetatgetroundglossoverguessathearofhintathopeforimposeonimproveonindulgeininquireintoinsistonjumponkeeptolaughatleanonleaponlightuponlistentolongforlookafterlookatlookintolookthroughlooktomeddlewithministertomournforobjecttooperateonpanderto

paperoverpayforpickonplanforplanonplaywithplotagainstpointtoporeoverpounceonpresideoverprevailonpreyonprovideforputuponpuzzleoverreasonwithrefertorelyonremarkonresorttorushintoseethroughseetoseizeonsendforsetonsettleonshootatskateoverstamponstareatsubscribetotalkabouttalktotamperwithtinkerwithtouchontrampleontriflewithwaitonwatchoverwonderatworkon

Afewthree-wordphrasalverbsareusedinthepassive.Helongstobelookedupto.Iwasafraidofbeingdoneawaywith.Thefollowinglistcontainsthree-wordphrasalverbsusedinthepassive:

doawaywithliveuptolookdownonlookforwardtolookoutforlookuptoplayaroundwithtalkdownto

USAGENOTE

9.24 NotethatininformalspokenEnglish,getissometimesusedinsteadofbetoformthepassive.

Ourcargetscleanedaboutonceeverytwomonths.Beforethat,I’dgotarrestedbythepolice.

Inpresentperfectpassiveandpastperfectpassivesentencesformedwithget,AmericanEnglishusesgottenratherthangot.Ihadcheatedandlied,andI’dgottencaught.(American)

Selectingfocus:splitsentences9.25 Onewayof focusingonaparticularpartofasentence is touseasplitsentence.This involves

usingtheverbbe,eitherwithitasanimpersonalsubjectorwithaclausesuchasarelativeclauseorato-infinitiveclause.Othergrammarssometimesrefertosplitsentencesascleftsentences.

itasthesubject:ItwasFionawhotoldme

9.26 Ifyouwanttoemphasizeonenounphrase,youcanuseItis…orItwas…andfollowitwitharelativeclause.Forexample,insteadofsayingGeorgefoundtherightanswer,youmaywanttostressthefactthatGeorgediditbysayingItwasGeorgewhofoundtherightanswer.ItwasTedwhobrokethenewstome.Itisusuallytheothervehiclethatsuffersmost.Similarly,insteadofsayingHenrymakesclocks,youcansayIt’sclocksthatHenrymakes.It’smoneythattheywant.ItwasmewhoDavidwanted.

otherkindsoffocus

9.27 Inasplit sentence,youusually focusonanounphrase.However,youcanfocusonotherclauseelementsorevenonawholeclause.Youthenusearelativeclausebeginningwiththat.Youcanmakeaprepositionalphrase,atimeadverbialoranadverbofplacethefocusofasplitsentenceinordertostressthecircumstancesofanevent.

ItwasfromFrancisthatshefirstheardthenews.ItwasthenthatIrealizedI’dforgottenmywallet.ItwasinParisthatIfirstsawthesefilms.Youcanalsofocusonan-ingformifyouarestressinganaction.ItwasmeetingPeterthatreallystartedmeoffonthisnewlineofwork.Youcanfocusonaclausebeginningwithbecausetostressthereasonforsomething.Perhapsit’sbecausehe’sdifferentthatIgetalongwithhim.

whatoralltofocusonanaction

9.28 Ifyouwanttofocusonanactionperformedbysomeone,youcanuseasplitsentenceconsistingofwhatfollowedbythesubject,theverbdo,theverbbe,andaninfinitivewithorwithoutto.For example, insteadof saying Iwrote toGeorge immediately, you can sayWhat I didwas towritetoGeorgeimmediately.WhatIdidwastomakeaplan.Whatyouhavetodoistochoosefivecompaniestoinvestin.Whatitdoesisdrawoutallthevitaminsfromthebody.Youcanuseall insteadofwhat ifyouwant toemphasize that justone thing isdoneandnothingelse.Allhedidwasshakehandsandwishmegoodluck.Allsheeverdoesismakejam.

focusingonthetopic

9.29 Clauseswithwhatastheirsubjectaresometimesusedtofocusonthethingyouaretalkingabout.Theycanbeputaftertheverbbeaswellasinfrontofit.Forexample,youcansayItsoriginalitywaswhatappealedtome,aswellasWhatappealedtomewasitsoriginality.Whatimpressedmemostwastheirsincerity.Thesesixfactorsarewhatconstitutesintelligence.

focusingonwhatsomeonewantsorneeds:WhatIwantisaholiday,AllIneedistowinthisgame

9.30 Ifyouwanttofocusonthethingthatsomeonewants,needs,orlikes,youcanuseasplitsentencebeginningwitha clauseconsistingofwhat followedby the subject and a verb such aswant orneed. After this clause, you use the verb be and a noun phrase referring to the thing wanted,needed,orliked.Forexample,insteadofsayingWeneedabiggergarden,youcansayWhatweneedisabiggergarden.Whatweasanationwantisnotwordsbutdeeds.Whatyouneedisadoctor.Whatheneededwasanexcusetotalk.

Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedwithwhatinthisstructure:

adoredislikeenjoyhatelikeloatheloveneedpreferwant

Youcanuseallinsteadofwhatwiththeverbswantorneedifyouwanttoemphasizethatsomeonewantsorneedsaparticularthingandnothingelse.Alltheywantisaholiday.Allaprisonerneededwasapass.Ifyoudonotwanttomentiontheperformerintheabovestructures,youcanuseapassiveformoftheverb,afterwhatorallthat.Whatwasneededwasarevolution.

Takingthefocusoffthesubject:usingimpersonalit9.31 Youoftenwanttomentiononlyonethingorfactinaclause.Forexample,youoftenwanttofocus

onthetypeofinformationthatisnormallyexpressedbyanadjective.Butanadjectivecannotstandaloneasthesubjectofaclause.Acommonwayofpresentinginformationofthistypeistoputtheadjectiveafterbe,withitasthesubject.Ifyoudonotwanttochooseanyoftheclauseelementsasthethingyouaregoingtotalkabout,youcanuseseveralstructureswithitassubject.Itcanbeused:todescribeaplaceorsituation

It’slovelyhere.totalkabouttheweatherortosaywhatthetimeis.

Ithadbeenrainingallday.Itisseveno’clock.Theseusesareoftencalledtheimpersonalusesofit.

9.32 In these uses, it does not refer back to anything earlier in the speech or writing, and so it isdifferentfromthepersonalpronoun,whichusuallyrefersbacktoaparticularnounphrase:Theending,whenitarrives,iscompletelyunexpected.Parisisspecial,isn’tit?

Formoreinformationaboutpersonalpronouns,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph1.95.Notethatthepronounitisalsousedtorefertoawholesituationorfactthathasbeendescribedorimplied.He’snevercometoseehisson.It’smostpeculiar,isn’tit?Itdoesn’tmatter.It’smyfault.

9.33 It isalsousedtointroduceacommentonanaction,activity,orexperience.Thesubjectit refersforward.Itcostssomuchtogetthere.Itwasamazingthataudiencescametothetheatreatall.Thisstructurewith itallowsyoutoavoidhavinga longsubject,andtoputwhatyouare talkingaboutinamoreprominentpositionattheendofthesentence.

Describingaplaceorsituation9.34 Ifyouwanttodescribetheexperienceofbeinginaparticularplace,youcanuseitfollowedbya

linkingverbsuchasbe,anadjective,andanadverbialofplace.ItwasveryhardinGermanyafterthewar.Itwasterriblycoldinthetrucks.It’snicedownthere.Formoreinformationabouthowtotalkaboutplace,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.53.Similarly, you can indicate your opinion of a situation using it, be, an adjective, and a clausebeginningwithwhenorif.It’ssonicewhenit’shot,isn’tit?Won’titseemoddifIhavenoluggage?

usingitasanobject

9.35 Youcanalsouseitastheobjectofverbssuchaslikeandhatetodescribeyourfeelingsaboutaplaceorsituation.Ilikeithere.Heknewthathewouldhateitiftheysaidno.Hereisalistofcommonverbsthatareusedinthisway:

adoredislikeenjoyhatelikeloatheloveprefer

Talkingabouttheweatherandthetime

describingtheweather:It’sraining,It’ssunny

9.36 Youcandescribetheweatherbyusingitasthesubjectofaverb.It’sstillraining.Itwaspouringwithrain.Itsnowedsteadilythroughoutthenight.Thefollowingverbsareusedafterittotalkabouttheweather:

drizzlehailpourrainsleetsnowthunder

Youcan alsodescribe theweather byusing it followed bybe and an adjective by itself, or anadjectivefollowedbyanounreferringtoaperiodoftime.‘CanIgoswimming?’–‘No,it’stoocold.’Itwasverywindy.Itwasawarm,sunnyevening.It’salovelyday,isn’tit?Hereisalistofcommonadjectivesthatareusedtodescribetheweather:

bitterblowyblusteryboilingbreezychillycloudycoldcooldampdarkdryfinefoggyfreezingfrostyhothumid

icylightlovelymistymuggynastyrainyshowerystormysunnythunderywarmwetwindy

Note that you candescribe a change in theweather or light byusing it followedbyget and anadjective.It’sgettingcold.Shallwegoinside?It’sgettingdark.

givingtimesanddates

9.37 Youcan saywhat the time,day,ordate isbyusing it followedbybe and an adjectiveornounphrasereferringtotime.It’seighto’clock.It’sSaturdayafternoonandallmyfriendsareout.ItwasJuly,butfreezingcold.

emphasizingtime

9.38 Youcan formmanyuseful time expressions using a structurewith It is…or It was… and anadjectiveornounphrasereferringtotime.Theuseofthisstructureputsemphasisonthetimeoftheevent.Youcansaywhensomethinghappenedusingwhen.Itwas11o’clockatnightwhen16armedmencametomyhouse.ItwasnearlymidnightwhenKuntafinallyslept.Youcansayhowlongagosomethinghappenedusingsince.It’stwoweeksnowsinceIwrotetoyou.Itwasfortyyearssincethewar.Youcansayhowlongtheperiodwasbetweenoneeventandanotherusingbefore.Itwasninetydaysbeforethesearchwasover.Itwasfourminutesbeforehalf-time.Youcansayhowsoonsomethingwillhappenusingto.

Itwasonlytwodaystothewedding.

Commentingonanaction,activity,orexperience

usinglinkingverbs

9.39 Acommonwayofcommentingonwhatyouaredoingorexperiencingistouse it followedbyalinking verb and an adjective or noun phrase. This is followed by an -ing participle or a to-infinitive.It’sfunworkingforhim.Itwasdifficulttryingtotalktoher.It’snicetoseeyouwithyourbooksforachange.ItwillbeastimulatingexperiencetoseeMrsOliver.If you want to mention the person who performs the action or has the experience, you use aprepositionalphrasebeginningwithforandato-infinitive.Itbecomeshardforachildtodevelopasenseofidentity.Youcanalsousethestructurewithato-infinitivewhenyouarerecommendingacourseofactionorsayingthatsomethingisnecessary.Itsimportanttoknowyourownlimitations.It’sagoodideatohavealittlenotebookhandy.Itisnecessarytoexaminethisclaimbeforeweproceedanyfurther.

usingotherverbs

9.40 Similarstructurescanbeusedwithverbsotherthanlinkingverbs.Ifyouwanttosaywhateffectanexperiencehasonsomeone,youcanuseitwithaverbsuchasplease,surprise,orshock,followedbyanounphraseandato-infinitive.Foralistoftheseverbs,seeparagraph9.44.Italwayspleasedhimtothinkofhisfather.Itshockedmetoseehowmuchweighthe’dlost.Itinterestshimtohearwhatyou’vebeenbuying.Youcanuseitwithtakeandato-infinitiveclausetoindicatewhatisusedinaparticularactionoractivity,orisneededforit,forexampletheamountoftimeorthetypeofpersonthatisneeded.IttakesanhourtogettoNorthampton.Ittakesanexceptionalparenttocopewithachildlikethat.Ittookalotofworktoputittogether.Ifthereisalsoanindirectobject,thiscanbeplacedimmediatelyaftertheverb.Ittookmeayeartosaveupforanewcamera.Iftheindirectobjectisexpressedbyaprepositionalphrase,usuallybeginningwithfor,itisplacedafterthedirectobject.Ittooksometimeforhimtorealizewhatwasrequired.

Ittakesalotmoretimeforanadulttopickupalanguagethanforachild.Costcanbeusedinsimilarstructureswhentalkingabouttheamountofsomething,usuallymoney,thatisusedinanactivity.Itcostsabout£150aweektokeepsomeoneinprison.With find and think, you can use it as the object, followed by an adjective, and either a to-infinitiveorathat-clause.Hefoundithardtomakefriends.Hethoughtitrighttoresignimmediately.

otherwaysoftalkingaboutactions

9.41 If youwant to focuson a clause that startswith a participle or a to-infinitive, you can use thisclause as the subject of the main clause, instead of it. For example, instead of saying It’s funworkingforhimyoucansayWorkingforhimisfun.Measuringthewatercorrectlyismostimportant.InformalEnglish,to-infinitiveclausesaresometimesused.Tosellyourstorytothepapersisariskystrategy.

Commentingonafactthatyouareabouttomention9.42 Whenyouwanttocommentonafact,event,orsituation,youcanuseitfollowedbyalinkingverb,

anadjectiveoranounphrase,andathat-clausegivingthefact.Itisstrangethatithasn’tbeennoticedbefore.It’sashamehedidn’tcome.Fromthephotographsitseemsclearmymotherwasnobeauty.Hereisalistofadjectivesusedinthisstructure:

amazingapparentappropriateawfulbadcleardoubtfulessentialevidentextraordinaryfairfunnygoodimportantinevitableinterestinglikelylucky

naturalobviousoddplainpossibleprobablequeersadshockingstrangesurprisingtrueunbelievableunlikelywonderful

Hereisalistofnounsusedinthisstructure:

disgracemarvelnuisancepityshamesurprisewonder

USAGENOTE

9.43 After adjectives like funny, odd, and strange, a clause beginning with how is sometimes usedinsteadofathat-clause,withthesamemeaning.It’sfunnyhowtheydon’tgeton.It’sstrangehowlifeturnsout.Itisastonishinghowhehaschanged.What-clausescanbeusedaftersimilaradjectiveswhenyouwanttocommentonsomethingthatistheobjectofanaction.It’ssurprisingwhatyoucandigup.It’samazingwhatsomeofthemwoulddoforalittlepublicity.Why-clausescanbeusedafteradjectivessuchasobviousandclearwhenyouwanttocommentonhowclearthereasonforsomethingis.Lookingbackonthesecases,itisclearwhytheunionsdistrustthelaw.Whether-clausescanbeusedafteradjectivessuchasdoubtfuland irrelevantwhenyouwant tocommentonsomethingthatmayormaynotbetrue.Itisdoubtfulwhethersupplycouldeverhavekeptupwithconsumption.

otherverbs

9.44 Ifyouwant tosaywhat someone thinksabouta fact,youcanuse it followedbyaverbsuchaspleaseorsurprise.Theverbisfollowedbyanounphraseandathat-clause.Itwon’tsurpriseyouthatIstuckitinmypocket.ItbotheredherthatAlicewasn’tinterestedingoingout.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway:

amazeamuseannoyappalastonishastoundbewilderbotherdelightdisgustdistressgrievehorrifyinterestpleaseshocksurpriseupsetworry

passiveofreportingverbs

9.45 Ifyouwanttosaywhatissaid,thought,ordiscoveredbyagroupofpeople,youcanuseitasthesubjectofthepassiveformofareportingverb,followedbyathat-clause.Itwasagreedthattheplanshouldbekeptsecret.Itwasfeltthattherehadbeensomedishonestbehaviour.Itwasfoundthatnocasesofhypothermiahadbeenrecorded.Foralistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway,seeparagraph7.69.

Introducingsomethingnew:thereassubject

sayingthatsomethingexists:Therearefourpeopleinmyfamily

9.46 When you want to say that something exists, or when you want to mention the presence ofsomething,youcanusetherefollowedbybeandanounphrase.

Inthiscontext,theredoesnotrefertoaplace.InspokenEnglish,thedifferenceisoftenclearer,because

this use of there is often pronouncedwithout stress as/ðə/(American Englishðər), whereas theadverbofplaceisalmostalwayspronouncedfullyas/ðeə/(AmericanEnglishðeər).There has very little meaning in the structures that are being explained here. For example, thesentenceThereisagoodreasonforthisjustmeansAgoodreasonforthisexists.

9.47 Thenounphraseisusuallyfollowedbyanadverborprepositionalphrase,awh-clause,oroneoftheadjectivesavailable,present,orfree.Therewerethirtyboysintheclass.Therearethreereasonswhyweshouldsupportthisaction.Therewerenootherjobsavailable.Prepositionalphrasesrelatingtoplacecanbeputeitherinfrontofthereorafterthenounphrase.Onasmalltabletherewasawhitechinamug.Therewasaboxinthemiddleoftheroom.

sayingthatsomethinghappened:Therewasasuddennoise

9.48 Youcanalsousetherefollowedbybeandanounphrasereferringtoaneventtosaythatsomethinghappenedorwillhappen.Therewasaknockathisdoor.Thereweretwogeneralelectionsthatyear.Therewillbetroubletonight.

describingsomethingthatishappening:Therewasamanstandingnexttoher

9.49 Whenyouaredescribingasceneorsituation,youcanuseastructureconsistingoftherefollowedbybe,anounphrase,andan-ingparticiple.For example, instead of sayingFlameswere coming out of it, you can sayTherewere flamescomingoutofit.Therewasastormragingoutside.Thereweremenandwomenworkinginthefieldswithhorses.Therewasarevolverlyingthere.

verbagreement

9.50 Usuallyapluralformofbeisusedifthenounphraseafteritisplural.Thereweretwomenintheroom.Youuseasingularformofbewhenyouaregivingalistofitemsandthefirstnouninthelist issingularoruncountable.Therewasasofaandtwochairs.Notethatyouuseapluralformofbeinfrontofpluralquantityexpressionsbeginningwitha,suchasalotof,andafewof.

Therewerealotofpeoplethere.You also use a plural form of be in front of numbers beginning with a, such as a hundred, athousand,andadozen.Therewereadozenreasonswhyamanmightdisappear.

contractionswiththere

9.51 InspokenandinformalwrittenEnglish,thereisandtherehasareoftencontractedtothere’s;therehadandtherewouldtothere’d;andtherewilltothere’ll.There’snodanger.Ididn’tevenknowthere’dbeenafire.

therewithadjectives

9.52 There is also used with adjectives such as likely, unlikely, sure, and certain to indicate thelikelihoodofsomethingoccurring.Thereareunlikelytobeanyproblemswiththetimetable.

therewithotherverbs

9.53 Afewotherverbscanbeusedafterthereinasimilarwaytobe.Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingseemstobe thecaseor thatsomethingseemstohavehappened,youcanuse therewithseemorappearfollowedbytobeortohavebeen.Thereseemstohavebeensomecarelessnessrecently.Thereappearstobealotofconfusiononthispoint.Tobeissometimesomitted,especiallyinfrontofanuncountablenoun.Thereseemslittledoubtthathewashidingsomething.Thereissometimesusedfollowedbyapassiveformofareportingverbandtheinfinitivetobetoindicatethatpeoplesayorthinkthatsomethingexists.Formoreinformationonreportingverbs,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph7.5.Thereisexpectedtobeanannouncementabouttheproposedbuilding.Behindthescenes,thereissaidtobeintenseconflict.Happenisusedinthesametypeofstructuretoindicatethatasituationexistsbychance.Therehappenedtobearollofstickytapelyingonthedesk.Youcanalsousetendinthiskindofstructuretosaythatsomethinggenerallyhappensorexists.Theretendtobealotofpartiesatthistimeofyear.

formalandliteraryuses

9.54 Exist,remain,arise,follow,andcomearesometimesusedaftertheretosaythatsomethingexists

orhappens.ThesestructuresoccuronlyinformalEnglishorliterarywriting.

Thereremainedariskofwar.Therefollowedafewseconds’silence.Therecomesatimewhenyouhavetomakeachoice.

9.55 Anotherconstructioncommonlyusedinliterarywritingistobeginasentencewithaprepositionalphraserelatingtoplacefollowedbythereandaverbofpositionormotion.Forexample,insteadofsayingTheoldchurchstandsatthetopofthehill,awritermightsayAtthetopofthehilltherestandstheoldchurch.Fromthehooktherehungalongblackcoat.Besidethemthererisesatwistofbluesmoke.

Focusingusingadverbials

Commentingonyourstatement:sentenceadverbials9.56 Therearemanyadverbialsthatareusedtoshowyourattitudetowhatyouaresayingortomake

yourhearerhaveaparticularattitudetowhatyouaresaying.Thesearedealtwithinparagraphs9.57to9.63.Therearealsosomethatareusedtomakeastatementnarrowerortofocusattentiononaparticularthingthatitappliesto.Thesearedealtwithinparagraphs9.64to9.68.Alltheseadverbialsarecalledsentenceadverbialsbecausetheyapplytothewholesentencetheyarein.Theyaresometimescalleddisjunctsinothergrammars.Sentenceadverbialsareoftenplacedat thebeginningofasentence.Somearealsousedinotherpositions,asshownin theexamplesgivenbelow,but theyareusuallyseparatedfromthewordsaroundthembyintonationorbycommas,toshowthattheyapplytothewholesentence.Formoregeneralinformationaboutadverbials,seeChapter6.

Statingwhatareayouarereferringto

beingspecific:financially,…,politicallyspeaking,…

9.57 Whenyou aremaking it clearwhat aspect of somethingyou are talking about, youuse sentenceadverbialsformedfromclassifyingadjectives.Forexample,ifyouwanttosay thatsomething isimportantinthefieldofpoliticsorfromapoliticalpointofview,youcansaythatitispoliticallyimportant.Theseadverbialsoftencome in frontofanadjective,orat thebeginningorendofaclause.Itwouldhavebeenpoliticallydamagingforhimtoretreat.Biologicallywearenotdesignedforeighthours’sleepinoneblock.We’vehadaverybadyearfinancially.Thefollowingisalistofadverbialsthatcanrefertoaparticularaspectofsomething:

academicallyaestheticallybiologicallychemicallycommerciallyconstitutionallyculturallyecologicallyeconomicallyemotionallyenvironmentallyethicallyfinanciallygeographicallyideologicallyintellectuallylegallylogicallymechanicallymentallymorallynumericallyoutwardlyphysicallypoliticallypsychologicallyraciallyscientificallysexuallysociallyspirituallystatisticallysuperficiallytechnicallytechnologicallyvisually

BECREATIVE

9.58 Speakingissometimesaddedtotheseadverbials.Forexample,technicallyspeakingcanbeusedtomeanfromatechnicalpointofview.He’snotadoctor,technicallyspeaking.HeandMalcolmdecidedthat,politicallyspeaking,theywereincompleteagreement.

generalizing:basically,onthewhole,etc.

9.59 Youoftenwanttoavoidmakingafirm,forcefulstatement,becauseyouareawareoffactsthatdonotquitefitinwithwhatyouaresaying.Onewayof doing this is to use a sentence adverbial that shows that you aremaking a general,

basic,orapproximatestatement.

Basically,theolderyouget,theharderitbecomes.Byandlargewewereallowedtodoaswewished.Ithinkonthewholewedon’tdotoobadly.Thefollowingadverbialsareusedlikethis:

allinallallthingsconsideredaltogetherasaruleataroughestimatebasicallybroadlybyandlargeessentiallyforthemostpartfundamentallygenerallyinessenceingeneralonaverageonbalanceonthewholeoverallultimately

Note that you can also use the expressionsbroadly speaking, generally speaking, and roughlyspeaking.Weareall,broadlyspeaking,middleclass.Roughlyspeaking,theproblemappearstobeconfinedtothetropics.

BECREATIVE

9.60 Youcan alsouseprepositional phrases formedwith classifying adjectives, such as in financialterms or froma political point of view. Similar prepositional phrases can be formedusing thenounsrelatedtotheseadjectives,forexampleusingmoneyinsteadoffinancial:inmoneyterms,intermsofmoney,withregardtomoney,orfromthemoneypointofview.Lifeisgoingtobealittleeasierineconomicterms.Thatisthebeginningofaverybigstepforwardineducationalterms.Thisstatewasalatedeveloperintermsofcommerce.

BECREATIVE

9.61 Anotherwayofsayingsomethinglikewithregardtomoneyismoney-wise.Youaddthesuffix-wisetoanounreferringtotheaspectyoumean.Thisisgenerallyusedtoavoidthecreationoflongphrases.

Whatdoyouwanttodojob-wisewhenthetimecomes?WearemostlySocialistsvote-wise.

Emphasizing9.62 Youmaywanttoemphasizethetruthofyourstatementortostresstheseriousnessofthesituation

youaredescribing.Youcandothisusingthefollowingsentenceadverbials:

aboveallactuallyatallbelievemebyallmeansevenforheaven’ssakeindeedpositivelyreallysimplysosurelytoputitmildlytosaytheleasttrulywithoutexception

Sometimesweactuallydaredtopenetratetheirterritory.Aboveall,donotbetooproudtoaskforadvice.Eightyearswasindeedashortspanoftime.Ireallyamsorry.Believeme,ifyougetrobbed,thebestthingtodoisforgetaboutit.Notethatindeedisoftenusedafteradjectiveswithvery.Ithinksheisaverystupidpersonindeed.Atallisusedforemphasisinnegativeclauses,usuallyattheend.Ididn’tlikeitatall.Iwouldnotbeatallsurprisediftheyturnedouttobethesameperson.Surelyisusedwhenyouareappealingforagreement.Surelyitisbettertoknowthetruth.Here,surely,isacasefortreatingpeopleasindividuals.Evenisplacedinfrontofawordorgrouptodrawattentiontoasurprisingpartofwhatyouaresaying.Evenatmiddaytheairwaschilly.Somemenwereevensinging.Therewasnooneinthecafe,notevenawaiter.

Soisusedasanemphaticintroductionwhenagreeingorcommenting.‘Derek!It’sraining!’–‘Soitis.’‘He’sverygrateful!’–‘Soheshouldbe.’Byallmeansisusedforemphasiswhengivingpermission.Ifyourbabylikeswater,byallmeansgiveittohim.Forheaven’ssakeisusedwhenmakingarequestoraskingaquestion.Forheaven’ssake,stopdoingthat,Chris.Whatareyoustaringat,forheaven’ssake?

emphasizingthatsomethingisexact:exactly,just,precisely,etc.

9.63 Youmaywanttoemphasizethatyourstatementisnotonlygenerallytrue,butthatitistrueinallitsdetails.Theadverbsexactly,just,andpreciselyareusedforthis.They’dalwaystreatedherexactlyasifsheweretheirowndaughter.Theirdecorwasexactlyright.Iknowjusthowyoufeel.Thepeasantsareweakpreciselybecausetheyarepoor.

Focusingonthemostimportantthing9.64 Therearecertainadverbialsyoucanuseifyouwanttofocusonthemostimportantthinginwhat

youaresaying,forexamplethemainreasonforsomethingorthemainqualityofsomething.I’mparticularlyinterestedinclassicalmusic.Theyhavebeenusedincertaincountries,notablyinSouthAmerica.Wewantespeciallytothankallourfriendsfortheirsupport.Thefollowingadverbialscanbeusedlikethis:

chieflyespeciallymainlymostlynotablyparticularlypredominantlyprimarilyprincipallyspeciallyspecifically

restricting:only,just,etc.

9.65 Someof theseadverbialscanbeused toemphasize thatonlyoneparticular thing is involved in

whatyouaresaying.

Thedrugisgivenonlytoseriouslyillpatients.Thisissolelyamatterofmoney.It’salargecanvascoveredwithjustonecolour.Thefollowingadverbialscanbeusedlikethis:

aloneexclusivelyjustonlypurelysimplysolely

selecting:especially,notably,etc.

9.66 Adverbialsforfocusingcanbeusedtoaddafurtherpieceofinformationthatselectsaparticulargroup of people or things from a larger set. They can be used in this way with noun phrases,prepositionalphrases,adjectives,andsubordinateclauses.Ienjoythecompanyofyoungpeople,especiallymygrandchildren.Insomecommunities,notablytheinnercities,thetreatmenthasbackfired.Theyweremostlyprofessionalpeople.You’llenjoyitdowninLA,especiallyifyougetajob.

positionoffocusingadverbials

9.67 Incarefulwriting,adverbialsthatareusedforfocusingareusuallyputimmediatelyinfrontofthewordorclauseelement theyapply to, inorder toavoidambiguity. In speech, it isusuallyclearfromtheintonationofthespeakerwhattheyapplyto.However,inmanycasesthefocusingadverbialdoesnotnecessarilyfocusonthewordorelementimmediately after it. For example, in the sentenceHemainly reads articles about mechanicalthingsthewordmainlyalmostcertainlyappliestoaboutmechanicalthings,nottoreads.Focusingadverbialsarenotnormallyusedat thebeginningofasentence.However,youcanuseonlytobeginasentencewhenitfocusesonthethingthatfollowsit.Onlythirty-fivepercentoffour-year-oldsgetnurseryeducation.Onlyinsciencefictionisthetopictouchedon.Youcanusejustandsimplyatthebeginningofsentencesgivinginstructions.Justaddboilingwater.Simplyremovethepackaging,andplugthemachinein.Aloneisalwaysusedaftertheelementthatitfocuseson.Onlyissometimesusedinthisposition.Peopledon’tworkformoneyalone.

Theywereidentifiedbytheirfirstnamesonly.Ininformalspeechandwriting,otherfocusingadverbialsaresometimesusedaftertheelementtheyfocuson.Forexample,youcansayWetalkedaboutmemostlyinsteadofWetalkedmostlyaboutme.WehavetalkedaboutFrancemainly.Chocolate,particularly,issuspectedofcausingdecayoftheteeth.Intheearlyyears,especially,achildmaybeafraidofmanythings.Thispositioncanalsobeusedwhenaddingapieceofinformation.HelikedAmerica,NewYorkparticularly.Shewasbusywriting,poetrymostly.

USAGENOTE

9.68 Some other adverbials can be used to focus on additional information. The adverbs of degreelargely,partly,andentirely,andadverbsoffrequencysuchasusuallyandoftencanbeused.Thesituationhadbeencreatedlargelybythepress.The house was cheap partly because it was falling down and partly because it was in adangerousarea.Thefemalescarefortheiryoungentirelybythemselves.Theyoftenfoughteachother,usuallyasaresultofargumentsovermoney.Somepeoplerefusetogiveevidence,oftenbecausetheyfeelintimidated.Thephraseinparticular,whichhasasimilarmeaningtoparticularly,canbeusedinthepositionsshownintheexamplesbelow.Wednesdayinparticularisverybusy.Nextweekweshallbetakingalookateducationandinparticularprimaryschools.HeshoutedatthechildrenandatOttoinparticular.Inparticular,I’mgoingtoconcentrateonhydro-electricity.

Otherinformationstructures

Puttingsomethingfirst:Inhispocketwasapen,Whyshe’shereIdon’tknow9.69 InEnglish,thefirstelementinadeclarativeclauseisusuallythesubjectoftheverb.However,if

youwanttoemphasizeanotherelement,youcanputthatfirstinstead.Sometimeswhenthistakesplacethenormalorderofsubjectandverbischanged.

adverbialsfirst

9.70 Adverbsandprepositionalphrasescanoftenbeputfirst.Thisisthenormalpositionforsentenceadverbials (see paragraph 9.56), so they are not particularly emphatic in this position. Otherphrasesaresometimesplacedfirst,usuallytomakedescriptionsmoredramaticorvividinstories

andaccounts.

Ateighto’clockIwentdownformybreakfast.ForyearsI’dhadtohidewhatIwasthinking.The subject and verb often change place after prepositional phrases relating to place, and afternegativeadverbials.Inhispocketwasabagofmoney.Onnoaccountmusttheybeletin.For general information on adverbials, see Chapter 6.Negative adverbials are dealt with inChapter5.

reportedquestionfirst

9.71 Whenyouaresayingthatyoudonotknowsomething,youcanputthereportedquestionfirst.WhatI’mgoingtodonextIdon’tquiteknow.HowheescapedseriousinjuryIcan’timagine.Formoreinformationonreportedquestions,seeparagraphs7.32to7.38.

otherpartsoftheclause

9.72 Anadjectiveornounphrasecanoccasionallybeputbeforealinkingverb,butthisisnotcommon.Noreen,shewascalled.Shecamefromthevillage.Rareistheindividualwhodoesnotbelongtooneofthesegroups.Theobjectofaverbissometimesputfirst,usuallyinformalorliteraryuses.Notethatthesubjectstillhastobementioned.ThemoneyIgavetotheagent.Iftheysensedmyfear,theywouldattack.ThisIknew.

Introducingyourstatement:Theproblemis…,Thethingis…9.73 Peopleoftenusestructuresthatpointforwardtowhattheyaregoingtosayandclassifyorlabelit

insomeway.Thesearesometimescalledprefacingstructuresorprefaces.Aprefaceusuallyintroducesthesecondpartofthesamesentence,usuallyathat-clauseorawh-clause. However, you can also use a whole sentence as the preface to another sentence (seeparagraph9.78).

pointingforwardtothesecondpartofsentence

9.74 Acommonprefacingstructureistheandanoun,followedbyis;e.g.Theansweris….Thenounissometimes modified by an adjective, or there is sometimes extra information in the form of aphraseoraclauseafterit.Thenounsmostcommonlyusedinthisstructureare:

answerconclusion

factpointproblemquestionrulesolutionthingtragedytroubletruthwonder

The fact is, the point is, and the thing is are used to show that what you are about to say isimportant.Thesimplefactisthatifyougetill,youmaybeunabletotaketheexamination.Thepointistofindoutwhowasresponsible.Thethingis,howarewetogetherout?

classifying

9.75 Someofthesenounsareusedintoindicatewhatsortofthingyouareabouttosay.Theruleis:ifindoubt,dryclean.Isphotographyanartorascience?Theansweristhatitisboth.Theobviousconclusionisthatmanisnotresponsibleforwhathedoes.

labelling

9.76 Someofthesenounsareusedtolabelwhatyouaregoingtotalkabout.Theproblemisthatthedemandforhealthcareisunlimited.Theonlysolutionistoapproacheachculturewithanopenmind.Theanswerisplanning,timing,and,aboveall,practicalexperience.

otherwaysoflabelling

9.77 Splitsentences(seeparagraphs9.25to9.30)canbeusedinlabelling.Whatweneedislawandorder.Impersonal it structures with adjectives followed by a that-clause are a less emphatic way ofprefacing(seeparagraph9.42).Itisinterestingthatthenewproductssellbetteronthewebthaninshops.Youcanuse thesentenceadverbialsatany rate,at least,andrather asprefaceswhenyouareslightlycorrectingapreviousstatement,oftenafteror.Thishadsavedherlife;oratanyratehersanity.Anywaycanalsobeused,usuallyafterthecorrection.

Itis,formostofitslengthanyway,aromanticcomedy.

usingwholesentencestopointforward

9.78 Awhole sentence can be used to point forward to the sentence or sentences that follow it. Forexample,a sentencecontaininganadjective like interesting,remarkable,or funny, or ageneralabstractwordsuchasreasonorfactor(seeparagraphs10.19to10.23),isoftenusedasapreface.Itwasabitstrange.Nobodywastalkingtoeachother.Thishashadveryinterestingeffectsondifferentpeople.Therewereotherfactors,ofcourse:ItoowastiredofMiami.Buttherewereproblems.HowcouldwegettoEdinburghwithoutacar?

Focusingonthespeaker’sattitude9.79 Thereareseveralwaysthatspeakerscanfocusontheirattitudetowardswhattheyaresaying,and

whotheyaretalkingto.Certainadverbialsindicateyourattitudetowhatyouaresaying.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs9.80to9.90.Other structures can be used to show strong reactions, or exclamations. These are explained inparagraph9.91to9.94.Finally,youcanshowthewayyoufeeltowardspeople,andindicateyourrelationshiptothembythewayyouaddressthem.Differentwaysofaddressingpeopleareexplainedinparagraphs9.95to9.99.

Indicatingyourattitudetowhatyouaresaying

indicatingyouropinion

9.80 Onewayofshowingyourreactionto,oryouropinionof,thefactoreventyouaretalkingaboutisbyusingcommentingadverbials,whichcommentonthewholemessagegiveninasentence.Surprisingly,Ifoundmyselfenjoyingtheplay.Luckily,IhadseentheplaybeforesoIknewwhatitwasabout.Itwas,fortunately,notabadaccident,andHenryisonlyslightlyhurt.Interestingly,thesolutionadoptedinthesetwocountrieswasthesame.Thefollowingadverbialsarecommonlyusedinthisway:

absurdlyadmittedlyalasanywayastonishinglyatleastcharacteristically

coincidentallyconvenientlycuriouslyfortunatelyhappilyincrediblyinterestinglyironicallyluckilymercifullymiraculouslymysteriouslynaturallyoddlyofcourseparadoxicallypleasepredictablyremarkablysadlysignificantlystrangelysurprisinglytruetypicallyunbelievablyunderstandablyunexpectedlyunfortunatelyunhappilyunnecessarily

Oneof theusesofat leastandanyway is to show that you are pleased about a particular fact,althoughtheremaybeotherlessdesirablefacts.Atleastwe’reagreedonsomething.Ilikeachallengeanyway,sothat’snotaproblem.

USAGENOTE

9.81 Thereareafewcommentingadverbialsthatareoftenfollowedbyenoughwhenusedtoshowyouropinionofwhatyouaretalkingabout:

curiouslyfunnilyinterestinglyoddlystrangely

Oddlyenough,she’dneverbeenabroad.

Funnilyenough,Iwastherelastweek.

distancingandbeingmorespecific

9.82 There are several commenting adverbials that have the effect of showing that you are notcompletelycommittedtothetruthofyourstatement.Ratseatpracticallyanything.Itwasalmostareliefwhentheracewasover.Theyare,ineffect,prisonersintheirownhomes.InawayIlikedherbetterthanMark.Thefollowingadverbialsareusedinthisway:

almostinamannerofspeakinginawayineffectmoreorlesspracticallysotospeaktoallintentsandpurposestosomeextentuptoapointvirtually

Notethatalmost,practically,andvirtuallyarenotusedatthebeginningofaclause.Expressions such as I think, I believe, and I suppose are also used to show your lack ofcommitmenttothetruthofwhatyouaresaying.

indicatingyourpointofview

9.83 Withadverbssuchasluckily,fortunately,happily,andunfortunately,youcanshowwhosepointofviewyouaregivingbyaddingforandanounphrasereferringtotheperson.‘Doeshedohisfairshareofthehouseholdchores?’–‘Ohyes,fortunatelyforme.’Luckilyformeandthem,lovedideventuallygrowandflourish.

indicatingaqualityshownbytheperformerofanaction

9.84 Anothergroupofcommentingadverbialsisusedtoshowaqualityyouthinksomeoneshowedbydoinganaction.Theyareformedfromadjectivesthatcanbeusedtodescribepeople,andareoftenplacedafterthesubjectofthesentenceandinfrontoftheverb.TheLeagueofFriendsgenerouslyprovidedaboutfivethousandpounds.Thedoctorhadwiselysentherstraighttohospital.Sheverykindlyarrangedadeliciouslunch.

Foolishly,wehadsaidwewoulddothedecorating.Thefollowingadverbialsareusedinthisway:

bravelycarelesslycleverlycorrectlyfoolishlygenerouslyhelpfullykindlyrightlywiselywrongly

mentioningyourjustificationforastatement

9.85 Ifyouarebasingyour statementon something thatyouhave seen,heard,or read,youcanuseacommentingadverbialtoshowthis.Forexample,ifyoucanseethatanobjecthasbeenmadebyhand,youmightsayItisobviouslymadebyhand.Hisfriendwasobviouslyimpressed.Higginsevidentlyknewnothingabouttheirefforts.Apparentlytheyhadarow.Thesearesomecommonadverbialsusedinthisway:

apparentlyclearlyevidentlymanifestlyobviouslyplainlyunmistakablyvisibly

showingthatyouassumeyourheareragrees

9.86 Peopleoftenusecommentingadverbialstopersuadesomeonetoagreewiththem.Inthisway,theyshowthattheyareassumingthatwhattheyaresayingisobvious.ObviouslyIcan’tdothewholelotmyself.Price,ofcourse,isanimportantfactor.Thefollowingadverbialsareoftenusedinthisway:

clearly

naturallyobviouslyofcourseplainly

indicatingrealityorpossibility

9.87 Someadverbialsareusedtoshowwhetherasituationactuallyexistsorwhetheritseemstoexist,ormightexist.Sheseemsconfidentbutactuallyshe’squiteshy.Theycould,conceivably,beright.Extracashisprobablythebestpresent.Thefollowingadverbialsareusedlikethis:

actuallycertainlyconceivablydefinitelydoubtlesshopefullyinfactinpracticeinrealityintheorymaybenodoubtofficiallyperhapspossiblypresumablyprobablyreallyunofficially~allegedlyapparentlynominallyostensiblypotentiallyseeminglysupposedlytheoreticallyundoubtedly

Theadverbialsinthesecondgroupareoftenusedinfrontofadjectives.Wedrovealongapparentlyemptystreets.ItwouldbetheoreticallypossibletolayacablefromasatellitetoEarth.

indicatingyourattitude

9.88 Ifyouwanttomakeitclearwhatyourattitudeistowhatyouaresaying,youcanuseacommentingadverbial.Frankly,themoreIhearabouthim,thelessIlikehim.Inmyopinionitwasprobablyamistake.Infairness,sheisnotabadmother.Hereisalistofsomeofthecommonadverbialsusedinthisway:

asfarasI’mconcernedfranklyhonestlyinallhonestyinfairnessinmyopinioninmyviewinretrospectonreflectionpersonallyseriouslytomymind

usinginfinitiveclauses

9.89 Another way of showing the sort of statement you are making is to use to be followed by anadjective,ortoputitfollowedbyanadverb.Idon’treallyknow,tobehonest.Toputitbluntly,someoneislying.

politeness

9.90 Whensomeonewhoismakingarequestwantstobepolite,theyusetheadverbplease.MayIhaveawordwithyou,please?Wouldyoupleaseremoveyourglasses?Pleasebecareful.

Exclamations9.91 Exclamationsarewordsandstructuresthatexpressyourreactionsemphatically.Youusuallyshow

thisinspeechbyyourintonationandinwritingbytheuseofanexclamationmark(usuallycalledanexclamationpointinAmericanEnglish)attheendofthesentence,althoughfullstopsareoftenused instead. If theexclamation is only a part of a sentence, it is separated from the rest of thesentencebyacomma.

showingyourreactions

9.92 Therearevariouswaysofshowingyourreactiontosomethingthatyouareexperiencingorlookingat,orthatyouhavejustbeentold.Onewayistouseanexclamationsuchasbother,goodheavens,ohdear,orouch.Ow!Thathurt.‘Margaret Ravenscroft may have been responsible for the fire.’ – ‘Good heavens!’ said DrWilloughby.‘Shediedlastautumn.’–‘Ohdear,I’msosorry.’Someexclamationsareusedonlytoshowreactions.Hereisalistofsomecommonones:

ahablastblimeybotherbravocrikeydamneekgoodgraciousgoodgriefgoodheavensgoodlordgoodnessmegollygoshhallelujahhonestlyhurrayohohdearoohoopsouchowreallysheeshughwellIneverwhatwhoopswowyippeeyou’rejokingyuk

otherclauseelements

9.93 Otherclauseelementsorclausescanbeusedinexclamations.Nounphrasesaresometimesused toshowyour reaction tosomething.Somenouns, forexamplerubbishandnonsense,canbeusedontheirowntoexpressstrongdisagreement.‘No-onewouldwanttogooutwithme.’–‘Nonsense.You’reaveryattractiveman.’Predeterminers,especiallywhat,areoftenusedbeforethenoun.Whatapleasantsurprise!Suchanintelligentfamily!Quiteashow!Qualitativeadjectivesaresometimesusedontheirown,orwithhow infrontof them,usually toshowapositivereactiontoastatement.‘I’vearrangedasurprisepartyforhim.’–‘Lovely.’Oh!Look!Howsweet!Aprepositionalphrasewithofcanbeusedtospecifyaperson,andato-infinitiveclausetorefertotheaction.Howniceofyoutocome!Hownicetoseeyou.Sentenceswithhowandanadjectiveoradverb,orwhatandanounphrase,canalsobeusedasexclamations.Theadjective,adverb,ornounphrasecomesbeforethesubject.Howniceyoulook!Howcleverlyyouhidyourfeelings!WhatanidiotIam.Whatnegativethoughtswe’rehaving.Howcanbeplacedat thebeginningofanordinarysentencetoshowtheintensityofafeelingoraction.HowIhateposters.Howhetalked!

questionsthatdonotexpectananswer

9.94 Peopleoftenusequestionsasawayofmakingacommentorexclamation.Theydonotexpectananswer.Questionslikethisarecalledrhetoricalquestions.Youcanuseanegativeyes/no-question,ifyouwanttoencourageotherpeopletoagreewithyou.OhAndy,isn’tshelovely?Wouldn’titbeawfulwithnoChristmas!IninformalEnglish,youcanuseapositivequestion.‘Howmuch?’–‘Ahundredmillion.’–‘Areyoucrazy?’Haveyounoshame!Wh-questions,especiallyonescontainingmodals,arealsoused.HowonearthshouldIknow?

Whymustshebesonastytome?Whybother?SeeChapter5formoreinformationaboutquestions.

Addressingpeople9.95 Whenyouaretalkingtopeople,youcanaddressthemusingtheirfirstnameor,moreformally,by

usingatitlefollowedbytheirsurnamelikeMrJonesorMrsMatthews.Sometimes,thewayyouaddresspeopleshowsyourfeelingstowardsthemoryourrelationshiptothem.Forexample,youmightaddressthemusingawordlikedarlingoridiot.Wordsusedlikethisarecalledvocatives.

position

9.96 Thenamesyouuseforaddressingpeopleareoftenplacedat theendofasentenceorclause. Inwriting,theyareusuallyprecededbyacomma.Whereareyoustaying,MrSwallow?That’slovely,darling.You can put them at the beginning of a sentence in order to attract someone’s attention beforespeakingtothem.John,howlonghaveyoubeenattheuniversity?Dad,whyhaveyougotthatsuiton?

titles

9.97 Whenyouaddress someone in a fairly formalway,youuse their title and surname. Informationabouttitlesisgivenin1.55to1.57.Goodbye,DrKirk.Thankyou,MrJones.Howoldareyou,MissFlewin?Titlesindicatingaspecialqualification,rank,orjobcanbeusedontheirown.What’swrong,Doctor?Well,professor?

BECAREFUL

9.98 The titlesMr,Mrs,Miss, andMs are generally used only with a surname. To address peopleformallywithouttheirsurname,sirandmadam(usuallycontractedtoma’aminAmericanEnglish)areused,especiallybyemployeestocustomersorclients,and,inAmericanEnglish,toaddressapersonwhosenameyoudonotknowandwhoappearstobeolderthanyou.

Goodafternoon,sir.HowcanIhelpyou?Wouldyouliketoseethedessertmenu,madam?CanIhelpyouwithsomething,ma’am?(American)

otherwaysofaddressingpeople

9.99 Youcanusenounphrasestoshowyouropinionofsomeone.Thosethatshowdislikeorcontemptareoftenusedwithyouinfrontofthem.No,youfool,theotherway.Shutyourbigmouth,youstupididiot.Ways of addressing people that show affection are usually used by themselves, but my issometimesusedinmoreold-fashionedorhumorouscontexts.Goodbye,darling.We’vegottogo,mydear.Nounsthatrefertofamilyorsocialrelationshipscanbeusedforaddressingpeople.Someone’sgottodoit,mum.Sorry,Grandma.She’llbeallright,mate.Trustme,kid.Formsofaddressareoccasionallyusedintheplural.Sitdown,children.Stopher,youfools!Notethatladies,gentlemen,andchildrenareonlyusedintheplural.Ladiesandgentlemen,thankyouforcoming.

Chapter10Makingatextholdtogether

10.2–39 Referringback

10.7–17 Referringbackinaspecificway10.18–23 Referringbackinageneralway10.24–27 Substitutingforsomethingalreadymentioned:usingsoandnot10.28–39 Comparingwithsomethingalreadymentioned

10.40–47 Referringforward

10.48–59 Showingconnectionsbetweensentences

10.57–59 Linkingpartsofaconversationtogether

10.60–81 Leavingwordsout

10.74–81 Inconversation

10 Makingatextholdtogether

10.1 Whenyouspeakorwrite,youveryoftenwanttomakesomeconnectionwithotherthingsthatyouare saying or writing. There are several ways of using language to hold your whole messagetogetherandtogiveitmeaning.The most common way of doing this is by referring back to something that has already beenmentioned.Thedifferentwaysofreferringbackareexplainedinparagraphs10.2to10.39.Therearealsoafewwaysofreferringforwardtowhatyouareabouttosay.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs10.40to10.47.Anotherwayofmakingconnectionsbetweenwhatyouhavejustsaidandwhatyouaregoingtosayisbyusingsentenceconnectors.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs10.48to10.59.Peopleoftenavoidrepeatingwordswhentheyarereferringback.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs10.60to10.81.

Referringback10.2 Whenyouspeakorwrite,youveryoftenreferbacktosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned

ormakeaconnectionwithit.

pronouns

10.3 Onecommonwayofreferringbacktosomethingistouseapersonalpronounsuchasshe,it,orthem,orapossessivepronounsuchasmineorhers.Andrew found an old camera in a rubbish bin. He cleaned it up and used it to win severalphotographyawards.TomandJoarebackfromAustralia.InfactIsawthemintowntheotherday.Theywerebuyingclothes.Iheldherveryclose.Mycheekwasagainsthers.Personalpronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.95to1.106.Possessivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.107to1.110.There are also other pronouns that can be used to refer back. These include pronouns such asanother andmanywhich have the same form as indefinite determiners. These are explained inparagraph1.154.…programsthattellthecomputertodoonethingratherthananother.Youcanalsouseaquantityexpressionoracardinalnumber.

Thewomenwereaskedtoleave.Someofthemrefused.Thesesoldierswerereadyforanything.Manyofthemhadalreadybeeninvolvedinfighting.…theGuatemalanearthquakewhichkilled24,000peopleandinjured77,000.Quantity expressions are explained in paragraphs 2.175 to 2.207.Numbers are explained inparagraphs2.208to2.231.

determiners

10.4 Anothercommonwayofreferringbacktosomethingistouseadefinitedeterminersuchastheoritsinfrontofanoun.Amanandawomanwerewalkingupthehill.Themanworeshorts,at-shirt,andsandals.Thewomanworeabluedress.Thanks,saidBrody.Hehungup,turnedoutthelightinhisoffice,andwalkedouttohiscar.Definitedeterminersareexplainedinparagraphs1.162to1.212.Someindefinitedeterminerscanalsobeusedtoreferbacktosomething.Adogwasrunningaroundintheyard.Soonanotherdogappeared.Hereisalistofindefinitedeterminersthatareusedtoreferbacktosomething:

anotherbotheacheithereveryneitherother

Theseareexplainedfullyinparagraphs1.223to1.250.10.5 As indicated above, pronouns and determiners used to refer back are explained in Chapter 1,

whereotherpronounsanddeterminersareexplained.Thedemonstrativesthisandthatareoftenusedtoreferbacktowholesentencesandsectionsoftext.Theseusesaresetoutinthefollowingsection(paragraphs10.7to10.17).Thesamesectionalsoexplainsotherwordsthatareusedtoreferbackinaspecificway.

otherwaysofreferringback

10.6 Therearealsoseveralotherwaysofreferringbacktosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Theseinvolvetheuseofvariousnounstoreferbacktosectionsoftext

Theseareexplainedinparagraphs10.18to10.23.theuseofsoandnotassubstitutesforseveraltypesofwordorstructurethatyouwanttoavoid

repeating

Thisuseofsoandnotisexplainedinparagraphs10.24to10.27.theuseofsuch,adjectives,andadverbstomakecomparisonswiththingsthathavealreadybeen

mentioned.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs10.28to10.39.

Referringbackinaspecificway

demonstrativesreferringtothings

10.7 Thisandthat,andthepluralformstheseandthose,areusedtoreferbackclearlytoathingorfactthathasjustbeenmentioned.Theycanbeusedbothaspronounsandasdeterminers.Moreandmoremoney isbeingpumped into the educational system,andweassume thiswillcontinue.I did a parachute jump a fewmonths ago. This eventwas a lotmore frightening than I hadanticipated.Notethatthisandthatarenotveryoftenusedaspronounstorefertopeople.Whentheyareusedlikethis,theyareonlyusedinfrontoftheverbbe.‘Akindyoungmanhelpedmetomyseat.’–‘ThatwasJohn.’

10.8 Whenyouusethisorthese,youarelinkingyourselfwiththethingyouarereferringto.Afteryou’vedecidedonyourgoals,makealist.Anythingthatisworthdoingshouldgoonthislist.Onlysmalltreesareleft.Manyofthesearetwistedandstunted.Over2millionanimalsweredestroyed.Thevastmajorityoftheseanimalsdidnotneedtodie.Incontrast,whenyouusethatorthose,youaredistancingyourselfslightlyfromthethingyouarereferringto.There’salotofmaterialthere.Youcanusesomeofthat.There’sonebossandthatbossisinFrance.Therewereonlystrangersaroundtoobservehim,andnotmanyofthose.

10.9 Althoughthisandthataresingularpronouns,youcanusethemtoreferbacktoanumberofthingsorfactsthathavejustbeenmentioned,insteadofusingapluralpronoun.He’sgotaterribletemper,butdespiteallthishe’sverypopular.Hehadplayedrugbyatschool,andhadbrieflybeenaprofessionalfootballer.Thatwastohisfavourwhenthejobcameuplater.

demonstrativesreferringtosentences

10.10 Demonstratives can also be pronouns or determiners that refer back to a whole sentence or anumberofsentences.‘You’rethenewdoctor,aren’tyou?’–‘That’sright.’

‘I’llthinkaboutit,’saidMum.Thatstatementwastheendofmostoftheirdiscussions.Iacceptneitherofthesearguments.Notethatwhentheseandthosearepronounsreferringbacktoawholestatementtheyareonlyusedinfrontoftheverbbe.Itwashardformetobelievethesewerehisrealreasonsforwantingtogetridofme.Sheputherarmsaroundhim.Thanks,Ollie.Thosewereherlastwords.

previous

10.11 Youcanalsousetheadjectivepreviousbeforeanountoreferbacktoasectionoftext.Asexplainedinthepreviousparagraph,thebottleneedsonlytobewashedincoldwater.Ithinkwecannowanswerthequestionposedattheendofthepreviouschapter.

above

10.12 InwrittenEnglishyoucanalsorefertowhatyouhavejustmentionedbyusingabove.Youcanputabovebeforeorafterthenoun.Ihavenotbeenabletovalidatetheabovestatement.…thefiguresdiscussedintheparagraphabove.Youcanalsousetheabovewithoutanounphraseafterit.Keepsuppliesof riceandspaghetti.Also, togowith theabove,Parmesancheeseand tinsoftomatoes.

formerandlatter

10.13 Whenyouhavejustreferredseparatelytotwothingsorgroupsofthings,youcanrefertothefirstoneastheformerandthesecondoneasthelatter.TheseexpressionsareusedmainlyinformalwrittenEnglish.Itusedtobesaidthattheoilexportingcountriesdependedontheoilimportingcountriesjustasmuchasthelatterdependedontheformer.Icoulddooneoftwothings–obeyhim,orgetmyownprotection.Ichosethelatter.Formerandlattercanalsobeadjectives.Theyalwaysgobeforeanoun.You have the option of one or two bedrooms. The former choice allows room for a smallbathroom.GuyhadstudiedGreekandphilosophyatOxfordandhadcontinuedtohaveaninterestinthelattersubject.

USAGENOTE

10.14 Whenyouwanttorefergenerallytoawholeclassofthingsliketheonethathasbeenmentioned,youcansaythingsofthiskindorthingsofthatkind.Alternativelyyoucansaythiskindofthingorthatkindofthing.

We’llneedaspecialnewapplicationtodealwithpayments,invoices,andthingsofthatkind.Mostofuswouldattachagreatdealofimportancetoconsiderationsofthiskind.Idon’tseemanyadvantagesinthatkindofeducation.Allartstheatreshavethattypeofproblem.Ifyouarereferringtothingsoftwoormorekinds,youusetheseandthoseinfrontofkinds,sorts,ortypes,followedbyofandanoun.Boththesecountrieswanttoreducetheproductionofthesekindsofweapons.Therearespecificregulationsgoverningthesetypesofmachines.Outsidersaren’tsupposedtomakethosekindsofjokes.Youcanalsousesuchtoreferbacktothingsofatypethathasjustbeenmentioned.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs10.28to10.32.

time

10.15 Theadverbthenisusedtoreferbacktothetimethathasjustbeenmentionedordiscussed.Inancienttimespoetrywasarealforceintheworld.Ofcoursetheworldwasdifferentthen.

place

10.16 Theadverbthereisusedtoreferbacktotheplacethathasjustbeenmentioned.IdecidedtotryNewmarket.Isoonfoundajobthere.Ihurriedbackintothekitchen.Therewasnothingthere.

manner

10.17 Afterdescribingawayofdoingsomethingoraway inwhichsomethinghappens,youcan referbacktoitusingtheadverbthus.Thusisaformalword.Joannawaspouringthedrinks.Whileshewasthusengaged,Charlestooktheguests’coats.Itnotonlypleasedhimtoworkwiththem,butthemoneythusearnedgavehimanenormoussenseofimportance.Notethatinthiswayorinthatwayarecommonlyusedinstead.LastweekIreceivedtheEntrepreneuroftheYearaward.It’saprivilegetobehonouredin thisway.

Referringbackinageneralway10.18 Therearevariousgroupsofnounsthatareusedtoreferbackinageneralwaytowhathasalready

beensaid.Theyrefertowholesectionsofspokenorwrittentext.

referringtospokenorwrittentexts

10.19 Youcanoftenreferbacktowhathasalreadybeensaidinatextbyusinganounthatclassesitasatypeofverbalaction,forexampleanadmission,suggestion,orquestion.

‘Martin,whatareyougoingtodo?’–‘That’sagoodquestion,Larry.’‘Youclaimtoknowthisman’sidentity?’–‘Ido.’–‘Canyouprovethisclaim?’Thenounthatyouusetoreferbacklikethisnotonlyreferstothetextbutalsoshowsyourfeelingsaboutit.Forexample,ifyoureferbacktosomeone’sreplytosomethingusingthenounresponse,this shows that your feelings about it are quite neutral,whereas if you use the noun retort, thisshowsthatyourfeelingsaboutthereplyaremuchstronger.Hereisalistofnounsthatreferbacktotexts,classingthemastypesofverbalaction:

accountaccusationacknowledgementadmissionadviceallegationannouncementanswerapologyappealargumentassertionassuranceboastchargeclaimcommentcomplaintcomplimentconcessioncondemnationconfessioncontentioncorrectioncriticismdeclarationdefencedefinitiondemanddenialdenunciationdescriptiondigressiondisclosurediscussionendorsementexcuseexplanationexpositiongossipinformationjudgementlie

messagenarrativeobjectionobservationpleapointpredictionpromisepronouncementprophecyproposalpropositionprotestquestionreferencerefusalremarkreminderreplyreportrequestresponseretortrevelationrumourstatementstipulationstorysuggestionsummarytalethreatverdictwarning

Note thatmanyof thesenounsare related to reportingverbs.Reportingverbs are explained inChapter7.People will feel the need to be informed and they will go wherever they can to get thisinformation.’Idon’tknowwhatweshoulddoaboutthat.’Thisremarkwastotallyunexpected.Sheremarkedthatshepreferredfuneralstoweddings.

referringtoideas

10.20 Inthesameway,youcanalsoreferbacktoideasthatyouknoworthinksomeonehasbyusinganounthatalsoindicatesyourfeelingsabouttheideas.Forexample,ifyourefertosomeone’sideausingthenounview,thisshowsthatyourfeelingsaboutitarequiteneutral,whereasifyouusethenoundelusion,thisshowsthatyourfeelingsarestronger.Hisopinionofmarriageisthatitcandestroyarelationship.Evenpreviouslyunmarriedpeople

canholdthisviewiftheyexperiencedthebreak-upoftheirparents’marriage.Thereisnothingtocryfor.Theycannotkeepmethereagainstmywill.Secureinthisbelief,hehuggedherreassuringlyandwentout.Hereisalistofnounsthatrefertoideasandshowyourfeelingsabouttheideas:

analysisassessmentassumptionattitudebeliefconclusionconjectureconceptdeductiondelusiondiagnosisdoctrinedoubtestimateevaluationfearfindingguesshopeideaillusioninferenceinsightinterpretationmisinterpretationnotionopinionpictureplanpositionreasoningschemesuppositiontheorythinkingviewviewpointvisionwish

referringtowhatismentioned

10.21 Youcanalsoreferbacktoactionsandeventsusingnounsthatshowyourfeelingsabouttheactionor event. For example, if you use the noun incident to refer to an accident at a nuclear power

station, this simply describes the event, whereas if you use the noun disaster, this shows yourreactiontotheevent.Gwenwasnotthekindtomakeafuss.Inanyevent,shecouldhandlethesituation.Ibelievedthepresswouldcooperateonthisissue.Parents may complain that their child does not eat a variety of healthy food. This problemdoesn’tarisebecausetheparentshavebeenlenientaboutfoodinthepast.Hereisalistofnounsthatrefertoeventsandareusuallyneutral:

actactionaffairaspectcasecircumstancescontextdevelopmenteffectepisodeeventexperiencefactfactorfeatureincidentissuemattermethodmovephenomenonpositionpossibilitypracticeprocessreasonrespectresultsituationstatestateofaffairssubjectsystemthingtopicway

Hereisalistofnounsthatrefertoeventsandshowyourfeelingsaboutthem:

achievement

advantageanswercatastrophecrisisdebacledifficultydisadvantagedisasterexploitfeatfiascogaffenightmareplightpredicamentproblemsolutiontragedy

BECREATIVE

10.22 Whenyouarereferringbacktosomethingthathasbeensaidormentioned,youcanusealmostanynounthatreferstotexts,ideas,events,andsometimeseventopeople.Thenounyouuseallowsyoutoexpressyourexactreactiontothethingthatisbeingreferredto.Forexample,youcanrefertoafootballdefeatusingnounssuchastragedyorfarce,andyoucanrefertoanargumentusingnounssuchasrowandbattle.

referringtopiecesofwriting

10.23 Youcanreferinaneutralwaytoapreviouspieceofwriting.Asexplainedinthepreviousparagraph,thebottleneedsonlytobewashedclean.We have seen in this chapter how the tax burden has increased fastest for households withchildren.Hereisalistofnounsusedtorefertoapieceofwriting:

chapterexampleexcerptextractparagraphpassagephrasequotationsectionsentencestatementsummarytable

textwords

Substitutingforsomethingalreadymentioned:usingsoandnot

soasasubstituteforanadjective

10.24 So is sometimes used in formal English as a substitute for an adjective that has already beenmentioned.Theyarewildlyinefficientandwillremainsoforsometimetocome.Theyarejustasisolated,ifnotmoreso,thanbefore.

soandnotafterif

10.25 Soisusedtosubstituteforaclauseafterif,whentheactionorsituationyouaretalkingabouthasalreadybeenmentioned.Willthatbeenough?Ifso,donotaskformore.Notisusedtosubstituteforanegativeclause,tosuggesttheoppositesituationtotheonealreadymentioned.Youwillprobablyhaveoneofthetwodocumentsmentionedbelow.Ifnot,youwillhavetobuyone.

soandnotwithreportingverbs

10.26 Soandnot arealsoused to substitute for clausesafter somecommon reportingverbs.TheyarealsousedaftertheexpressionI’mafraid,whichisusedtoreportanunwelcomefact.‘Areyouallright?’–‘Ithinkso.’You’reasensiblewoman–I’vealwayssaidso.‘Youthinkhe’sfailed,don’tyou?’–‘I’mafraidso.’‘Itdoesn’toftenhappen.’–‘No,Isupposenot.’‘Youhaven’tlosttheticket,haveyou?’–‘Ihopenot’Hereisalistofreportingverbsthatcanbefollowedbysoandnot:

believeexpecthopeimaginesaysupposetellthink

Notethattheuseofnotasasubstitutewiththink,expect,andbelieveisrareorformal.Whennotisoccasionallyusedwithsay,thereisamodalinfrontofsay.‘Isthisacoincidence?’–‘Iwouldsaynot.’Occasionallysoisputatthebeginningoftheclause.Thisoftenhastheeffectofcastingdoubtonthetruthofthefactinvolved.Everybodyintheworld,sotheysay,hasadouble.Socanalsobeusedatthebeginningofaclauseforemphasis.Thisisexplainedinparagraph9.62.

doso

10.27 Dosoisusedtomeanperformtheactionjustmentioned.Thevariousformsoftheverbdocanbeused.Thisstructureisratherformal.Asignalwhichshouldhaveturnedtoredfailedtodoso.Mostofthosewhosignedtheletterdidsounderpressurefromtheirbosses.Sheaskedhimtowaitwhilesheconsidered.Hedidso.Individualsarefreetochooseprivateinsurance,and10%ofthepopulationhavedoneso.

Comparingwithsomethingalreadymentioned10.28 Thewordsuchcanbeusedinseveralwaystoholdatexttogether.Youuseitwhenyouwantto

indicate that something is of the same sort as something that has already been mentioned. Thegrammaticalpatternsofsuchareunique.Itcanbehaveasadeterminer,apredeterminer,andanadjective.

suchasadeterminer

10.29 Suchcanbeadeterminerreferringbacktosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Mostofthestate’selectricitycomesfromburningimportedoil,thehighestuseofsuchfuel inthecountry.Newbusinessprovidesthemajorityofnewjobs.Bytheirnature,suchbusinessestakerisks.

suchasapredeterminer

10.30 Suchcanbeapredeterminer(seeparagraph1.251)referringbacktosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Itcomesinfrontofthedetermineraoran.Theylastedforhundredsofyears.Onahumantimescale,suchaperiodseemsaneternity.Ononeoccasiontheschoolparliamentdiscussedthedismissalofa teacher.Butsuchanevent israre.

suchasanadjective

10.31 Suchcanbeanadjectivereferringbacktosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.

Hecanbeverycruel.Thiswasonesuchoccasion.‘Didyoucallmealiar?’–‘Ineversaidanysuchthing!’MrBell’sclubswereprivatelyowned.Likemostsuchclubseverywhere,theywereorganizationsofpeoplewhosharedacertaininterest.IhatedthebigformaldancesandfeltveryoutofplaceattheoneortwosucheventsIattended.

adjectives

10.32 Someadjectivesareusedtoindicateacomparison,contrast,orconnectionwithsomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.

same

10.33 Theadjectivesameisusedattributivelytoemphasizethatyouarereferringbacktosomethingthathasjustbeenmentioned.AmanopenedthedoorandsaidNextplease.Abouttenminuteslater,thesamemanreturned.Hewatchedherclimbintoacompartmentofthetrain,andhechosethesameonesohecouldwatchhermoreclosely.Note thatwhen same is usedbefore anounorpronoun, it nearly always follows the, but it canoccasionallyfollowotherdefinitedeterminers.Thesesamesmellsmayproducedepressioninothers.

10.34 Samecanalsocomeafteralinkingverbwhenyouwanttoshowthatsomethingissimilarineverywaytosomethingthathasjustbeenmentioned.Whensame isusedafteralinkingverbitalwaysfollowsthe.TheQueentreatedusverywell.ThePrincessRoyalwasjustthesame.Mybrothersandmyselfwereverypoor,buthappy.Ithinkotherfamilieswerethesame.

10.35 Youcanalsousethesamewithoutafollowingnounasthesubjectorobjectofaclause,toreferbacktosomethingthathasjustbeenmentioned.Theconversionprocessisveryinefficient.Thesameistrueofnuclearpowerstations.‘I’veneverheardofhim.’–‘IwishIcouldsaythesame.’Thesamethingcanbeusedexactlylikethesame,asasubjectorobject.Hewasstoppedandsentbacktogetaticket.Onthereturnjourneythesamethinghappened.Ilearnthowtocheatandwineverytime.AndI’mnotproudofthefactthatItaughtanumberofotherpeopletodothesamething.

oppositeandreverse

10.36 Theadjectivesoppositeandreverseareusedtosaythatsomethingisasdifferentaspossiblefromthethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Theyusuallyfollowthe.Itwasdesignedtoimpress,butitprobablyhadtheoppositeeffect.InthepasttenyearsIthinkwe’veseenthereverseprocess.

Whenoppositeisusedbeforeanoun,itoccasionallyfollowsan.Otherstudiesdrawanoppositeconclusion.Youcan sometimesuse theopposite and thereversewithout a following noun to refer back tosomething.Thepoliceofficersaid thatwewouldhave to learn to livewithcrime. I think theopposite istrue;wehavetolearnnottolivewithcrime.Heiswellknownforsayingonethinganddoingtheopposite.Oldermalesareoftendesirabletowomenbutthereverseisnotusuallytrue.Ithasn’thappened.Thereversehashappened.

otheradjectives

10.37 Youcanalsouseavarietyofotheradjectivestosaythatsomethingissimilarto,differentfrom,orconnectedwithsomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Someoftheseadjectivesareonlyusedbeforeanounandotherscanalsocomeafteralinkingverb.Sheworeareddresswitharedmatchinghat.West Germany, Denmark and Italy face declines in young people. We are confronted with acontrastingproblem.That’swhatIwouldsay.Buthisattitudewasdifferentaltogether.Hereisalistofadjectivesthatcanonlybeusedinfrontofanountoreferback:

adjacentconflictingcontradictorycontrarycontrastingcorrespondingequalequivalentmatchingopposingparallel

Hereisalistofadjectivesthatcanbeusedbothinfrontofanounandafteralinkingverbtoreferback:

analogouscomparablecompatibledifferentidenticalrelatedseparatesimilar

unrelated

adverbials

10.38 Tosaythatanactionorawayofdoingsomethingissimilartotheonejustmentioned,youcanuseinthesameway,inasimilarway,similarly,orlikewise.ShespokeofJimwithpride.Andpresumablyshespoketohimofmeinthesameway.Samwasengagedinconversation;RichardandPatrickweresimilarlyoccupied.

10.39 Toshowthatanactionorawayofdoingsomethingisdifferentfromtheonejustdescribed,youcanusetheadverbsotherwiseanddifferently.Ithoughtlifewassimplysplendid.Ihadnoreasontothinkotherwise.Shewasashamedofheractions,butshehadbeentotallyincapableofdoingotherwise.Myparentswereverystrict,butI’mgoingtodothingsdifferentlywithmykids.

Referringforward10.40 Therearevariouswaysofreferringforwardtothingsthatareabouttobementioned.Theseways

ofteninvolvethenounslistedinparagraphs10.18to10.23,whicharemorecommonlyusedwhenyouarereferringbacktosomething.

thisandthese

10.41 Theuseofthistoreferbacktosomethingwasexplainedinparagraphs10.7to10.10.Youcanalsouse thisor these to refer forward towhatyouareabout to say.Theycanbebothpronounsanddeterminers.Notethatthesecanonlybeapronounwhenitisthesubject.Well,youmightnotbelievethisbutIdon’tdrinkverymuch.PerhapsIshouldn’tsaythis,butIdidononeoccasionbreakthelaw.Thischapterwillfollowthesamepatternasthepreviousone.Thesewerethefacts:onawarmFebruaryafternoon,GregoryClarkandafriendwerecruisingdownWashingtonBoulevardinaMustang.Ontheblackboardthesewordswerewritten:Reading.Writing.Arithmetic.

10.42 When this and these are used as determiners to refer forward to something, they are mostcommonlyusedwithnounsthatrefertoapieceofwriting(seeparagraph10.23).Sometimestheyareusedwithnounsthatrefertowhatissaid(seeparagraph10.19)andwithnounsthatrefer toideas (seeparagraph10.20).Theyoccasionallyoccurwithnouns that refer to actionsor events(seeparagraph10.21).

following

10.43 Youcanalsorefertowhatyouareabouttomentionusingtheadjectivefollowingbeforeanoun.When following is used like this, it is usedwith nouns that refer to texts, ideas, and pieces ofwriting (seeparagraphs10.19,10.20, and10.23.).Very occasionally, it is usedwith nouns thatrefertoactionsandevents(seeparagraph10.21.).

Afterawhilehereceivedthefollowingletter:DearSir,TheSecretaryofStateregretsthatheisunabletoreconsideryourcase.Thefollowingaccountisbasedonnotesfromthatperiod.They arrived at the following conclusion: children with disabilities are better off in normalclasses.Youcanalsousedthefollowingwithoutanounphraseafterit.…aboxcontainingthefollowing:apacketoftissues,twohandkerchiefs,andaclothesbrush.

next

10.44 Theadjectivenextisoftenusedtoreferforwardwithnounsthatrefertopiecesofwriting.Inthenextchapter,wewillexaminethistheoryindetail.

below

10.45 Youcanalsousebelowtoreferforwardtosomethingyouareabouttomention.Youusebelowlikethisafternounsthatrefertotextsandpiecesofwriting(seeparagraphs10.19and10.23).Forfulldetails,seethereportbelow.Thefigurescanbeseeninthetablebelow.Belowcanoccasionallybeusedtoreferforwardwithnounsthatrefertoactionsandthings.Whenitisusedwiththem,itcomesafterawordlikegiven,shown,orsetout.ThereportgivenbelowappearedintheDailyMailon8August1985.

such

10.46 Suchissometimesusedasapredeterminertorefertoakindofthingthatisspecifiedimmediatelyafterwardsinaphraseorclausebeginningwithas.Youmightthinkthatinsuchabookasthis,thereisnoneedtodealwiththesematters.Suchisalsosometimesusedtoqualifyanoun,followedbyaspecifyingphraseorclausebeginningwithas.…ageneralriseinpricessuchasoccurredinthelate1960s.TryputtingtheitemsunderheadingssuchasI’vesuggested.

otherways

10.47 There are alsootherwaysof referring forward to things that also involve focusingon the thingreferred to.These involvesplitsentences,which are explained in paragraphs9.25 to 9.30 andsentencesbeginningwiththere,whichareexplainedinparagraphs9.46to9.55.

Showingconnectionsbetweensentences

10.48 The following section explains the functions of different groups of linking expressions, orsentence connectors. Sentence connectors are used to show what sort of connection there isbetweenonesentenceandanother.

indicatinganaddition

10.49 Inthecourseofspeakingorwriting,youcanintroducearelatedcommentoranextrareinforcingpieceofinformationusingoneofthefollowingadverbials:

alsoaswellatthesametimebesidesfurthermoremoreoverontopofthattoo

Icannotapologizeforhiscomments.Besides,Iagreewiththem.Moreover,newreservescontinuetobediscovered.Hisfirstbookwaspublishedin1932,anditwasfollowedbyaseriesofnovels.HealsowroteabookonBritishpubs.Thedemandsofworkcancausegapsinregularattendance.Ontopofthat,manystudentsareofferednoextralessonsduringthevacations.Notethattooisnotusuallyplacedatthebeginningofasentence.Hewashard-working,andhonest,too.

indicatingasimilarpoint

10.50 Youcan show thatyouare addinga fact that illustrates the samepoint as theoneyouhave justmade,orasuggestionthathasthesamebasis,byusingoneofthefollowingadverbials:

againbythesametokenequallyinthesamewaylikewisesimilarly

Every baby’s face is different from every other’s. In the same way, every baby’s pattern ofdevelopmentisdifferent.Being a good player doesn’t guarantee youwill be a goodmanager, but, by the same token,neitherdoeshavingallthecoachingbadges.

Never feed your rabbit raw potatoes that have gone green–they contain a poison. Similarly,neverfeeditrhubarbleaves.

contrastsandalternatives

10.51 Whenyouwant to adda sentence that contrastswith thepreviousoneorgives anotherpointofview,youcanuseoneofthefollowingadverbials:

allthesamealternativelybycontrastconverselyevensohoweverinsteadneverthelessnonethelessonthecontraryontheotherhandratherstillthenagainthoughyet

Hehad forgotten that therewasarainyseason in thewintermonths. Itwas,however,a fine,softrainandtheairwaswarm.Her aim is to punish the criminal. Nevertheless, she is not convinced that imprisonment isalwaystheanswer.Herchildrenarehardwork.Sheneverloseshertemperwiththemthough.Ifyouarementioninganalternative,youcanuseinstead,alternatively,orconversely.Peoplewhonormallyconsultedherbegantoaskotherpeople’sadviceinstead.Thecompanyisnowconsideringanappeal.Alternatively,theymaysubmitanewapplication.

causes

10.52 Whenyouwanttosaythatthefactyouarementioningexistsbecauseofthefactorfactspreviouslygiven,youlinkyourstatementsusingoneofthefollowingadverbs:

accordinglyasaresultconsequentlyhencesotherebytherefore

thus

Oxford andCambridge have a large income of their own. So they are not in quite the samepositionasotheruniversities.Itisn’tgivinganydetailedinformation.Thereforeitisn’tnecessary.Wewantadiversepressandwehaven’tgotit.Ithinkasaresultalotofoptionsareclosedtous.

showingsequenceintime

10.53 Sometimeadverbialsareusedtoindicatethatsomethingtakesplaceafterorbeforeaneventthatyouhavealreadymentionedoratthesametimeasthatevent:

afterwardsatthesametimebeforehandearliereversincefinallyfirstinthemeantimelastlatermeanwhilenextpresentlypreviouslysimultaneouslysincesoonsoonaftersubsequentlysuddenlythenthroughout

GoandseeTerryBrownaboutit.Comebacktomeafterwards.Publishedin1983,thebookhassincegonethroughsixreprints.Neversetoutonajourneywithouttellingsomeonebeforehand.WelookforwardtotheCommissionstudyingthisagreement.In themeantimewearepressingaheadwithourplans.

puttingpointsinorder

10.54 Informalwritingandspeech,peopleoftenwanttosaywhatstagetheyhavereachedinwritingorspeaking.Theydothisusingthefollowingsentenceconnectors:

firstfirstlysecondsecondlythirdthirdlyfinallyinconclusionlastlythentosumup

What are the advantages of geothermal energy? Firstly, there’s no fuel required, the energyalreadyexists.Secondly,there’splentyofit.Finally,Iwanttosaysomethingabouttheheatpump.

conjunctions

10.55 Whenpeoplearespeakingorwritinginformally,theyoftenaddanextrapieceofinformationusingoneoftheconjunctionsand,but,yet,or,andnortobeginanewsentence.He’saverygoodteacher.Andhe’sgood-looking.Ithinkit’smotorcycling.ButI’mnotsure.It’snotimprovingtheircharacter.Northeirhomelife.

sentenceconnectorsafterandorbut

10.56 Sentenceconnectorsareoftenputaftertheconjunctionsandorbutatthebeginningofaclauseorsentence.Thatwilltakealongtimeandbesidesyou’dgetitwrong.Theywerefamiliarandthereforeallright.Heraccentisnotperfect.Butstill,it’samarvellousperformance.Ifyouare linking twonegativesentencesorclauses,youcanputeitherat theendof thesecondone.Ican’tuseit,butIcan’tbearnottouseiteither.

Linkingpartsofaconversationtogether10.57 Sometimespeoplewant to avoid abruptnesswhen changing the topic of conversation, orwhen

startingtotalkaboutadifferentaspectofit.Theydothisbyusingaparticulargroupofsentenceconnectors.

Thefollowingadverbialsarecommonlyusedinthisway:

actually

anyhowanywaybythewayincidentallylooknownowthenokayrightsothenwellwellnowwellthenyouknow

They usually occur at the beginning of a clause.However, a few of them can be used in otherplaces in the clause,whenyouwant to pause orwant to draw attention to the fact that you areintroducinganewtopic.Actually,anyhow,anyway,by theway, incidentally, andyouknow can be used at the end of aclause.Bytheway,incidentally,andyouknowcanbeusedafterthesubjectorafterthefirstwordinaverbphrase.Here are some examples showing sentence connectors being used to change the topic of aconversation:Actually,Dan,beforeIforget,sheaskedmetotellyouaboutmynewjob.Wellnow,we’vegotaverybigtaskaheadofus.Herearesomeexamplesshowingsentenceconnectorsbeingusedtostarttalkingaboutadifferentaspectofthesametopic:Whatdoyousellthereanyway?Thisapproach,incidentally,alsohastheadvantageofbeingcheap.Thenbyitselfisnotusedatthebeginningofaclause,onlyattheend.That’sallrightthen.Areyoufondofher,then?

10.58 Somesentenceconnectorsareusedatthebeginningofaclausetointroduceafact,oftenonethatcorrectsthestatementjustmade.Theycanalsobeusedattheendofaclause,andelsewhere,toemphasizethefact.

actuallyasamatteroffactasithappensImeanindeedinfact

Note thatactually is used here to add information on the same topic, whereas in the previousparagraphitindicatedachangeoftopic.Actually,Idoknowwhyhewrotethatletter.Heratherenviesyouactually.I’msureyou’reright.Infact,Iknowyou’reright.There’snoreasontobedisappointed.Asamatteroffact,thiscouldberatheramusing.Theycannothoporjump.Indeed,theycanbarelymanageeventorun.Youseeisusedtointroduceorpointtoanexplanation.‘Areyousurprised?’–‘No.Yousee,I’veknownaboutitforalongtime.’Hedidn’thaveanyonetotalkto,yousee.Afterallisusedtointroduceorpointtoareasonorjustificationofwhatyouhavejustsaid.Shedidnotregretacceptinghisoffer.Hewas,afterall,abouttherightage.

USAGENOTE

10.59 Prepositional phrases are sometimes used to introduce a new topic or a different aspect of thesame topic.As to or as for can be used at the beginning of a sentence to introduce a slightlydifferenttopic.Astowhatactuallytranspiredattheheadquarters,therearemanydifferingaccounts.Wewillcontinuetoexpandourbusiness.Asforourcompetitors,theymaywellstruggle.Withandinthecaseofaresometimesusedtomentionanotherthingthatisinvolvedinatypeofsituationthatwaspreviouslymentioned.Withchildren,youhavetoplanabitmorecarefully.When the death was expected, the period of grief is usually shorter than in the case of anunexpecteddeath.

Leavingwordsout10.60 InEnglish,peopleoftenleavewordsoutratherthanrepeatingthem.Leavingwordsoutiscalled

ellipsis. This sometimes occurs in clauses that are linked by words like and, but or or, andcoordinatedgroupsofwords.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs8.152to8.176.Thissectiondealswithhowwordscanbeleftoutinsubordinateclausesandseparatesentencesaswellasincoordinateclauses.Thesecondclauseorsentencecouldbesaidorwrittenbythesameperson,oritcouldbepartofareplyorcommentbysomeoneelse.Omissionofcertainwordsinconversationisexplainedinparagraphs10.74to10.81.

contrastingsubjects

10.61 Ifyouhavejustdescribedanactionorstateandyouwanttointroduceanewsubjectonly,youdonotneedtorepeattherestofthesentence.Instead,youcanjustuseanauxiliary.Therewere19-and20-year-oldswhowereearningmorethanIwas.Theycanhearhighersoundsthanwecan.

contrastingtheverbformorthemodalverb

10.62 If youwant to changeonly theverb formor themodal, youuse anewauxiliary,with a subjectreferringtothesamepersonorthing.Theywouldstopitiftheycould.Veryfewofushavethatsortofenthusiasm,althoughweknowweoughtto.IneverwenttoStratford,althoughIprobablyshouldhave.Thistopicshouldhaveattractedfarmoreattentionfromthepressthanithas.

do

10.63 Ifyouchoosenootherauxiliaryverb,youusuallyusedo,does,ordid.Youlookjustasbadashedoes.Ithinkwewantitmorethantheydo.

beasamainverb

10.64 However,thelinkingverbbeisrepeated,inanappropriateform.Forexample,Iwasscaredandthechildrenweretoo.‘Ithinkyou’reright.’–‘I’msureIam.’Ifthesecondverbphrasecontainsamodal,youusuallyputbeafterthemodal.‘I’mfromGlasgow.’–‘Ithoughtyoumightbe.’‘Hethoughtthatitwashereditaryinhiscase.’–‘Well,itmightbe.’However,thisisnotnecessaryifthefirstverbphrasealsocontainsamodal.I’llbebackassoonasIcan.Beissometimesusedafteramodalinthesecondclausetocontrastwithanotherlinkingverbsuchasseem,look,orsound.‘Itlooksliketeatome.’–‘Yes,itcouldbe.’

haveasamainverb

10.65 Ifthefirstverbisthemainverbhave,aformofhaveissometimesusedinsteadofaformofdo.Sheprobablyhasatemperature–shecertainlylooksasifshehas.

leavingwordsoutwithnot

10.66 Youcanmakethesecondverbphrasenegativebyaddingnottotheauxiliary.Thesecombinationsare contracted in informal speech and writing to don’t, hasn’t, isn’t, mustn’t, and so on (seeparagraph5.61foralistofthesecontractions).Youusethesameformsforanegativeresponsetoaquestion.Somemanagedtovotebutmostofthemdidn’t.

‘You’restayinghere!’–‘ButGertrude,Ican’t,Imustn’t!’‘Anddiditwork?’–‘No,I’mafraiditdidn’t.’Widowsreceivestatebenefit;widowersdonot.Hecouldhavelistenedtotheradio.Hedidnot.

USAGENOTE

10.67 Withpassives,beisoften,butnotalways,keptafteramodal.Hearguedthatiftissuescouldbemarketed,thenanythingcouldbe.However,withperfectpassives,youcanjustusetheauxiliaryhaveorhas.Forexample,youcouldsay,Haveyoubeeninterviewedyet?Ihave.Notethatwhenamodalwithhaveisusedforapassiveorprogressiveverbphrase,beencannotbeomitted.I’msureitwasrepeatedinthemedia.Itmusthavebeen.Shewasnotdoingherhomeworkassheshouldhavebeen.

10.68 If the second verb phrase contains the auxiliary have in any form, speakers of British Englishsometimesadddonetothegroup.Forexample,insteadofsayingHesayshedidn’tseeitbuthemusthave,theysometimessayHesayshedidn’tseeitbuthemusthavedone.Hehadn’tkeptabackup,butheshouldhavedone.

Americanspeakersrepeatonlytheauxiliaryverbhave.Hehadn’tkeptabackup,butheshouldhave.Itwouldhavebeennicetohavewon,andImighthavedoneifIhadtriedharder.Similarly,Britishspeakerssometimesusedoaftermodals.Herespondedalmostasastudentmightdo.

Americanspeakersdonotusedoaftermodals.Notethatwhentheverbusedinthefirstmentionofanactionorstateisthemainverbhave,insteadofusingdoafteramodalinthesecondmention,youoftenusehaveinstead.‘Doyouthinkthatacademicshaveanunderstandingoftherealworld?’–‘No,andIdon’tthinktheyshouldhave.’

10.69 Usually,theclausewithwordsomittedcomesafteraclauseinwhichtheactionorstatehasbeenmentionedinfullwithamainverb.Occasionally,however,foradeliberateeffect,itcomesbeforetheclausethatmentionstheactionorstateinfull.Theproblemsintheeconomyarenowbeingreflected,astheyshouldbe,inthehousingmarket

repeatingthemainverb

10.70 Ifyouwanttobeemphatic,yourepeatthemainverb,insteadofleavingitout.Itwasthelargestswarmofwaspsthathadeverbeenseenorthateverwouldbeseen.

contrastingobjectsandadverbials

10.71 Notethatifyouwanttocontrasttwodifferentthingsaffectedbyanaction,ortwodifferentfactorsorcircumstances,youcanputanewobjectoradverbialinthesecondclause,withanauxiliaryorformofbe.Cooknettlesexactlyasyouwouldspinach.Youdon’tgetasmuchbickeringonafarmasyoudoinmostjobs.SurvivalratesforcanceraretwiceashighinAmericaastheyareinBritain.Noonelikedbeingyoungthenastheydonow.However,themainverbissometimesrepeated.Can’tyouatleasttreatmethewayyoutreatregularclients?

USAGENOTE

10.72 You can omit a verb after the semi-modals dare andneed, but only when they are used in thenegative.‘Idon’tmindtellingyouwhatIknow.’–‘Youneedn’t.I’mnotaskingyouforit.’‘Youmusttellherthetruth.’–‘But,Neill,Idaren’t.’Similarly,theverbisonlyomittedafterthemodalexpressionshadratherandwouldratherwhentheyareusedinthenegative.However,theverbissometimesomittedafterhadbetterevenwhenitisusedaffirmatively.‘Willshebehappythere?’–‘She’dbetter.’It’sjustthatI’drathernot.

10.73 Youcanalso leavewordsoutof to-infinitiveclauses. Insteadofusinga full to-infinitive clauseafteraverb,youcanjustuseto,iftheactionorstatehasalreadybeenmentioned.Don’ttellmeifyoudon’twantto.AtlastheagreedtodowhatIaskedhimto.Youcanalsodothisinconversation.‘Doyouevervisitadoctor?’Iaskedher.–‘No.Wecan’taffordto.’Notethattherearesomeverbs,suchastryandask,thatarealsooftenusedontheirown,withoutto.Theycouldn’thelpeachother,anditwasridiculoustotry.I’msureshe’llhelpyou,ifyouask.

Inconversation10.74 Peopleoftenleavewordsoutinconversationinrepliesandquestions.Whenthishappens,it

caninvolveleavingoutthemainverbinthewaysthathavebeenexplainedabove(seeparagraphs10.60 to10.73).This is commonwithquestions that show that you findwhat someonehas saidinteresting or surprising, or that you do not agree with them. These questions always have apronounastheirsubject.‘Hegetsfreemeals.’–‘Doeshe?’‘They’restartingupanewartscentrethere.’–‘Arethey?’

‘I’vecheckedeveryone.’–‘Haveyounow?’

leavingwordsoutinquestions

10.75 Youcanoften leavewordsout inquestionswhen thecontextmakes it clearwhat ismeant.Thequestioncanconsistofjustawh-word.‘Someone’sinthehouse.’–‘Who?’–‘IthinkitmightbeGary.’‘ButI’mafraidthere’smore.’–‘What?’‘CanIspeaktoyou?’Iasked,undaunted.–‘Why?’–‘It’simportant.’‘We’regoingonholidaytomorrow.’–‘Where?’–‘ToMajorca.’Notethatyoucanalsousewhynot.‘Maria!Wewon’tdiscussthathere.’–‘Whynot?’Notealsothatyoucanuseawh-wordafterareportingverb,especiallywhy.Iaskedwhy.Theyenquiredhow.

10.76 Otherquestionscanalsoconsistofonlyaveryfewwordswhenthecontextmakesitclearwhatismeant. Short questions of this kind are often used to express surprise or to offer something tosomeone.‘CouldyoupleasecometoIra’srightawayandhelpmeout?’–‘Now?’‘Tonight?’–‘It’sincrediblyimportant.’‘He’sgoingtodie,yousee.’–‘Die?’‘Cupofcoffee?’Lionelasked,kindly.Hedrankthewaterandhandedmetheglass.‘More?’‘No,that’sjustfine,thankyou.’

leavingwordsoutinreplies

10.77 Whenyoureplytowh-questions,youcanoftenuseonewordoragroupofwordsratherthanafullsentence.Youdothistoavoidrepeatingwordsusedinthequestion.Forexample,ifsomeoneasksWhatisyourfavouritecolour?,thenormalreplyisasingleword,forexampleBlue,ratherthanasentencesuchasMyfavouritecolourisblue.‘What’syourname?’–‘Pete.’‘Howdoyoufeel?’–‘Strange.’‘Wheredoyoucomefrom?’–‘Cardiff.’‘Wherearewegoing?–‘Upthecoast.’‘Howlonghaveyoubeenoutofthiscountry?’–‘Aboutthreemonths.’‘Howmuchmoneyisthereinthatcase?’–‘Sixhundredpounds.’‘Whyshouldtheywantmetoknow?’–‘Toscareyou,perhaps.Whocantell?’Wh-questionsareexplainedinparagraphs5.23to5.36.

10.78 Youcanoftenuseasentenceadverbialoranadverbofdegreeratherthanasentenceinanswertoayes/no-question.‘DoyouthinkyoucouldkeepyourmouthshutifIwastotellyousomething?’–‘Definitely.’

‘Doyouthinkthey’reveryimportant?’–‘Maybe.’‘Doyouenjoylifeattheuniversity?’–‘Ohyes,verymuch.’‘Areyouinterested?’–‘Very.’‘Areyouready,Matthew?’–‘Notquite.’‘Isshesick?’–‘Notexactly.’

10.79 Youcanalsoanswerayes/no-questionwithapronounandaverbphrasethatreflectstheoriginalquestion.Theabsenceofnotinyourreplyindicatesyes.Thepresenceofnotindicatesno.‘DoesLydiaWalkerlivehere?’–‘Shedoes.’‘Haveyoutakenadvantageofanyofouroffersinthepast?’–‘Ihaven’t.’Yes/no-questions are explained in paragraphs 5.12 to 5.14.Sentence adverbials are listed inChapter9(9.56to9.68).AdverbsofdegreearelistedinChapter2(2.140to2.156)andChapter6(6.45to6.52).

leavingwordsoutwhenyouareagreeing

10.80 Youoftenleavewordsoutwhenyouwanttoshowthatyouagreewithsomethingthathasjustbeensaid,ortosaythatitalsoappliestosomeoneorsomethingelse.Onewayofdoingthisisbyusingtooafteranauxiliaryorformofbe.‘Ilikebakedbeans.’–‘Yes,Idotoo.’‘Ifailedtheexam.’–‘Ididtoo.’Theotherwayofdoingthisistousesofollowedbytheauxiliaryorformofbe,followedbythesubject.‘Ifindthatamazing.’–‘SodoI.’Notethatyoucanalsousethisformwithinasentencetosaythatsomeoneorsomethingisthesame.HedoeshalfthecookingandsodoI.

10.81 Youcanalsoleaveoutwordswhenyouwanttoshowthatyouagreewithsomethingnegativethathasjustbeensaid,ortosaythatitalsoappliestosomeoneorsomethingelse.Onewayofdoingthisisbyusinganauxiliaryorformofbefollowedbynotandeither.‘Idon’tknow.’–‘Idon’teither.’‘Ican’tseehowshedoesit.’–‘Ican’teither.’Theotherway is tousenororneither followedbyanauxiliaryor formofbe, followedby thesubject.‘Idon’tlikehim.’–‘NordoI.’‘I’mnotgoingtochangemymind.’–‘Norshouldyou.’‘I’mnotjoking,Philip.’–‘NeitheramI.’Notethatyoucanalsodothiswithinasentence.Idon’tknowwhatyou’retalkingabout,MissHaynes,andI’mprettysureyoudon’teither.Iwillneverknowwhatwasinhisheadatthetime,norwillanyoneelse.Ican’tdoanythingaboutthisandneithercanyou.

ReferencesectionR1 Pronunciationguide

R2–19 Formingpluralsofcountablenouns

R20–31 Formingcomparativeandsuperlativeadjectives

R32–40 Thespellingandpronunciationofpossessives

R41–49 Numbers

R42–45 CardinalnumbersR46–47 OrdinalnumbersR48–49 Fractionsandpercentages

R50–135 Verbformsandtheformationofverbphrases

R89–123 TheformationoftensesR124–135 Infinitivesandparticiples

R136–149 Formingadverbs

R150–154 Formingcomparativeandsuperlativeadverbs

Referencesection

PronunciationguideR1 HereisalistofthephoneticsymbolsforEnglish:

BritishEnglishvowelsounds AmericanEnglishvowelsounds

ɑːheart,start,calm. ɑcalm,drop,fall.

æact,mass,lap. ɑːdraw,saw.

aɪdive,cry,mine. æact,mass,lap.

aɪəfire,tyre,buyer. aidrive,cry,lie.

aʊout,down,loud. aiərfire,tire,buyer.

aʊəflour,tower,sour. auout,down,loud.

emet,lend,pen. auərflour,tower,sour.

eɪsay,main,weight. emet,lend,pen.

eəfair,care,wear. eisay,main,weight.

ɪfit,win,list. eərfair,care,wear.

iːfeed,me,beat. ɪfit,win,list.

ɪənear,beard,clear. ifeed,me,beat.

ɒlot,lost,spot. Iərcheer,hear,clear.

əʊnote,phone,coat. ounote,phone,coat.

ɔːmore,cord,claw. ɔmore,cord,sort.

ɔɪboy,coin,joint. ɔiboy,coin,joint.

ʊcould,stood,hood. ʊcould,stood,hood.

uːyou,use,choose. uyou,use,choose.

ʊəsure,pure,cure. jʊərsure,pure,cure.

ɜːturn,third,word. ɜrturn,third,word.

ᴧbut,fund,must. ᴧbut,fund,must.

ə(theweakvowelin)butter,about,forgotten. ə(theweakvowelin)about,account,cancel.

consonantsounds

bbed

ddone

ffit

ggood

hhat

jyellow

k king

llip

mmat

nnine

ppay

rrun

ssoon

ttalk

vvan

wwin

xloch

zzoo

∫ship

ʒmeasure

ŋsing

t∫cheap

θthin

ðthen

dʒjoy

Hereisalistofthevowelletters:aeiouHereisalistoftheconsonantletters:bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxyzTheconsonanty,whenitfallsinthemiddleorattheendofasyllable,hasthestatusofavowelandhasarangeofpronunciationssimilartoi.

FormingpluralsofcountablenounsR2 InformationonwhichnounshavepluralsisgiveninChapter1(1.14to1.193).R3 Inmostcases,thepluraliswrittens.

hat → hats

tree → trees

R4 Thepluraliswrittenesaftersh,ss,x,ors,anditispronounced/IZ/.bush → bushes

glass → glasses

box → boxes

bus → buses

Thepluralisalsowrittenesandpronounced/IZ/afterch,whenthechispronounced/t∫/.church → churches

match → matches

speech → speeches

R5 Whenthesfollowsoneofthesounds/f/,/k/,/p/,/t/,or/θ/,itispronounced/s/.belief → beliefs

week → weeks

cap → caps

pet → pets

moth → moths

R6 Whenthesfollowsoneofthesounds/s/,/z/,or/dʒ/,itispronounced/ɪz/.service → services

prize → prizes

age → ages

R7 Somenounsthatendwiththesound/θ/,forexamplemouth,havetheirpluralformspronouncedasendingin/ðz/.Withothers,suchasbathandpath,thepronunciationcanbeeither/θs/or/ðz/.YoumayneedtocheckthepronunciationsofwordsliketheseinaCobuilddictionary.

R8 Inmostothercasesthesispronounced/z/.bottle → bottles

degree → degrees

doctor → doctors

idea → ideas

leg → legs

system → systems

tab → tabs

R9 Withnounsthatendinaconsonantletterfollowedbyy,yousubstituteiesforytoformtheplural.country → countries

lady → ladies

opportunity → opportunities

Withnounsthatendinavowelletterfollowedbyy,youjustaddstoformtheplural.boy → boys

day → days

valley → valleys

R10 Thereareafewnounsendinginforfewhereyouformthepluralbysubstitutingvesforforfe.calf → calves

elf → elves

half → halves

knife → knives

leaf → leaves

life → lives

loaf → loaves

scarf → scarves

sheaf → sheaves

shelf → shelves

thief → thieves

wife → wives

wolf → wolves

R11 Withmanynounsthatendino,youjustaddstoformtheplural.photo → photos

radio → radios

However,thefollowingnounsendinginohavepluralsendinginoes:

dominoechoembargoheronegropotatotomatoveto

Thefollowingnounsendinginohavepluralsthatcanendineithersores:

buffalocargoflamingofrescoghettoinnuendomangomanifestomementomosquitomottosalvostilettotornadotorpedovolcano

R12 The following nouns in English have special plural forms, usuallywith different vowel soundsfromtheirsingularforms:

child → children

foot → feet

goose → geese

louse → lice

man → men

mouse → mice

ox → oxen

tooth → teeth

woman → women

R13 Mostnounsthatrefertopeopleandthatendwithman,woman,orchildhavepluralformsendingwithmen,women,orchildren.

postman → postmen

Englishwoman → Englishwomen

grandchild → grandchildren

R14 Inadditiontothenounsmentionedabove,therearewordsthatareborrowedfromotherlanguages,especiallyLatin,andthatstillformtheirpluralsaccordingtotherulesofthoselanguages.Manyofthemaretechnicalorformal,andsomeofthosethataregivenbelowarealsousedwitharegularsorespluralendinginnon-technicalorinformalcontexts.YoumayneedtochecktheseinaCobuilddictionary.

R15 Somenounsendinginushavepluralsendingini.cactus → cacti

focus → foci

nucleus → nuclei

radius → radi

stimulus → stimuli

R16 Somenounsendinginumhavepluralsendingina.aquarium → aquaria

memorandum → memoranda

referendum → referenda

spectrum → spectra

stratum → strata

R17 Mostnounsendinginishavepluralsinwhichtheisisreplacedbyes.analysis → analyses

axis → axes

basis → bases

crisis → crises

diagnosis → diagnoses

hypothesis → hypotheses

neurosis → neuroses

parenthesis → parentheses

R18 Withsomenounsendingina,thepluralsareformedbyaddinge.larva → larvae

vertebra → vertebrae

Some,suchasantenna,formula,amoeba,andnebula,alsohavelessformalpluralsendingins.R19 Othernouns form theirplurals inotherways.Someof thesehave twoplural forms,one formed

withsandoneformedinadifferentway.UsuallytheformwithsisusedinlessformalEnglish.appendix → appendicesorappendixes

automaton → automataorautomatons

corpus → corporaorcorpuses

criterion → criteria

genus → genera

index → indicesorindexes

matrix → matrices

phenomenon → phenomena

tempo → tempiortempos

virtuoso → virtuosiorvirtuosos

vortex → vortices

FormingcomparativeandsuperlativeadjectivesR20 InformationonhowtousethecomparativesandsuperlativesofadjectivesisgiveninChapter2

(2.103to2.122).R21 Thecomparativeofanadjectiveisformedeitherbyaddingertotheendofthenormalformofthe

adjective,orbyputtingmoreinfrontofit.Thesuperlativeisformedbyaddingesttotheendoftheadjective,orbyputtingmostinfrontofit.Thechoicebetweenaddingerandestorusingmoreandmostusuallydependsonthenumberofsyllablesintheadjective.Superlativesareusuallyprecededbythe.

R22 With one-syllable adjectives, you usually add er and est to the end of the normal form of theadjective.

tall → taller → thetallest

quick → quicker → thequickest

Here is a list of common one-syllable adjectives that form their comparatives and superlativesusually,oralways,byaddingerandest:

bigbrightbroadcheapfreshfullgreathardhighhotlargelatelightcleanclearclosecoldlongloose

loudlownewniceoldpaleplaincoolcrossdarkdeeppoorproudquickrarerichroughsadsafesharpdrydullfairfastshortsickslowsmallsoftstrongsweettallthickfatfinefirmflatthintighttoughwarmweakwetwidewildyoung

Notethatwhenerandestareaddedtosomeadjectives,aspellingchangeneedstobemade.The patterns of spelling change in forming comparatives and superlatives from adjectives areexplainedinparagraphR27.

R23 Youusuallyadderandesttotwo-syllableadjectivesendinginy,suchasfunny,dirty,andsilly.

happy → happier → thehappiest

easy → easier → theeasiest

Notethatthereisaspellingchangehere,whichisexplainedinparagraphR27.Someothertwo-syllableadjectives,notendinginy,alsohavecomparativesandsuperlativesthatareusuallyformedwitherandest.Hereisalistofcommontwo-syllableadjectiveswhosecomparativesandsuperlativesareusuallyformedlikethis:

busydirtyclevereasyfunnyhappyheavylovelyluckyprettyquietsillysimplesteadytiny

R24 Someothertwo-syllableadjectivesusuallyhavecomparativesandsuperlativesformedwithmoreandmost.

careful → morecareful → themostcareful

famous → morefamous → themostfamous

Hereisalistofcommonadjectiveswhosecomparativeandsuperlativeformsareusuallyformedwithmoreandmost:

carefulcommonfamoushandsomelikelymatureobscurepleasantpolitesudden

R25 Manytwo-syllableadjectivescanhavecomparativesandsuperlativeswitheither theendingserandest,ormoreandmost.Inmanycases,theerandestformsaremorecommonlyfounddirectly

beforethenoun(inattributiveposition),andthemoreandmost formsmorecommonlyfollowalinkingverbsuchasbeorbecome(inpredicativeposition),particularlywhenamodifiersuchasa bit, significantly, considerably, far, much and a little is used. For more information aboutattributiveandpredicativeadjectives,seeparagraphs2.42to2.52.…majorhurricanessuchasKatrina,thecostliestdisasterinU.S.history.Energyisbecomingmuchmorecostlyandsuppliesaredryingup.Lessspaceseemedtomakeforafriendlierneighborhoodfeeling.Weareencouragingemployerstobeabitmorefriendlytothelocalenvironment.Hereisalistofcommonadjectivesthatcanhaveeithertypeofcomparativeandsuperlative:

angrycostlycruelfriendlygentlenarrowremoteriskyshallowstupidsubtle

R26 Adjectivesthathavethreeormoresyllablesusuallyhavecomparativesandsuperlativeswithmoreandmost.

dangerous → moredangerous → themostdangerous

ridiculous → moreridiculous → themostridiculous

However, some three-syllable adjectives are formed by adding un to the beginning of otheradjectives.Forexample,unhappyisrelatedtohappyandunluckytolucky.These three-syllableadjectiveshavecomparativesandsuperlativesformedeitherbyaddingerandestorbyusingmoreandmost.Hefeltcrosserandunhappierthanever.

R27 Whenyouadderoresttoanadjective,yousometimesneedtomakeanotherchangetotheendoftheadjectiveaswell.Ifaone-syllableadjectiveendsinasinglevowelletterfollowedbyasingleconsonantletter,youdoubletheconsonantletterwhenaddingerorest.

big → bigger → thebiggest

hot → hotter → thehottest

However,youdonotdothiswithtwo-syllableadjectives.clever → cleverer → thecleverest

stupid → stupider → thestupidest

Ifanadjectiveendsine,youremovetheewhenaddingerorest.

wide → wider → thewidest

simple → simpler → thesimplest

Note thatwith adjectives ending in le, the comparative and superlative have two syllables, notthree.Forexample,simpler(fromsimple/'sɪmpəl/)ispronounced/'sɪmplə/.Ifanadjectiveendsinaconsonantletterfollowedbyy,youreplacetheywithiwhenaddingerorest.

dry → drier → thedriest

angry → angrier → theangriest

unhappy → unhappier → theunhappiest

Notethatwithshy,sly,andspry,youadderandestintheordinaryway.R28 Goodandbadhavespecialcomparativesandsuperlatives,whicharenotformedbyaddingerand

estorbyusingmoreandmost.Goodhasthecomparativebetterandthesuperlativethebest.Theremightbebetterwaysofdoingit.Thisisthebestmuseumwe’vevisitedyet.Badhasthecomparativeworseandthesuperlativetheworst.Thingsareworsethantheyusedtobe.Theairporttherewastheworstplaceintheworld.Notethatilldoesnothaveacomparativeformandsoworseisusedinstead.EachdayKuntafeltalittleworse.

R29 Theadjectiveoldhasregularcomparativeandsuperlativeformsbut,inaddition,ithastheformselderandtheeldest.Theseformsareusedonlytotalkaboutpeople,usuallyrelatives.…thedeathofhistwoelderbrothersintheFirstWorldWar.Bill’seldestdaughterisadoctor.Notethatunlikeolder,elderneverhasthanafterit.

R30 ThereisnocomparativeorsuperlativeoflittleinStandardEnglish,althoughchildrensometimessaylittlerandthelittlest.Whenyouwanttomakeacomparison,youusesmallerandthesmallest.

R31 Thecomparativesandsuperlativesofcompoundadjectivesareusuallyformedbyputtingmoreandmostinfrontoftheadjective.

self-effacing → moreself-effacing → themostself-effacing

nerve-racking → morenerve-racking → themostnerve-racking

Somecompoundadjectiveshaveadjectivesas their firstpart.Comparativesand superlativesofthesecompoundsaresometimesformedusingthecomparativeandsuperlativeoftheadjective.

good-looking → better-looking → thebest-looking

Similarly, some compound adjectives have adverbs as their first part. Their comparatives andsuperlativesaresometimesformedusingthecomparativeandsuperlativeoftheadverb.

well-paid → better-paid → thebest-paid

badly-planned → worse-planned → theworst-planned

ThecomparativesandsuperlativesofadverbsareexplainedinparagraphsR150toR154.

ThespellingandpronunciationofpossessivesR32 The use of the possessive form of names and other nouns is explained in Chapter 1 (1.211 to

1.221).R33 Thepossessiveformofanameorothernounisusuallyformedbyaddingapostrophes(’s)tothe

end.Ginny’smotherdidn’tanswer.Howardcameintotheeditor’soffice.

R34 Ifyouareusingapluralnounendinginstorefertothepossessor,youjustaddanapostrophe(’).Iheardthegirls’stepsonthestairs.Weoftengotopublishers’partiesinBloomsbury.However,ifyouareusinganirregularpluralnounthatdoesnotendins,youaddapostrophes(’s)totheendofit.Itwouldcostatleastthreepolicemen’ssalariesperyear.TheEqualPayActhasfailedtobringwomen’searningsuptothesamelevel.…children’sbirthdayparties.

R35 If something belongs to more than one person or thing whose names are linked by and, theapostrophes(’s)isputafterthesecondname.…MartinandTim’sapartment.…ColinandMary’swedding.

R36 Ifyouwanttosaythattwopeopleorthingseachpossesspartofagroupofthings,boththeirnameshaveapostrophes(’s).Thepuppywasasuperbblendofhisfather’sandmother’sbestqualities.

R37 Whenyouareusinganamethatalreadyendsins,youcansimplyaddanapostrophe,forexampleSt James’ Palace, or you can add apostrophe s (’s), for example St James’s Palace. Thesespellingsarepronounceddifferently. Ifyousimplyaddanapostrophe, thepronunciationremainsunaltered,whereasifyouaddapostrophes(’s),thepossessiveispronounced/ɪz/.

R38 Apostrophes(’s)ispronounceddifferentlyindifferentwords.Itispronounced/s/afterthesound/f/,/k/,/p/,/t/,or/θ/./ɪz/afterthesound/s/,/z/,/ʃ/,/ʒ/,/tʃ/,or/dʒ/./z/afterallothersounds.

R39 Ifyouareusingacompoundnoun,youaddapostrophes(’s)tothelastiteminthecompound.Hewenttohismother-in-law’shouse.TheparadeassembledintheDetectiveConstable’sroom.

R40 Apostrophes(’s)canbeaddedtoabbreviationsandacronymsinthesamewayastootherwords.HewillgetamajorityofMPs’votesinbothrounds.HefoundtheBBC’soutput,onbalance,superiortothatofITV.

ThemajorityofNATO’smembersagreed.

NumbersR41 Theusesofcardinalnumbers,ordinalnumbers,andfractionshavebeenexplainedinChapter2

(2.208 to 2.249). The use of ordinals to express dates is explained in paragraph 4.88. Lists ofnumbersanddetailsabouthowtosayandwritenumbersandfractionsaregivenbelow.

CardinalnumbersR42 Hereisalistofcardinalnumbers.Thelistshowsthepatternsofformingnumbersgreaterthan20.0 zero,nought,nothing,oh 5 five1 one 6 six2 two 7 seven3 three 8 eight4 four 9 nine10 ten 60 sixty11 eleven 70 seventy12 twelve 80 eighty13 thirteen 90 ninety14 fourteen 100 ahundred15 fifteen 101 ahundredandone16 sixteen 110 ahundredandten17 seventeen 120 ahundredandtwenty18 eighteen 200 twohundred19 nineteen 1000 athousand20 twenty 1001 athousandandone21 twenty-one 1010 athousandandten22 twenty-two 2000 twothousand23 twenty-three 10,000 tenthousand24 twenty-four 100,000 ahundredthousand25 twenty-five 1,000,000 amillion40 forty 2,000,000 twomillion50 fifty 1,000,000,000 abillion

R43 Whenyousayorwriteinwordsanumberover100,youputandbeforethenumberexpressedbythelasttwofigures.Forexample,203issaidorwrittentwohundredandthreeand2840issaidorwrittentwothousand,eighthundredandforty.Fourhundredandeighteenmenwerekilledandahundredandseventeenwounded.

AndisoftenomittedinAmericanEnglish.…onehundredfiftydollars.

R44 If youwant to say orwrite inwords a number between 1000 and 1,000,000, there are variouswaysofdoingit.Forexample,thenumber1872canbesaidorwritteninwordsaseighteenhundredandseventy-twoonethousandeighthundredandseventy-twooneeightseventwo

eighteenseventy-twoNotethatyoucannotuseainsteadofoneforthesecondway.Thethirdwayisoftenusedtoidentifysomethingsuchasaroomnumber.Withtelephonenumbers,youalwayssayeachfigureseparatelylikethis.Thelastwayisusedifthenumberisadate.

R45 Unlikesomeotherlanguages,inEnglishwhennumbersover9999arewritteninfigures,acommais usually put after the fourth figure from the end, the seventh figure from the end, and so on,dividingthefiguresintogroupsofthree.Forexample,15,500or1,982,000.Withnumbersbetween1000and9999,acommaissometimesputafterthefirstfigure.Forexample1,526.Whenanumbercontainsafullstop,thenumberornumbersafterthefullstopindicateafraction.Forexample,2.5isthesameastwoandahalf.

OrdinalnumbersR46 Hereisalistofordinalnumbers.Thelistshowsthepatternsofformingordinalnumbersgreater

than20.1st first 26th twenty-sixth2nd second 27th twenty-seventh3rd third 28th twenty-eighth4th fourth 29th twenty-nineth5th fifth 30th thirtieth6th sixth 31st thirty-first7th seventh 40th fortieth8th eighth 41st forty-first9th nineth 50th fiftieth10th tenth 51st fifty-first11th eleventh 60th sixtieth12th twelfth 61st sixty-first13th thirteenth 70th seventieth14th fourteenth 71st seventy-first15th fifteenth 80th eightieth16th sixteenth 81st eighty-first17th seventeenth 90th ninetieth18th eighteenth 91st ninty-first19th nineteenth 100th hundredth20th twentieth 101st hundredandfirst21st twenty-first 200th twohundredth22nd twenty-second 1000th thousandth23rd twenty-third 1,000,000th millionth24th twenty-fourth 1,000,000,000th billionth25th twenty-fifth

R47 Asshownintheabovelist,ordinalscanbewritteninabbreviatedform,forexampleindatesorheadings, or in informal writing. Youwrite the last two letters of the ordinal after the numberexpressed in figures.For example, first canbewritten as1st, twenty-second as22nd, hundredandthirdas103rd,andfourteenthas14th.…onAugust2nd.

…the1stDivisionoftheSovereign’sEscort.

FractionsandpercentagesR48 Youcanwritea fraction in figures, forexample½,¼,¾,and⅔.Thesecorrespond toahalf, a

quarter,three-quarters,andtwo-thirdsrespectively.R49 Fractions are often given in a special form as a number of hundredths. This type of fraction is

calledapercentage.Forexample,three-hundredths,expressedasapercentage,isthreepercent.It can also bewritten as three percent or 3%. A half can be expressed as fifty per cent, fiftypercent,or50%.About60percentofourstudentsarewomen.Ninetypercentofmostfoodiswater.Before196045%ofBritishtradewaswiththeCommonwealth.Youcanusepercentagesontheirownasnounphraseswhenitisclearwhattheyreferto.Ninetypercentwereselfemployed.…interestat10%perannum.

VerbformsandtheformationofverbphrasesR50 Verbshaveseveralforms.Theseformscanbeusedontheirownorcombinedwithspecialverbs

calledauxiliaries.Whenaverboracombinationofaverbandanauxiliaryisusedinaclause,itiscalledaverbphrase.Verbphrasescanbefiniteornon-finite.Ifaverbphraseisfinite,ithasatense. Anon-finite verb phrase contains a verb in the form of an infinitive or an -ed or -ingparticiple.Verbphrasesareusedtorefertoactions,states,andprocesses.TheuseofverbphrasesinclausestomakestatementsisexplainedinChapter3.

R51 Verbphrasescanbeactiveorpassive.Youuseanactiveverbphraseifyouareconcentratingontheperformerofanaction,andyouuseapassiveverbphraseifyouareconcentratingonsomeoneorsomethingthatisaffectedbyanaction.FurtherinformationontheuseofpassiveverbphrasesisgiveninChapter9(9.8to9.24).

R52 Regularverbshavethefollowingforms:abaseforme.g.walkansforme.g.walksan-ingparticiplee.g.walkingapastforme.g.walked

Thebaseformofaverbistheformthatisusedintheinfinitive.Itistheformthatisgivenfirstinadictionarywhereaverbisexplained,andthatisgiveninthelistsinthisgrammar.Thesformofaverbconsistsofthebaseformwithsontheend.The-ingparticipleusuallyconsistsofthebaseformwithingontheend.Itissometimescalledthepresentparticiple.

Thepastformofaverbusuallyconsistsofthebaseformwithedontheend.In thecaseof regularverbs, thepast form isused for thepast tenseand isalsousedas the -edparticiple.Itissometimescalledthepastparticiple.However,withmanyirregularverbs(seeparagraphR72)therearetwodifferentforms:apasttenseforme.g.stolean-edparticipleforme.g.stolen

There are rules about the spelling of the different forms of verbs, depending on their endings.TheseareexplainedinparagraphsR54toR70.Certainverbs,especiallycommonones,haveirregularforms.ThesearelistedinparagraphsR72toR75.Theformsoftheauxiliariesbe,have,anddoaregiveninparagraphR80.

R53 Eachverbformhasvarioususes.Thebase form isused for thepresent tense, the imperative, and the infinitive, and is used aftermodals.Thesformisusedforthethirdpersonsingularofthepresenttense.The-ingparticipleisusedforprogressiveforms,-ingadjectives,-ingnouns,andsomeclauses.Thepastformisusedforthepastsimple,andforthe-edparticipleofregularverbs.The-edparticipleisusedforperfectforms,passives,-edadjectives,andsomeclauses.

R54 Thebasicverb formshavebeendescribed inparagraphR52.The followingparagraphsexplainhow thevarious formsof verbs are spelled.They alsogivedetails of verbs that have irregularforms.Theformsoftheauxiliariesbe,have,anddoaredealtwithseparatelyinparagraphsR80toR88.

R55 Thesformofmostverbsconsistsofthebaseformoftheverbwithsaddedtotheend.sing → sings

write → writes

Whenthesfollowsoneofthesounds/f/,/k/,/p/,/t/,or/θ/,itispronounced/s/.break → breaks

keep → keeps

Whenthesfollowsoneofthesounds/s/,/z/,or/dʒ/,itispronounced/ɪz/.dance → dances

manage → manages

Inmostothercasesthesispronounced/z/.leave → leaves

refer → refers

R56 Withverbswhosebaseformendsinaconsonantletterfollowedbyy,yousubstitute ies fory toformthesform.

try → tries

cry → cries

R57 Withverbswhichend insh,ch,ss,x,zz,oro,es rather thans isadded to thebaseformof theverb.Theesispronounced/ɪz/whenitisaddedtoaconsonantsound,andpronounced/z/whenitisaddedtoavowelsound.

diminish → diminishes

reach → reaches

pass → passes

mix → mixes

buzz → buzzes

echo → echoes

R58 Withone-syllableverbsthatendinasingles,youusuallyaddses.FormswithasinglesaremorecommoninAmericanEnglish.

bus → busses → buses

gas → gasses → gases

R59 Mostverbshave-ingparticiplesformedbyaddingingtothebaseform,andpastformsformedbyaddingedtothebaseform.

paint → painting → painted

rest → resting → rested

Withall-ingparticiples,theingispronouncedasaseparatesyllable:/ɪŋ/.Withverbswhosebaseformendswithoneofthesounds/f/,/k/,/p/,/s/,/ʃ/,or/tʃ/,theedofthepast form is pronounced /t/. For example, pressed is pronounced /prest/ and watched ispronounced/wɒtʃt/.Withverbswhosebaseformsendswiththesound/d/or/t/,theedofthepastformispronounced/ɪd/.Forexample,pattedispronounced/pӕtɪd/andfadedispronounced/feɪdɪd/.Withallotherverbs,theedofthepastformispronounced/d/.Forexample,joinedispronounced/dʒɔɪnd/andlivedispronounced/lɪvd/.

R60 Withmost verbs that end in e, the -ing participle is formed by substituting ing for the final e.Similarly,yousubstituteedforthefinaletoformthepastform.

dance → dancing → danced

smile → smiling → smiled

fade → fading → faded

R61 In the case of a few verbs ending in e, you just add ing in the normal way to form the -ingparticiple.Youstillsubstituteedforetoformthepast.

singe → singeing → singed

agree → agreeing → agreed

Hereisalistoftheseverbs:

ageagreebingecanoedisagree

dyeeyefleefreegluekneequeuerefereeseesingetiptoewhinge

R62 Toformthe-ingparticipleofaverbthatendsinie,yousubstituteyingforie.tie → tying

Notethatthepastformofsuchverbsisregular,followingthepatterninR60.R63 Toformthepastformofaverbthatendsinaconsonantletterfollowedbyy,yousubstituteiedfor

y.cry → cried

Notethatthe-ingparticipleofsuchverbsisregular,followingthepatterninR59.R64 If the base form of a verb has one syllable and endswith a single vowel letter followed by a

consonantletter,youdoublethefinalconsonantletterbeforeaddingingtoformthe-ingparticipleoredtoformthepastform.

dip → dipping → dipped

trot → trotting → trotted

Notethatthisdoesnotapplyifthefinalconsonantletterisw,x,ory.row → rowing → rowed

box → boxing → boxed

play → playing → played

R65 The final consonant letter of some two-syllable verbs is also doubled. This happens when thesecondsyllableendsinasinglevowelletterfollowedbyaconsonantletter,andisstressed.

refer → referring → referred

equip → equipping → equipped

R66 InBritishEnglish,whenatwosyllableverbendsinasinglevowelletterfollowedbyasinglel,thelisdoubledbeforeingoredisaddedtoit,evenifthereisnostressonthelastsyllable.

travel → travelling → travelled

quarrel → quarrelling → quarrelled

Afewotherverbsalsohavetheirfinalconsonantletterdoubled.program → programming → programmed

worship → worshipping → worshipped

hiccup → hiccupping → hiccupped

kidnap → kidnapping → kidnapped

handicap → handicapping → handicapped

R67 AlltheverbsdescribedinR66,excepthandicap,canhavetheir-ingparticipleandpastformspelledwithasingleconsonantletterinAmericanEnglish.

travel → traveling → traveled

worship → worshiping → worshiped

R68 HereisalistoftheverbswhosefinalconsonantletterisdoubledbeforeingandedinbothBritishandAmericanEnglish:

banbarbatbegdindipdotdragdropdrugdrumdubfanfitflagflapflipflopfogfretgasgelglutgrabgringripgritgrubgunguthemhophugblotblurbobbraghumjamjetjigjogjot

knitknotlaglaploglopmanmarmobmopmugnagnetnipnodpadpatpegpenpetpinpitplanbrimbugcapchatplodplugpopprodpropribrigriprobrotrubsagscanscarscrapscrubshipshopshredshrugshunsinsipskidskimskinskip

slamslapchipchopclapclogslimslipslopslotslumslursnagsnapsnipsnubsobspotsquatstabstarstemstepstirstopstrapstripstrutstunsunswabswapswatswigswotclotcramcribcroptagtantapthinthrobtiptoptraptrektrimtriptrotvetwagwrap

~abet

abhoracquitadmitallotcommitcompelconfercontroldeferdeterdistilembedcupdabdamdimemitenrolenthralequipexcelexpelincurinstiloccuromitoutwitpatrolpropelrebelrebutrecaprecurreferregretremitrepelsubmittransfertransmit~handicap

Notethatverbssuchasre-equipandunclog,whichconsistofaprefixandoneoftheaboveverbs,alsohavetheirfinalconsonantletterdoubled.

R69 HereisalistofverbswhosefinalconsonantletterisdoubledbeforeingandedinBritishEnglishbutnotalwaysinAmericanEnglish:

bedevilcancelchannelchiseldialduelenamelenrolenthralequalfuelfunnelgambolgrovelhiccupinitialkidnaplabellevellibelmarshalmarvelmodelpanelpedalpencilprogrampummelquarrelrefuelrevelrivalshovelshrivelsnivelspiralstencilswiveltotaltraveltunnelunravelworshipyodel

R70 Withverbsendinginc,kingandkedareusuallyaddedinsteadofinganded.mimic → mimicking → mimicked

panic → panicking → panicked

R71 Alargenumberofverbshaveirregularforms,whicharenotformedbyaddingedtothebaseform.Withregularverbs,the-edparticipleisthesameasthepastform.However,withsomeirregularverbs,thetwoformsaredifferent.

R72 Thetableoppositegivesalistofirregularverbsandtheirforms.Note that the past form and -ed participle of read appear the same as the base form but arepronounceddifferently.Thebase form ispronounced /riːd/ and thepast formand -ed participle/red/.SeeaCobuilddictionaryforthepronunciationofirregularformsofverbs.

R73 Someverbshavemorethanonepastformor-edparticipleform.Forexample,thepastformand-edparticipleofspellcanbeeitherspelledorspelt,andthe-edparticipleofprovecanbeeitherprovedorproven.Heburnedseveralletters.Heburntallhispapers.Hisfoothadswelledtothreetimesnormalsize.Hiswristhadswollenupandbecomehuge.

R74 Someverbshavetwoformsthatcanbeusedasthepastformandthe-edparticiple.Hereisalistoftheseverbs.Theregularformisgivenfirst,althoughitmaynotbethemorecommonone.

AlloftheirregularformsendingintarefarmorecommoninBritishEnglishthaninAmericanEnglish,whichgenerallyusestheregularformfortheseverbs.

burn → burned,burnt

bust → busted,bust

dream → dreamed,dreamt

dwell → dwelled,dwelt

fit → fitted,fit

hang → hanged,hung

kneel → kneeled,knelt

lean → leaned,leant

leap → leaped,leapt

light → lighted,lit

smell → smelled,smelt

speed → speeded,sped

spell → spelled,spelt

spill → spilled,spilt

spoil → spoiled,spoilt

wet → wetted,wet

R75 Hereisalistofverbswithtwopastforms:bid → bid,bade

wake → waked,woke

weave → weaved,wove

Hereisalistofverbswithtwo-edparticipleforms:bid → bid,bidden

mow → mowed,mown

prove → proved,proven

swell → swelled,swollen

wake → waked,woken

weave → weaved,woven

In American English, gotten is usually used instead of got as the -ed participle of get. However,American English always uses got rather than gotten in two common constructions: have got(meaningownorpossess),andhavegotto(meaningmust).Haveyougotchangefortheparkingmeter?Youhavegottostartpayingmoreattentiontodeadlines.ThepastformsoftheseconstructionsinAmericanEnglishareneverhadgot.Instead,theyusethepastformofhave.Didyouhavechangefortheparkingmeter?ShesaidIhadtostartpayingmoreattentiontodeadlines.Note that some verbs appear in both the above lists as they have a different past form and -edparticipleform,eachofwhichhasmorethanoneform.

baseform pastform -edparticiplearise arose arisenawake awoke awokenbear bore bornebeat beat beatenbecome became becomebegin began begunbend bent bentbet bet betbind bound boundbite bit bittenbleed bled bledblow blew blownbreak broke brokenbreed bred bredbring brought broughtbuild built builtburst burst burstbuy bought boughtcast cast castcatch caught caughtchoose chose chosencling clung clungcome came comecost cost costcreep crept creptcut cut cutdeal dealt dealtdig dug dugdive dove(Am) diveddraw drew drawndrink drank drunkdrive drove driveneat ate eaten

fall fell fallenfeed fed fedfeel felt feltfight fought foughtfind found foundfit fit(Am) fit(Am)flee fled fledfling flung flungfly flew flownforbear forbore forborneforbid forbade forbiddenforget forgot forgottenforgive forgave forgivenforsake forsook forsakenforswear forswore forswornfreeze froze frozenget got gotgive gave givengo went gonegrind ground groundgrow grew grownhear heard heardhide hid hiddenhit hit hithold held heldhurt hurt hurtkeep kept keptknow knew knownlay laid laidlead led ledleave left leftlend lent lentlet let letlose lost lostmake made mademean meant meantmeet met metpay paid paidput put putquit quit quitread read readrend rent rentride rode riddenring rang rungrise rose risenrun ran runsaw sawed sawnsay said saidsee saw seenseek sought soughtsell sold soldsend sent sent

set set set

sew sewed sewnshake shook shakenshed shed shedshine shone shoneshoe shod shodshoot shot shotshow showed shownshrink shrank shrunkshut shut shutsing sang sungsink sank sunksit sat satslay slew slainsleep slept sleptslide slid slidsling slung slungslink slunk slunksow sowed sownspeak spoke spokenspend spent spentspin spun spunspread spread spreadspring sprang sprungstand stood stoodsteal stole stolenstick stuck stucksting stung stungstink stank stunkstrew strewed strewnstride strode striddenstrike struck struckstring strung strungstrive strove strivenswear swore swornsweep swept sweptswim swam swumswing swung swungtake took takenteach taught taughttear tore torntell told toldthink thought thoughtthrow threw thrownthrust thrust thrusttread trod troddenunderstand understood understoodwear wore wornweep wept weptwin won wonwind wound wound

wring wrung wrungwrite wrote written

R76 Insomecases,differentpastformsor-edparticipleformsrelatetodifferentmeaningsorusesofthe verb. For example, the past formand the -ed participle of the verbhang is normallyhung.However,hangedcanalsobeusedbutwithadifferentmeaning.CheckthedifferentmeaningsinaCobuilddictionary.AnIronCrosshungfromaribbonaroundtheman’sneck.Hehadbeenfoundguiltyofmurderhanged.Theyhadbiddownthechemicalcompany’sstock.Hehadbiddenhertobuythebest.

R77 Someverbsconsistofmorethanoneword,forexamplebrowbeatandtypeset,andsomeconsistofaprefixplusaverb,forexampleundoanddisconnect.Histeachersunderestimatehisability.Wearealwaystryingtooutdoourcompetitors.Thefiguresshowthatthegovernmenthasmismanagedtheeconomy.

R78 Verbsthatconsistofmorethanonewordorofaprefixplusaverbusuallyinflectinthesamewayastheverbsthatformtheirfinalpart.Forexample,thepastformofforeseeisforesawandthe-edparticipleisforeseen,andthepastformandpast-edofmisunderstandismisunderstood.Iunderestimatedhim.Hehadoutdonehimself.Ihadmisunderstoodandmismanagedeverything.Shehaddisappearedintothekitchenandreappearedwithaflashlight.

R79 Withmanyverbsofthistype,thefactthattheyconsistoftwopartsdoesnotmakeanydifferencetotheirforms.Theyfollowthenormalspellingrules.Hereisalistofverbswhosesecondpartisanirregularverb:

browbeatbroadcastforecastovereatbefallforegoundergooutgrowoverheatmishearbeholdupholdwithholdmislaywaylaymiscastrecasttypecast

misleadremakerepaymisreadoverrideoutrunoverrunre-runforeseeoverseeoutsellresellovercomeundercutoutdobesetresettypesetoutshineovershootoversleepmisspellwithstandhamstringmistakeovertakeretakeoverdoundowithdrawundertakeforetellretellrethinkoverthrowmisunderstandrewindunwindrewriteunderwrite

Notethepastformsand-edparticipleoftheverbsshownbelow,whosesecondpartisaverbwithalternativepastformsand-edparticiple.

refit → refitted → refitted

overhang → overhung → overhung

floodlight → floodlit → floodlit

Hereisalistofcompoundverbswhosesecondpartisanirregularverb:

bottle-feedbreast-feed

force-feedspoon-feedbaby-sitlip-readproof-readsight-readghost-write

R80 Thedifferentformsoftheauxiliariesbe,have,anddoaresummarizedinthetablebelow.

R81 Thepresentformsofbecanusuallybecontractedandaddedtotheendofthesubjectoftheverb,whether it is a noun or a pronoun. This is often done in spoken English or in informalwrittenEnglish.I’minterestedintheroleofwomenallovertheworld.You’relate.We’remakingsomeprogress.It’sadelightfulcountry.Mycar’sjustacrossthestreet.Thecontractedformsofbeareshowninthetableabove.

R82 Contractedformsofbearenotusedattheendofaffirmativestatements.Thefullformmustbeusedinstead.Forexample,yousayRichard’snotveryhappybutAndrewis.YoucannotsayRichard’snotveryhappybutAndrew’s.

However,youcanuseacontractedformofbeattheendofanegativestatementifitisfollowedbynot.Forexample,Mary’squitehappy,buthermother’snot’

R83 Whenbeisusedinnegativeclauses,eithertheverbornotcanbecontracted.Formoreinformationoncontractionsinnegativeclauses,seeparagraphs5.61to5.62.

R84 Thepresentandpastformsofhavecanalsobecontracted.Thisisusuallyonlydonewhenhaveisbeingusedasanauxiliary.I’vechangedmymind.Thisisthefirstpartywe’vebeentoinmonths.She’sbecomeaveryinterestingyoungwoman.Idowishyou’dmetGuy.She’smanagedtokeepitquiet.We’ddoneagoodjob.ThecontractedformsofhaveareshowninthetableatparagraphR80.

R85 ’scanbeshortforeitherisorhas.Youcantellwhat’srepresentsbylookingatthenextword.If’srepresentsis,itisfollowedbyan-ingparticiple,complement,oradverbial.Ifitrepresentshas,itisusuallyfollowedbyan-edparticiple.She’sgoingtobeallright.She’salovelyperson.She’sgonetoseesomesocialworkpeople.

R86 Anounending in ’s couldalsobeapossessive. It is followedbyanothernounwhen this is thecase.Formoreinformationonpossessivesseeparagraphs1.211to1.221.

R87 Is andhas arewritten in full after nouns ending inx, ch, sh, s, or z, although in speechhas issometimespronouncedas/əz/afterthesenouns.

R88 ’d canbe short for eitherhad orwould.You can tellwhat ’d represents by looking at the nextword.If’drepresentswould,itisfollowedbythebaseformofaverb.Ifitrepresentshad,itisusuallyfollowedbyan-edparticiple.We’dhavetotrytoescape.’It’dbecheapertogobytrain,’Alansaid.Atleastwe’dhadthecouragetoadmitit.She’dboughtnewsunglasseswithtintedlenses.

TheformationoftensesR89 Afiniteverbphraseisthetypeofverbphrasethatgoeswithasubject.Itcontainsaformofthe

mainverb(theonethatyouareusingtoconveyyourmeaning),andoftenoneormoreauxiliaries.Afiniteverbphrasehasthefollowingstructure:(modal)(have)(be)(be)mainverb.Youchoosetheelementsinbracketsaccordingto,forexample,whetheryouaretalkingaboutthepast or the present, orwhether you are concentrating on the performer of an action or the thingaffectedbyit.Theyarecalledauxiliaries.

If youwant to indicate possibility, or to show your attitude to your hearer or to what you aresaying,youuseatypeofauxiliarycalledamodal.Modalsmustbefollowedbyabaseform(aninfinitivewithoutto).TheuseofmodalsisexplainedinChapter5(5.94to5.258).Shemightseeus.Shecouldhaveseenus.If you want to use a perfect form, you use a form of have. This must be followed by an -edparticiple.Shehasseenus.Shehadbeenwatchingusforsometime.Ifyouwant touseaprogressive form,youusea formofbe.Thismust be followedby an -ingparticiple.Shewaswatchingus.Wewerebeingwatched.Ifyouwanttousethepassive,youuseaformofbe.Thismustbefollowedbyan-edparticiple.Wewereseen.Wewerebeingwatched.Ifthereisanauxiliaryinfrontofthemainverb,youuseanappropriateformofthemainverb,asmentionedabove.Ifthereisnoauxiliary,youuseanappropriatesimpleform.The verb do is also used as an auxiliary, with simple forms, but only in questions, negativestatements,andnegativeimperativeclauses,orwhenyouwanttobeveryemphatic.Itisfollowedbythebaseformofthemainverb.DetailedinformationontheusesofdoisgiveninChapter5.Doyouwantmetodosomethingaboutit?Idonotrememberher.Idoenjoybeingwithyou.

R90 Afiniteverbphrasealwayshasatense,unlessitbeginswithamodal.Tense istherelationshipbetweentheformofaverbandthetimetowhichitrefers.This section dealswith theways inwhichmain verbs and auxiliaries can be used to constructdifferentforms.Thewayinwhichparticularformsareusedtoindicateparticulartimesinrelationtothetimeofspeakingortothetimeofaneventiscoveredinparagraphs4.7to4.69.

R91 When a verb is being used in a simpleform, that is, thepresent simple or thepast simple, itconsistsofjustoneword,aformofthemainverb.Ifeeltired.Marylivedthereforfiveyears.Forprogressiveandperfectforms,oneormoreauxiliariesareusedincombinationwiththemainverb.Iamfeelingrecklesstonight.Ihavelivedhereallmylife.

R92 Thefirstwordofa finiteverbphrasemustagreewith thesubjectof theclause.Thisaffects thepresentsimple,andallformsthatbeginwiththepresentorpasttenseofbeorthepresenttenseof

have.Forexample,iftheformisthepresentperfectandthesubjectisJohn,thentheformoftheauxiliaryhavemustbehas.Johnhasseemedworriedlately.Shelikesme.Yourlunchisgettingcold.

R93 In this section the examples given are declarative clauses. The order of words in questions isdifferentfromtheorderindeclarativeclauses.Seeparagraphs5.10to5.36forinformationaboutthis.

R94 Progressive forms are constructed using an appropriate tense of the auxiliary be and the -ingparticiple.Detailed informationonhow toconstruct these forms is includedbelow.Theusesofprogressiveformsareexplainedindetailinparagraphs4.7to4.69.

R95 Theformationofactivesentencesisexplainedbelow.TheformationofthepassiveisexplainedinparagraphsR109toR118.

R96 Thepresentsimpleformofaverbisthesameasthebaseformwithallsubjectsexceptthethirdpersonsingular.Iwantabreathofair.Weadviseeveryonetocallhalfanhourbeforetheyarrive.Theygiveyouacertificateandthentellyoutogetajob.Thethirdpersonsingularformisthesform.Floraputsherheadback,andlaughsagain.Moneydecideseverything,shethought.MrPatersonplaysPhilHoskinsintheTVdrama.

R97 Thepresentprogressiveisformedbyusingthepresenttenseofbeandthe-ingparticipleofthemainverb.Peoplewhohavenofaithinartarerunningtheartschools.Thegardenindustryisbooming.Thingsarechanging.

R98 Thepastsimpleformofaregularverbisformedbyaddingedtothebaseformofregularverbs.Themomentheenteredtheclassroomalleyesturnedonhim.Hewalkedoutofthekitchenandclimbedthestairs.ItwasdarkbythetimeIreachedEastLondon.

R99 Thepastprogressive is formedbyusingthepast tenseofbeand the -ingparticipleof themainverb.Theirquestionswerebeginningtodrivemecrazy.Webelievedwewerefightingforagoodcause.Atthetime,Iwasdreadingtheexam.

R100 Thepresentperfectisformedbyusingthepresenttenseofhaveandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.

Advanceshavecontinued,butproductivityhasfallen.Footballhasbecomeinternational.Ihaveseenthisbefore.

R101 The present perfect progressive is formed by using the present perfect of be and the -ingparticipleofthemainverb.Howardhasbeenworkinghardovertherecess.Whatwehavebeendescribingisverysimple.Theirshareshavebeengoingup.

R102 Thepastperfectisformedbyusinghadandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.TheIndiansummerhadreturnedforaday.Everyonehadlikedher.MurrayhadresentedthechangesIhadmade.

R103 Thepastperfectprogressive is formed by usinghadbeen and the -ing participle of themainverb.Shedidnotknowhowlongshehadbeenlyingthere.Fortenyearsofherlife,teachershadbeenmakinguphermindforher.Ihadbeenshowingawomanaroundwithherlittleboy.

R104 ThereareseveralwaysofreferringtothefutureinEnglish.Thesimplefutureinvolvesusingthemodalwillorshallandthebaseformoftheverb.Itisexactlythesortofschemehewilllike.Myreceptionistwillhelpyouchoosetheframes.Don’tdropcrumbsorweshallhavemice.

InspokenEnglish,thecontractedform’llisusuallyusedinsteadofwillorshall,unlessyouwanttobeemphatic.SendhimintotheArmy;he’lllearnabitofdisciplinethere.Assoonaswegettheticketsthey’llbesentouttoyou.Nextweekwe’llbelookingatthehistoryofdance.

R105 Ifthefullformsareused,willisgenerallyusedifthesubjectoftheverbisnotIorwe.Shall issometimesusedifthesubjectisIorwe,otherwisewillisused.Inflationisrisingandwillcontinuetorise.Ishallbeawaytomorrow.

R106 Thefutureprogressiveisformedbyusingwillorshall,followedbybeandthe-ingparticipleofthemainverb.Indeed,wewillbeopposingthatpolicy.Fordmanualworkerswillbeclaimingatenpercentpayrise.Ishallbeleavingsoon.

R107 Thefutureperfectisformedbyusingwillorshall,followedbyhaveandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Longbeforeyoureturn,theywillhaveforgottenyou.

Bynextweekwillhavereachedtheendofthebook.Bythattime,Ishallhaveretired.

R108 Thefutureperfectprogressiveisformedbyusingwillorshall,followedbyhavebeenandthe-ingparticipleofthemainverb.ByMarch,Iwillhavebeendoingthisjobforsixyears.Saturdayweek,IwillhavebeengoingoutwithSusanforthreemonths.

R109 Passiveformsareconstructedusinganappropriatetenseofbeandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Detailedinformationonformingthepassiveisgivenbelow.

R110 Thepresentsimplepassiveisformedbyusingthepresentsimpleofbeandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Theearthisbakedbythesunintoahard,brittlelayer.Ifyouareonafull-timecourseyouaretreatedasyourparents’dependent.Specificsubjectsarediscussed.

R111 Thepresent progressive passive is formed by using the present progressive ofbe and the -edparticipleofthemainverb.Thebuffetcounterisbeingarrangedbytheattendant.Itissomethingquiteirrelevanttowhatisbeingdiscussed.Jobsarestillbeinglost.

R112 Thepastsimplepassiveisformedbyusingthepastsimpleofbeandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Nodatewasannouncedforthetalks.Thewallswerecoveredwithpicturesofactors.Severalnewcottageswerebuiltontheland.

R113 Thepastprogressivepassiveisformedbyusingthepastprogressiveofbeandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Thestagewasbeingsetforfutureprofits.Beforelong,machineswerebeingusedtocreatecodes.Strenuouseffortswerebeingmadelastnighttoendthedispute.

R114 Thepresentperfectpassiveisformedbyusingthepresentperfectofbeandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Theguest-roomwindowhasbeenmended.Ithinkrealprogresshasbeenmade.Thedirtyplateshavebeenstackedinapileonthetable.

R115 Thepastperfectpassiveisformedbyusinghadbeenandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Theyhadbeentaughttobecritical.Theyhadbeendrivenhomeinthestationwagon.

R116 Thefuturepassiveisformedbyusingwillorshall,followedbybeandthe-edparticipleofthemainverb.Hisownauthoritywillbeundermined.

Congresswillbeaskedtoapproveanincreaseof47.5percent.R117 Thefutureperfectpassive isformedbyusingwillorshall,followedbyhavebeenand the -ed

participleofthemainverb.Anothergoalwillhavebeenachieved.Thefigureswillhavebeendistortedbytheeffectsofthestrike.

R118 Thefutureprogressivepassiveandtheperfectprogressivepassivearerarelyused.R119 Thetablebelowgivesasummaryoftheactiveandpassiveforms.Thepassiveformsmarkedwith

astarareveryrarelyused. active passivepresentsimple Heeatsit. Itiseaten.presentprogressive Heiseatingit. Itisbeingeaten.presentperfect Hehaseatenit. Ithasbeeneaten.

presentperfectprogressive Hehasbeeneatingit. Ithasbeenbeingeaten.*

pastsimple Heateit. Itwaseaten.pastprogressive Hewaseatingit. Itwasbeingeaten.pastperfect Hehadeatenit. Ithadbeeneaten.

pastperfectprogressive Hehadbeeneatingit. Ithadbeenbeingeaten.*

future Hewilleatit. Itwillbeeaten.futureprogressive Hewillbeeatingit. Itwillbebeingeaten.*futureperfect Hewillhaveeatenit. Itwillhavebeeneaten.

futureperfectprogressive Hewillhavebeeneatingit. Itwillhavebeenbeingeaten.*

R120 Therearesomeverbsthatarenotusuallyusedintheprogressive,andsomethatarenotusedintheprogressiveinoneormoreoftheirmainmeanings.Hereisalistofverbsthatarenotusuallyusedintheprogressive:

astonishbebelievebelongconcernconsistcontaindeserveenvyexisthaveknowlastmatteroweownpossessresemblesatisfy

seemsupposesuspectunderstand

Verbsofthistypearesometimescalledstativeverbs.Verbs thatcanbeused in theprogressiveare sometimescalleddynamicverbs. Formore information about stativeverbs, see paragraph4.69.Thereareotherverbsthataretraditionallydescribedasstative,butthataresometimesusedintheprogressive,particularlyinlessformaltexts.Formoreinformationabouttheseverbs,see4.69.

R121 Beisnotgenerallyusedasamainverbintheprogressivewithadjectivesthatindicatepermanentcharacteristics, or with attributes that do not relate to behaviour. However, be is used in theprogressivetoindicatesomeone’sbehaviourataparticulartime.Heisextremelynice.HewasanAmerican.You’rebeingverysilly.Have is not used as a main verb in the progressive when it indicates possession, but it issometimesusedintheprogressivewhenitindicatesthatsomeoneisdoingsomething.Ihavetwodinghies.Wewerejusthavingaphilosophicaldiscussion.

R122 Someverbshaveveryspecificsensesinwhichtheyarenotusedintheprogressive.Forexample,smellisoftenusedintheprogressivewhenitmeanstosmellsomething,butrarelywhenitmeanstosmellofsomething.ComparethesentencesIwasjustsmellingyourflowers,andYourflowerssmelllovely.Here isa listofverbs thatarenotusuallyused in theprogressivewhen theyhave themeaningsindicated:

appear(seem)depend(berelatedto)feel(haveanopinion)fit(besuitable/betherightsize)hear(beawareofasound)mean(haveaparticularmeaning)measure(havelength)recognize(identifyaperson)smell(ofsomething)taste(ofsomething)weigh(haveweight)

R123 The imperative formofaverb is regardedas finite,because it can standas theverbofamainclause.However,itdoesnotshowtenseinthesamewayasotherfiniteverbphrases.Itisalwaysinthebaseform.Seeparagraphs5.37to5.41fortheusesoftheimperative.

Stopbeingsilly.Comehere.

InfinitivesandparticiplesR124 Infinitives and -ing participles are used after certain verbs such as stop, like, andwant (see

paragraphs3.182to3.212)and-ingand-edparticiplesalsousedincertainsubordinateclauses(seethesectiononsubordinateclausesinChapter8).Infinitivesand-ingparticiplesarealsousedinsomestructureswithimpersonalit(seeparagraphs9.31to9.45).To-infinitivesarealsousedaftersomenounsandadjectives(seeparagraphs2.293to2.302,and2.51to2.62).Youcanalsouse-ingparticiplesastheobjectsofprepositions.Participlesandinfinitivescanhaveobjects,complements,oradverbialsafterthem,justlikeverbsthathaveatense.Aclausebeginningwithato-infinitiveiscalledato-infinitiveclause,aclausebeginningwithan-ingparticipleiscalledan-ingparticipleclause,andaclausebeginningwithan-edparticipleiscalledan-edparticipleclause.

R125 Theorderofauxiliariesisthesameasforverbsthathaveatense(seeparagraphR89).R126 The active to-infinitive consists of to and the base form of the verb. This is sometimes simply

calledtheinfinitive.Iwanttoescapefromhere.IaskedDavidtogowithme.

R127 Theactiveinfinitivewithouttoconsistsof thebaseformof theverb. It issometimescalled thebareinfinitive.Theyhelpedmegetsettledhere.

R128 Otheractiveinfinitiveformsareoccasionallyused.Thepresentprogressiveinfinitiveconsistsoftobeorbe,followedbythe-ingparticiple.Itismuchbetterforyoungchildrentobelivingathome.Theperfectorpastinfinitiveconsistsoftohaveorhave,followedbythe-edparticiple.Onlytwoareknowntohavedefected.Shemusthavedrowned.Theperfectorpastprogressiveinfinitiveconsistsoftohavebeenorhavebeen,followedbythe-ingparticiple.Iseemtohavebeeneatingallevening.

R129 There are also passive infinitives. The ordinary passive infinitive consists of to be or be,followedbythe-edparticiple.Ididn’twanttobecaughtoffguard.Heletitbeknownthathewouldbehomeallevening.Theperfectorpastpassiveinfinitiveconsistsoftohavebeenorhavebeen,followedbythe-edparticiple.Heseemstohavebeencompletelyforgotten.

R130 Thetablebelowgivesasummaryofinfinitives.Thepassiveinfinitivesmarkedwithastarareveryrarelyused.

active passive (to)eat (to)beeatenpresentprogressive (to)beeating (to)bebeingeaten*perfect (to)haveeaten (to)havebeeneatenperfectprogressive (to)havebeeneating (to)havebeenbeingeaten*

R131 The-ingparticipleisusedasaverbphrase,usuallywithanactivemeaning.Youcouldplaymeatune,saidSimon,sittingdown.Hecouldkeepintouchwithmebywritingletters.

R132 Combinationsbeginningwithhavingareoccasionallyused.Theperfectorpast-ingformconsistsofhavingandthe-edparticiple.Ash,havingforgottenhisfear,hadbecomeboredandrestless.

R133 Therearealsocombinationsbeginningwithbeingandhaving,whichhaveapassivemeaning.Theordinarypassive-ingformconsistsofbeingandthe-edparticiple.…fearsthatpatientswouldresentbeinginterviewedbyacomputer.Theperfectorpast-ingformconsistsofhavingbeenandthe-edparticiple.Havingbeendeclaredinsane,hewasconfinedinaprisonhospital.Theyweretakentohospitalafterhavingbeenwoundedbygunshot.

R134 Thetablebelowgivesasummaryof-ingforms.The-ingformmarkedwithastarisveryrarelyused.

active passive eating beingeatenperfect havingeaten havingbeeneatenperfectprogressive havingbeeneating havingbeenbeingeating*

R135 The-edparticipleisalsousedasaverbphrase,withapassivemeaning.Stunnedbytheattack,theenemywereoverwhelmed.Whenchallenged,sheseemedquitesurprised.

FormingadverbsR136 TheusesofadverbsareexplainedinChapters2,4,6,and10.R137 Mostadverbsarerelatedtoadjectivesinform,andofteninmeaning.Theyareformedbyaddingly

to theadjective.For informationonwhichadjectivesyoucanadd ly to, seeparagraphs6.17 to6.27.

sad → sadly

cheerful → cheerfully

private → privately

accidental → accidentally

surprising → surprisingly

R138 Sometimestheformationisslightlydifferent.Withadjectivesendinginle,youreplacethelewithly.

suitable → suitably

terrible → terribly

gentle → gently

Notethatwholehastherelatedadverbwholly.R139 Withadjectivesendinginy,youreplacetheywithily.

easy → easily

satisfactory → satisfactorily

Notethatone-syllableadjectivesendinginyusuallyhavelyadded,inthenormalway.wry → wryly

shy → shyly

Notethattheadverbrelatedtodrycanbespelleddrilyordryly.R140 Withadjectivesendinginic,youaddally.

automatic → automatically

tragic → tragically

Notethatpublichastherelatedadverbpublicly.R141 Withafewadjectivesendingine(notle),youreplacetheewithly.

due → duly

true → truly

undue → unduly

eerie → eerily

R142 Withfullanddull,youjustaddy.full → fully

dull → dully

R143 Notethatlyisnotgenerallyaddedtoadjectivesendinginedtoformadverbs.However,hereisalistofadverbsthatareformedinthisway:

absent-mindedlyadmittedlyallegedlyassuredlybelatedlyblessedlycontentedlycrookedlydecidedlydejectedlydelightedlydeservedlydeterminedlydistractedly

doggedlyexaggeratedlyexcitedlyfixedlyfrenziedlyguardedlyhalf-heartedlyheatedlyhurriedlylight-heartedlymarkedlypointedlyrepeatedlyreportedlyreputedlyresignedlysingle-handedlysupposedlyundoubtedlyunexpectedlyunhurriedlywholeheartedlywickedly

R144 Afewadverbsthatendinlyarerelatedtonouns.Theseincludesometimeadverbs.

day → daily

fortnight → fortnightly

hour → hourly

month → monthly

quarter → quarterly

week → weekly

year → yearly

Note the spellingofdaily. Thesewords are also themselves used as adjectives.Other adverbsrelatedtonounsareshownbelow.

name → namely

part → partly

purpose → purposely

body → bodily

R145 Afewadverbsendinginlyarenotrelatedtoanyadjectiveornoun.

accordinglyexceedinglyjokinglylonginglymanfully

presumably

R146 Hereisalistofadverbsthathavethesameformasadjectives:

alikeallrightalonecleandeepdirectevenextrafarfastfinefirstfreefreelancefullfull-timefurtherhardhighjustkindlylastlatelittlelongloudlownextnon-stopoff-handonlyoutrightoverallpart-timepastprettyquickrightslowsolostillstraighttightwellwidewrong

Note that theadverb is sometimesnot related inmeaning to theadjectivewhose form it shares.CheckthemeaningsinaCobuilddictionary.Withsomeofthesewords,therearealsorelatedformsendinginly.

cleanlydirectlydeeplyevenlyfinelyfirstlyfreelyfullyhardlyhighlyjustlylastlylatelyloudlyquicklyrightlyslowlytightlywidelywrongly

Notethattheselyformssometimeshavethesamemeaningastheotheradverbform,andsometimesnot.Thetimeadverbialsendinginly,whicharementionedinparagraphR144,alsohavethesameformasadjectives.

R147 Note thatordinal numbers are used both asmodifiers and as adverbs. They also have relatedadverbsendinginly.

R148 Hereisalistofadverbsthatarenotrelatedtoanyadjective:

afreshalasalikealmostaloudalsoaltogetheranyhowanywayapartbesidesdoubtlesseitherenough

forthwithfurthermorehalfhenceherebyhoweverindeedinsteadlikewisemaybemeanwhilemoremoreovermuchneverthelessnonethelessotherwiseperhapsquiteratherregardlesssosomehowsomewhatthereforethereuponthoughthustogethertooverywhatsoever

R149 Timeadverbialsandmanyadverbsofplacearealsonotrelatedtoadjectives.SeeChapters4and6forlistsoftheseadverbs.

FormingcomparativeandsuperlativeadverbsR150 Informationonhow tousecomparatives and superlatives of adverbs, andwhich adverbshave

them,isgiveninChapter6(6.30to6.35).R151 Thecomparativeofanadverbusuallyconsistsofthenormalformoftheadverbprecededbymore.

freely → morefreely

appropriately → moreappropriately

R152 Thesuperlativeofanadverbusuallyconsistsofthenormalformoftheadverbprecededbymost.commonly → mostcommonly

eagerly → mosteagerly

R153 A fewvery common adverbs have comparatives and superlatives that are singlewords and notformedusingmoreandmost.

Wellhasthecomparativebetterandthesuperlativebest.Shewouldaskhimlater,whensheknewhimbetter.IhavetofindoutwhatIcandobest.Badlyhasthecomparativeworseandthesuperlativeworst.Shewastreatedfarworsethananyanimal.Themanufacturingindustrieswerehitworst.Adverbsthathavethesameformasadjectiveshavethesamecomparativesandsuperlativesastheadjectives.Forexample,thecomparativeandsuperlativeoftheadverbfastarefasterandfastest,andthecomparativeandsuperlativeoftheadverbhardareharderandhardest.Priceshavebeenrisingfasterthanincomes.Youprobablylearnquickerbyhavinglessons.Theolderpeopleworkthehardest.Theoneswiththeshortestlegsruntheslowest.

R154 Hereisalistoftimeadverbialsandadverbsofplacethathavecomparativeandsuperlativeforms.SeeChapter 4 (4.70, 4.114, and 4.123) and Chapter 6 (6.60). Note that a few have irregularcomparativesandsuperlatives.

early → earlier → earliest

late → later(nosuperlative)

soon → sooner(nosuperlative)

long → longer → longest

deep → deeper → deepest

far → farther,further → farthest,furthest

near → nearer → nearest

close → closer → closest

GrammarsectionThegrammarofbusinessEnglish

Introduction

Networking

MakingsocialandbusinessarrangementsAskingforandconfirminginformationTalkingaboutexperience

Negotiating

MakingandmodifyingproposalsRejectingideasandproposals

Presenting

DescribingchangeMakingpredictionsContrastsandcomparisonsLinkingideasDistancingyourself

Meetings

InterruptingMakingsuggestionsMakingrequestsDisagreeingpolitely

ThegrammarofacademicEnglishIntroduction

Beingclearaboutwhatyouwanttosay:nounandverbphrases

NominalizationThenounphrase(1):PremodifyingnounphrasesThenounphrase(2):PostmodifyingnounphrasesTheverbphrase

Orderingandconnectingyourmessage

Usinggrammaticalstructuresandvocabularyto‘signpost’yourintentionReferringbackandreferringforward

Thestyleofyourmessage

DistancingReportingExpresingdegreesofcertaintyEmphasizing

ThegrammarofbusinessEnglish

IntroductionTherearecertainareasof lifeandactivitywhereparticularfeaturesof languagearefoundmorefrequently than in other areas. For example, doctors and engineers commonly use very specificvocabularyintheirwork-relatedcommunication.Apartfromspecializedvocabulary,therearealsogrammaticalpatternsthatoccurmorefrequentlyin particular contexts. This section looks at forms that are common in the field of business andcommerce.Examplesofhowlanguageisusedareorganizedintofourareas:NetworkingNegotiatingPresentingMeetings

Inmanycases,ofcourse,thelanguagethatisdescribedcanbeusedinmorethanoneofthesetopicareas.

Networking

MakingsocialandbusinessarrangementsThedialoguebelowisanexampleofthetypeofconversationthatmighttakeplacebetweentwopeoplewhowanttomakeanarrangementtomeetatalatertime.A Doyouwanttomeetupforlunchsometimenextweek?B Yes.Thatwouldbenice.WecantalkabouttheFCLdeal.I’mnotinonMonday.I’mgoingtoworkfromhome.HowaboutnextTuesday?

A Let’s see. No, I can’t. I’m taking some clients to the riverside development. What aboutWednesday?

B I’mgoingtoGermanyonWednesday.MyflightleavesaroundfivesoIdon’tneedtogetawayuntilafterlunch.Isthatokay?

A Fine.Let’smeetatone.

useofverbformswithfuturemeaning

Youcanusethepresentprogressive(see4.60)totalkaboutfuturearrangementsthatyouwould

putinadiary.Normallythesearrangementsinvolveotherpeople.We’rehavingameetingtodiscusstheproposalnextTuesday.ThepeoplefromILCarecomingforlunchattwo.Whenfuturearrangementsarenotfirmplans,butitisyourintentionthattheywillhappen,youusebegoingtofollowedbyaninfinitive(see4.58).I’mgoingtohaveanearlynightbecauseI’mtired.We’llhavesometimeafterthemeetingsowe’regoingtoexploretheoldpartofthecity.You use the present simple to talk about events in schedules such as transport timetables orconferenceprogrammes(see4.60).Ourflightleavesatsixandgetsinateight.Themorningplenarysessionstartsatninethirty.

expressionsformakingsuggestions

There are several ways in which you canmake suggestions about what you and someone elseshoulddo.YoucanuseLetfollowedbyusshortenedtoLet’s(see5.41).Let’shaveabreakandgoforacoffee.Let’sstayincontact.YoucanuseaquestionbeginningwithShallwe(see5.188).Shallwemeetoutsidetherestaurant?Shallwerewardourselveswithalittlelunch?YoucanuseaquestionbeginningwithWhydon’twe(see5.48).Whydon’twehaveaworkingbreakfastinthehotel?Whydon’twestayanextraday?YoucanuseaquestionbeginningwithWhataboutorHowabout in frontofanounphrase(see5.48).Howaboutadrinkafterthemeeting?HowaboutnextSunday?WhataboutthetwentiethofMarch?

AskingforandconfirminginformationTo form the different type of commonly used questions in English you can use a variety ofstructures,wherethewordorderandtheuseofauxiliariescanbeconfusing.Thedialoguebelowis a phone call which might take place between two people where details of an order arediscussed.A Hello.I’mphoningaboutanorder.TheIDnumberis28443AB.B Whendidyouplacetheorderplease?A Lastweek.

B Sorry.Whatwastheordernumberagain?A 28443AB.B Ohyes,itwasforsomeswitcherunits,wasn’tit?A That’sright.Canyoutellmeifit’sbeenprocessedyet?B Yes.Theywereoutofstockbutwegotsomeinyesterday.Didn’tyougetanemail?A Er,no.Haven’ttheybeensentoffyet?B Theywentoffthismorning.A Sodoyouhaveanyideawhenwecanexpectdelivery?B Theyshouldbewithyoutomorrow.A Okay.Thanks.

yes/noquestions

Whenyouareusing thepresentsimpleorpast simple formofbeyousimplyput theverb at thebeginningoftheclause,followedbythesubject(see5.14).Areyouwithmesofar?IsSimonuptothejob?Weretheyatthemeeting?Whentheverbisnotbeyouneedtouseanauxiliaryverb(ordo,does,ordid), followedby thesubjectandthenthemainverb(see5.12and5.13).Ishestayingheretonight?Doyouworkinateam?Didtheywanttotalktome?Willtheyacceptthat?Haveyougotthefigureswithyou?If there is more than one auxiliary verb, the first auxiliary comes at beginning of the clause,followedbythesubjectandthenotherauxiliariesandthemainverb.Hastheproblembeenreported?Havetheybeenwaitinglong?

wh-questions

Ifyouareusingthepresentsimpleorpastsimpleformofbe,theverbgoesafterthewh-wordandinfrontofthesubject(see5.26).Howwasyourmeeting?Whereisthecustomer?Sowherewereyourauditorsduringallofthis?Ifyouareusingthepresentsimpleorthepastsimpleofanyverbexceptbe,youputdo,does,ordidinfrontofthesubject(see5.26).

Whichdepartmentdidyouwant?Whodoyouworkfor?Howdidshemakethedecision?Whatdoeshereallythinkaboutthedeal?Whenawh-wordisthesubjectofaverb,orwhenitformspartofthesubject,thewordorderisthesameasinanaffirmativeclause(see5.25).Whoinvitedyou?Whathappenedearlieron?Whichbidwon?

othertypesofquestion

YoucanuseindirectquestionslikeCanyoutellme,Couldyoutellme,DoyouknowandHaveyouanyideainordertobemorepolite(see5.15).Foryes/noquestions,youuseiforwhetherfollowedbyaclausewithaffirmativewordorder.Canyoutellmeifhegotmymessage?Doyouknowwhethertheunitshavearrived?Forwh-questions,youuseawh-wordfollowedbyaclausewithaffirmativewordorder.Couldyoutellmewhatyou’vegotontoday?Haveyouanyideawhatitwouldcost?You can ask for confirmation that something is true by making a statement, and then adding aquestiontagsuchasisn’tit?ordoesn’tshe?(see5.16to5.22).TheyworkonSaturdays,don’tthey?Youcanparkthere,can’tyou?Youcanuseanegativequestiontoexpresssurpriseatasituation.Didn’tyouarrangetomeetthemattheairport?Wasn’tthemeetingatnine?Haven’tyoufinishedyet?

Talkingaboutexperience

talkingaboutthepresent

Youusethepresentsimpletotalkaboutpermanentfactsandroutines(see4.9to4.11).Weofferawiderangeofservicesforthebioindustry.Everyweek,SusandrivestoEdmontonforameetingwiththefactorymanager.Thefirstthingwedoisasitesurvey.Youusethepresentprogressivetotalkaboutcurrentsituationswhenyouwanttoemphasizethattheyaretemporaryorinprogressatthetimeofspeaking(see4.17to4.19).Weareupdatingourflightrulestoadapttothenewscenario.

UsersarelookingatotherwaysoffinancingITprojects.He’sstayingthereastheguestofourTaiwan-basedsupplier.

talkingaboutfinishedpastsituations

Ifyouwanttotalkaboutasituationoraneventthathappenedataparticulartimeinthepastwhichisfinished,youusethepastsimple.Timeexpressionslikelastweekandayearago,whichrefertofinishedtimeperiodsinthepast,canbeusedtomakethetimereferenceclear(see4.27to4.29).BallmerflewtoCalifornialastweekandproposedthemerger.AfterHarvard,hestudiedatOxfordUniversity.Ms.CaridipreviouslyworkedinthelegaldepartmentatLehmanBrothers.Youusethepastprogressivetoemphasizeanactioninprogressortogivethebackgroundcontextforevents(see4.31and4.32).Thecompanywaslosingmoney,sohedecidedtosell.

Theplantwasmakingaprofitof$250,000ayearandthemarketwasgrowingsteadily.

talkingaboutpastsituationsinrelationtothepresent

Thepresentperfectsimplecanbeusedtotalkabout:experiences,withoutstatingaspecifictimeeventsandsituationsthatstartedinthepastandcontinueuptothepresenteventsandsituationsthathaveanimmediateeffectonthepresent.

Youcannotusetimeexpressionslikeyesterday,lastyear,oratChristmaswiththepresentperfectsimple(see4.33to4.35).Yes,I’vebumpedintohimanumberoftimes.We’vemetwithallthemajorshareholders.Spendinghasrisensteadilysincethebeginningoftheyear.Haveyoubroughtthereportwithyou?Youusethepresentperfectprogressive:whenyouwanttotalkaboutsituationsthatstartedinthepast,thatmayormaynotbecompleted,

butthatyouseeastemporarywhenyouwanttoemphasizeduration(see4.36).

WehavebeenlookingforaEuropeanpartnerforsometime.Thecompanyhasbeenworkinghardtoreduceitsoverhead.

talkingaboutaparticulartimeinthepast

Ifyouwanttoshowthatoneeventhappenedbeforeanotherinthepastyoucanusethepastperfect(see4.37).Whenpeopleleftthemeeting,theyweremoreenthusiasticthanwhentheyhadarrived.Before

thenegotiationsstarted,theyhaddecidedtogiveemployeesa4%payrise.

Negotiating

Makingandmodifyingproposals

softeningthemessage

Youcanusecomparatives toshowthatyouareprepared tonegotiateonaparticularpoint (see2.103to2.111).Weneedamoreflexiblearrangement.I’mlookingforfigureclosertothreedollarssixtyaunit.Wouldyoubehappierwithafixedrate?Youcanusethemodalswould,could,mayandmighttomakeyourmessagelessdirect.Wemightbeabledroptheprice.Couldwelookatthatsideofyourproposallater?Wouldyouconsiderreducingdiscounts?

thinkingaboutpossiblefutureeventsandexploringpossibilities

Themodals could,may andmight are also used to say that a particular result or situation ispossible(see5.126).Theremaybeaslightdelay.Yes,thatmightbepossible.Yes,Icanseethatthiscouldhavegreatpotential.Youcanuseconditionalsentences todiscussoptionsandexplorepossibilities inahypotheticalway(see8.25to8.42).Ifyoucouldgiveusexclusivity,wecansettlethisnow.Thediscountcouldbebiggerifyouincreasedthequantity.IfIdroptheprice,havewegotadeal?Unlessyoucanshowabitofflexibility,wemightaswellcallitaday.

Rejectingideasandproposals

distancingyourselffromasituation

Todistanceyourselffromanopinion,andthereforesoundlessdirect,youcanusethepassiveformofareportingverbwithitastheimpersonalsubject(see7.69).Itwasunderstoodthatifweweresuccessfulinsecuringthetakeover,SarongwouldbecomeapartofInternationalLatex.Itisassumedthatsharepriceswillriseasaresultoftheoperation.

Itwasagreedthatthedetailswouldremainconfidential.

beingdiplomatic

Youcanuseaqualifier suchasa little,abit,orrather tomake a negativemessage seem lessstrong(see2.162).Thatsoundsalittleexpensive.Theymaybeabitlate,I’mafraid.Unfortunately,wewereratherdisappointedwiththequalityofthelastdelivery.Expressions likenot very, not totally, not completely, andnot entirely followed by a positiveadjectivesoundmorediplomaticthanusinganegativeadjective.Wearen’ttotallyconvincedbytheideaofusingroadtransport.Iwouldn’tbeveryhappywiththatarrangement.Youdon’tseemabsolutelycertainaboutthat.Thepastprogressivecanbeusedtomakeastatementmoreindirectinordertobepolite(see4.31and4.32).Wewereexpectingtohearanewproposaltoday.Iwasaimingtoestablishaframeworkforfurtherdiscussion.Wewerehopingtoreachagreementaboutthisbeforewego.

Presenting

Describingchange

thepastcomparedtothepresent

Youcanusethepresentperfectsimpletotalkabouteventsorsituationsthatarestillimportantinthepresent(see4.33).TheFTSEIndexhasstrengthenedfurthersincethismorning.Wehavemadechangesbasedonyourconcernsandfeedback.

thepresentmoment

To talk about change that is still in progress at the present moment, you can use the presentprogressive(see4.19).Theeconomyisgrowing,butifwelookclosertherearesomeworryingtrends.Inthecountry’smajorcities,thequalityoflifeisimproving.

Makingpredictions

opinionsaboutthefuture

Youcanusewillwhenyouarecertainaboutasituationinthefuture(see4.53).Thecutswillcertainlyhaveanegativeeffectontheeconomy.Ibelievethisattitudewillsoonbecomethenorm.Youcanalsousebegoingtoinsteadofwilltomakepredictions(see4.58).Shepredictsthatearningsaregoingtocomedownsharply.Wearetryingtodecidewhethertheeconomyisgoingtogointorecession.

expressinganegativeopinionaboutthefuture

Ifyouwanttomakeanegativeprediction,itsoundsmorepolitetointroduceanaffirmativeclausewithaphraselikeIdon’tthinkthantouseanegativeclause.Idon’tthinkthiswillgodownwellwiththeunion.Idon’tthinkit’sgoingtobeagreatsuccess.

degreesofcertaintyaboutthefuture

Youcanusecould,may,ormighttosaythatitispossiblethatsomethingwillhappen(see5.126).TheseeconomicproblemscouldcausehugeproblemsfortherestofEurope.Newtechnologymightbeabletohalvetheamountofwaterweuse.Themarketmayeventuallyaccomplishwhatenvironmentalistswant.Youusebelikelyfollowedbyato-infinitivetosaysomethingwillprobablyhappen.Emergingeconomiesarelikelytofacecontinuingproblems.Youusebeboundfollowedbyato-infinitivetosaystronglythatsomethingiscertaintohappeninthefuture(see5.234).Thepressureonmarginsisboundtomakesuccessdifficult.

Contrastsandcomparisons

concessiveclauses

You use conjunctions likewhile, although, in spite of, and despite to contrast one idea withanother(see8.66).Until now, only 8,000 people have registered with the site, although the company said thenumberisstillincreasing.Inspiteofthecrisis,salesareactuallyuponlastyear.Retailsalesareplummeting,whileconsumerpricesarerising.Whilstandwhereasaremoreformal.InFrancetherewasasmallimprovement,whereastherewasnochangeinGermany.Micro’sonlinestoreisalmostempty,whilstAzar’shasnearly50,000products.

makingcomparisons

Youcanuseanadjectivewitheither-eraddedtotheend(cheaper,older)ormoreplacedinfrontoftheadjective(moreexpensive,moreinteresting),followedbythan(see2.103to2.111).Thechipismoreeconomicalthanadedicatedsystem.KondexisbiggerthanGartexintermsofsales.Youcanalsousenotas…asornotso…astocomparethings(see2.128).OurfactoriesarestillnotasefficientasthecarplantsinJapan.Traditionalformsofadvertisingarenotaseffectiveastheyusedtobe.

emphasizingdegreesofdifference

You can use much, a lot or far in front of comparative adjective forms to emphasize a bigdifference.Manufacturersaremuchmorecautiousthanbeforeaboutinvestmentplans.Thejobprovidesherwithafargreaterchallengethanordinaryofficeworkwould.Youcanuseslightly,abitoralittletoemphasizesmalldifferences.Thefirst-quarterincreasewasslightlyhigherat1.2%.If anything, European and Pacific Rim executives are a little more aggressive than theJapanese.Toemphasizesmalldifferenceswiththenotas…asstructureyoucanaddquite.Butbyothermeasures,oilisnotquiteasexpensiveasitseems.

LinkingideasYoucanshowwhatsortofconnectionthereisbetweenonesentenceandanotherbyusingsentenceconnectors.Inapresentation,theseconnectorspreparethelistenerforwhatiscomingnext.

addingstrengthtoyourargument

Connectors such as on top of that and at the same time can be used to add strength to yourargument. In writing, or in more formal situations, you can usemoreover or furthermore (see10.49).Thefinancialcrisiscontinues.Ontopofthat,exceptionalweatherhasdevastatedcrops.Unemploymenthasgrownrapidly.Atthesametime,thereislowdemandforexistingskills.Expertspredictthatthedownturnwillbelessseverethanexpected.Furthermore,banksplantolendmorefreelyinthenextthreemonths.

contrast

You use connectors like however, on the other hand, or nevertheless when you want to giveanotherpointofview(see10.51).

Ifyouwantjobsecurity,thisisnotthepostforyou.Ontheotherhand,thesalaryisgood.Therewasafallinsaleslastmonth.However,revenuefromdigitalproductsrosebynearly20%inthefirsthalf.It is necessary for foreign currency traders to think quickly and accurately. Nevertheless,mistakesdooccasionallyoccur.

causeandeffect

Whenyouwanttoshowthatthefactorsituationyouarementioningisaresultofwhatyouhavejustreferredto,youcanbeginyourstatementusingaconnectorlikesoorasaresult.Ifyouwanttosoundmoreformalyoucanuseconsequentlyortherefore(see10.52).Another3,100jobswerelostlastyear.Sopeoplenolongertrustthecompany.Welostsightofwhatourcustomerswanted.Asaresult,salesslumped.Confidenceisstilllow.Consequently,firmsarenotwillingtomakenewinvestments.

Distancingyourself

thepassive

Youuse thepassivewhenyouwant to focusonactions,viewsanddecisions, rather thanon thepeople responsible for them (see 9.8 to 9.24). It is frequently used in reports, and it is morecommoninwrittenEnglish.In2006,18.3%oftheworld’selectricitywasproducedusingrenewablesources.Whenmaterialswerecoatedinthesubstance,theplatingremainedstableatroomtemperature.Thepassiveisoftenusedtodescribeprocesseswithadjunctslikefirst,second,then,andfinallytoindicateorder(see10.54).First, the rawdata iscollated in tables, It is thenprepared forprocessing.Finally, the datamodelisproduced.

Meetings

Interrupting

can,could

WhenyouareparticipatinginameetingyoucanusecanIandcouldItointerruptpolitely.Couldismorepolitethancan.CanIaskaquestionhere?CouldIjustinterrupthereforaminute?

MakingsuggestionsCanandcouldarealsousedformakingsuggestions.Couldwemaybedevelopanewpaymentsystem?CanweaskNetworkSolutionstohelp?Tosoundmorepersuasiveyoucanuseanegativequestion.Couldn’tweaskthemtocomeinforademonstration?Can’twedothislater?

Let’s…,Whydon’twe…

YoucanalsouseLet’s…andWhydon’twe…tomakesuggestions.Let’scallitaday.Whydon’twemoveontothenextpointontheagenda.

Makingrequests

Canyou…?,Couldyou…?

YoucanuseCanyou…orCouldyou… toasksomeonetodosomething.Could ismorepolitethancan.Canyousummarizethemainpoints,please?Couldyouexplainthatagain?

Wouldyoumind…

ThephraseWouldyoumindfollowingbythe-ingformisalsousedtomakepoliterequests.Wouldyoumindgoingbacktothepreviousgraphic?WouldyoumindjustwaitingaminutewhileIanswerthat?

conditionalsentences

Variousconditionalsentencescanalsobeusedinquestionstodirectameetinginapoliteway.Woulditbeallrightifwegooverthatagain?Isitokayifweleavethistilllater?Doyoumindifwestartwithafewintroductions,please?WouldyoumindifIinvestigatethisalittlefurther?

Disagreeingpolitely

Yes,but…

If you want to disagree with someone without offending them, you can use an expression ofagreementfollowedbybut.Well,IagreebutIseeitslightlydifferently.IseewhatyoumeanbutIstilldon’tthinkit’spossible.Itakeyourpointaboutthecostsbutwecouldstilldoit.

think,believe

Ifyouwanttocontradictsomebody,orsaysomethingthatotherpeoplemaydisagreewith,youcanavoidsoundingrudebyusingareportingverbsuchasIthink…(orIdon’tthink…)orIbelieve…(orIdon’tbelieve…).Ithinkit’stimewestopped.Idon’tthinkthat’sactuallythecase.Idon’tbelievewecommittedourselvestomaintainingtheprice.

seem,appear

Youcanavoidsoundingabsolutelycertainofyourinformationbyusingtheverbsseemorappear.Thisseemstobetheonlypossiblesolutiontotheproblem.Itappearsthatthecostofthenewsystemwouldbeminimal.

ThegrammarofacademicEnglish

IntroductionWhenyouwriteorspeakinacademiccontexts,itisimportantto:beclearaboutwhatyouwanttosayconnectandsequenceyourmessageestablishyourrelationshipwiththereaderappropriately.

Thelanguageyouchooseisrelatedtothepurposeofyourtext.Thiswillvaryaccordingto(i)theforminwhichyourmessagewillbepresentedand(ii)youraudience.Alectureorseminarpresentsinformationandpointsoutareasofdisagreement.Alectureisoftencertainintone,butitraisesquestionsthatcanbeexplored.Aseminarisanoccasionwhereviewsarepresentedanddiscussed.Thespeakeroftenusesyouandwe.Anessayorassignment brings togetheranddiscusses information.Adissertation or a journalarticleinvestigatesatopic.Thesetextsareformal,andthetoneisgenerallyimpersonal.Atextbookpresentsinformationforteachingandreference:ittellsthereaderwhatisknown,anditstonesuggestscertainty.

Beingclearaboutwhatyouwanttosay:nounandverbphrasesTheaimofacademicspeechandwritingistocommunicateamessageprecisely,andwithoutusingtoomanywords.Inordertoachievethis,speakersandwritersconcentrateinformationmainlyinnounandverbphrases.Research involves investigatingoranalysingasubject.Thismeans thatnounsandverbsused inacademictextsoftenrelatetoprocessesandconcepts.

NominalizationVerbsareoftennominalized(=madeintonouns)inordertofocusthereaderonaconceptorideainsteadoftheaction.Forexample:

verb noundemonstrate demonstrationdiscover discoverymeasure measurementassess assessmentassist assistancemaintain maintenance

The demonstration of brain mechanisms at work is not proof that rehabilitation has beenachieved.In1898MarieandPierreCurieannouncedtheirdiscoveryofanewelement.Afteraninitialmeasurementofthepatient’sbloodglucose,theyaregiven50gofsolublelactosetodrink.Theybasetheirassessmentofriskonavailablescientificevidence.Themaintenanceofbloodpressureisachievedlessrapidlyasweage.Laboratorytechnicianscanprovideassistancewhenrequired.

Thenounphrase(1):PremodifyingnounphrasesPremodificationallowsyoutoconcentratealotofinformationinthenounphrase.Youcanbuildthenounphraseinthefollowingways:noun+noun(+noun)

…afoodpreservationprocess.adverb+-edparticiple+noun+noun(+noun)

…arecentlydevelopedfoodpreservationprocess.…stronglymotivatedhistorystudents.…awell-organizedadvertisingcampaign.-edadjectives

Some -ed adjectives (see 2.77 to 2.93) carry the meaning of something that has already beencompleted.…finalizedplans.(=plansthathavebeenagreed)…apreviouslyexhibitedworkofart.(=aworkofartthathasbeenshownpreviously)…aclosedcase.(=acasebelongingtothegroupofcasesthathavebeensolved)…arecentlycompletedproject.(=aprojectthathasrecentlybeenfinished)adverb+-edparticiple+adjective+noun+noun(+noun)

…arecentlydevelopedcosteffectivefoodpreservationprocess.…anewlydiscoveredmajoroilfield.-ingadjectives

-ingadjectives(see2.63)areusedfordescribinganeffectoraprocess,orastatethatcontinuesoveraperiodoftime.Furtherchangesmaywellbringdiminishingreturns.…measurestocontroltherisingcostofliving.Usingmorethanfourpremodifiersmakesthenounphrasedifficulttounderstand,especiallywhenthisconsistsonlyofnouns.Forexample:…theschoolteamgameplayingarea.Inthiscase,itwouldbebettertouseaprepositionalphrase(seeprepositionalphrasesbelow).…playingareasforschoolteamgames.

Thenounphrase(2):PostmodifyingnounphrasesWhenyouneedtobemorepreciseaboutthenounphrase,ortogivethereadermoreinformation,youcanusearelativeclause,aparticipleorinfinitiveclause,oraprepositionalphrase.Toidentifyasubjectclearly,youuseadefiningrelativeclauseintroducedbyarelativepronoun(see1.146to1.150).ThemostcommonrelativepronouninacademicEnglishiswhich:Amagnetisadevicewhichstronglyattractscertainmetals.

reducingtherelativeclause

Therelativeclauseisoftenreducedinacademicwriting.Youcanreducetherelativeclauseinthefollowingways.leavingout the relativepronoun (when thedefining relative clause refers to theobject of the

sentence).Theharddrivewaserasedbecauseoftheconfidentialinformation(which)itcontained.usingaparticipleclause

Participleclausesreducetherelativeclausetoeitheran-ingparticipleoran-edparticiple.…oneofthehundredsofInternetentrepreneurs(whoare)launchingstartupsinPaloAlto.Theyrecommendfourtotwelvedoses(whichare)givenafewdaysapart.Othercommonverbs that areused to reduce the relativeclauseareuse,base, cause,make andconcern.usinganinfinitiveclause

Infinitiveclausesarelessfrequentthanparticipleclauses.Aninfinitiveclauseoftensuggeststhatitisimportanttodosomething.Aproblemtowatchforislooseningofthejointsatthetopofthelegs.(…insteadofAproblemwhichyoushouldwatchforis…)Therearesomebasicpsychologicalprinciplestobearinmind.(…insteadofTherearesomebasicpsychologicalprincipleswhichyoushouldbearinmind.)replacingtherelativeclausewithaprepositionalphrase.

Whenarelativeclausecontainshave,youcanreduceittoaprepositionalphraseusingwith:Parliamentisanationalgoverningbodywiththehighestleveloflegislativepower.(…insteadof…anationalgoverningbodywhichhasthehighestlevel…)When a relative clause contains is + preposition, you can reduce it to a simple prepositionalphrase:Asecondcentralconcept(whichis)atthecoreofmuchdevelopmentalresearchis…addinganidentifyingnounphrase

Youcangivefurtherinformationaboutapersonorthingbyusinganounphrasethatdescribesoridentifiesthemorit(see2.302).

TheMarianasTrench,11,034matitsdeepestpoint,isdeeperthantheheightofMountEverest.Aquickeralternative,asimplesearchprogram,makesiteasiertosearchthecorpus.Thisiscommonwhenyouareintroducingordefiningacronyms,abbreviationsortechnicalterms.TheScientificAdvisoryCommitteeonNutrition(SACN)hasissuedadraftreport.

non-definingrelativeclauses

Anon-definingrelativeclauseisnotneededtoidentifytheperson,thingorgroupyouaretalkingabout;instead,itgivesthereadermoreinformationaboutthesubject,oritevaluatesorcommentsonthesubject(see8.85).Darkmatter,whichmaybeinvisibleformanyreasons,hasbecomeincreasinglyimportant.

TheverbphraseIn general, academicEnglish is less concernedwith events, andmore concernedwithwhat hasbeenlearntfromtheevent.Therefore,thefocusofthesentencemovesawayfromtheverbphrasetothenounphrase.Verbsareoftennominalized(=madeintonouns)–seeNominalization.TherangeoftensesusedinacademicEnglishismorerestrictedthanineverydayEnglish:simpleformsofverbsareusedmorefrequently;progressiveforms,thepastperfect,andthefutureperfectareusedlessoften.The tenseyouuseshowsyourattitudeandotherpeople’sattitude to thesubject.Forexample, itshowswhetherapieceofresearchoranideaisstillgenerallyacceptedornot.

thepresentsimple

Thepresentsimpleiscommonlyusedinthefollowingways.torefertosomethingthatyoubelieveisstillvalid

Thetwotheoriesareknownas‘ridgepush’versus‘slabpull’respectively.tostatecontinuingobjectives

Theaimistodirecttheenergyoftheradiationtokillthecancerouscells.todescribegeneralprinciplesorlaws

Whenwaterfreezes,itexpands.toexplainordiscussdataorresults.

Theresultsshowthatonlyaportionofworldtradeisaffected.tomakereferencetoorrelateeventsinliteraryworks,films,etc.

Shakespeare,inKingLear,emphasizesthesocialcausesofmadness.

thepresentperfect

Thepresentperfectiscommonlyusedinthefollowingways.

toreviewresearchThereisavastliteraturelookingatdevelopmentissues,themainelementsofwhichhavebeenreviewedhere.tomakeageneralstatementaboutthestateofresearchactivityinagivenarea

Littleresearchhasbeendoneonmicroscopicplastics.tosummarizeatext

Inlightoftheevidencethathasbeenreviewedthusfarinthisbook…

thepastsimple

Thepastsimpleiscommonlyusedinthefollowingways:toindicatethatsomethinghappenedorwastrueataparticulartimeinthepast,andthatitmay

belessvalidtodayThealmostuniversalviewwasthattheliverwasthemainorganinthebloodsystem.todescribesamplesandprocedures

AfullstudywasconductedwithasampleofmanagersfromtheUKheadoffice.toreportfindings

Theirresearchshowedthatoverhalfofallcancercasescouldbeprevented.

will

Willisusedtostateyourintention.Thisstudywillexaminetheeffectsofdepression.Willoftenoccurswithanadverbsuchasoftenorprobably,becauseacademicwritersmustavoidsuggestingthattheirpersonalideasandtheoriesarefacts.Thedesertregionswillprobablybecomemoreextensive.Changesinpracticewilloftenbetheresultofalongpoliticalprocess.

linkingverbs

Linking verbs are used for describing a situation or a quality, and so they occur frequently inacademic English. Linking verbs that are commonly used in academic English are be, become,look,remain,seem,appear,prove,andrepresent(see3.126to3.181).Atfirstglance,thesystemseemsoverwhelminglycomplex.Scientistsfearthatsomevirusesmayprovechallengingtodealwith.Thesourceoftheinformationmustremainanonymous.Commoncomplementsinclude:nouns

Theresultsofthisexperimentremainasecret.Theirdecisionrepresentsaturnaround.

adjectivesThepatientsappearedtobeimmunetotheHIVvirus.Predictionsfornextyearlookincreasinglyuncertain.objectcomplements

You can put a noun or adjective complement after the object of some transitive verbs. Thiscomplementdescribestheobject,andiscalledanobjectcomplement.Theycannotkeeptheoptionsofbothpoliticsandterrorismopen.Televisionscoredsignificantlyhigheramongstthosewhofoundpoliticsinteresting.Someanalystsdonotconsideritavirus.

OrderingandconnectingyourmessageThere are several ways of using language to hold your whole message together and to give itmeaning.Thefirststepistoarrangecontentintoarecognizablepattern.Whenyouareplanningapiece of work or a talk, you can use the following pattern to sequence your ideas: describe asituation→outlineanyproblems→suggestasolutionprovideanevaluation.Thefollowingsectionsdescribetechniquesforensuringthatyourwritingorspeechholdstogetherwell,andthatbothyourintentionandyourmessageareclear:usinggrammaticalstructuresandvocabularytosignpostyourintentionreferringbackandreferringforwardprovidingconnectorstoholdsectionstogether.

Using grammatical structures and vocabulary to ‘signpost’ yourintention

There are several ways in which you can use grammatical structures and vocabulary within asectionoftexttoexpressthefollowingideas:thearrangementofeventsintimeprocedure(=howsomethingisdone)causeandeffectcomparisonsandcontrastadvantagesanddisadvantages.

arrangementofeventsintime

Ifyouwanttoshowthatonethinghappenedsoonaftertheother,youcanuseafiniteverbinthemainclause,andan-ingparticipleinthesubordinateclause:TheyheadedrapidlyfortheChannelports,showingtheirpassportsatthebarriers.Youcanalsoindicatetheorderinwhichthingshappenedusingordinalsandadverbssuchasfirst,

then,later,etc.Later,inDecember1985,thecommitteedecided…

procedure

You can use the same structure – a finite verb in themain clause, and an -ing participle in thesubordinateclause–toshowhowsomethingisdone.Researchers determined the size of each machine, taking into account the properties of thematerial.

cause/effect

Thesamestructurecanbeusedtoshowthatonethinghappenedasaresultofanother.Manyofthemenreturnedhome,causinglocalunemployment.Notethatyoucanalsoindicatecauseandeffectinamainclauseusingaverbsuchascause,leadto,orresultin,oranounsuchaseffect,result,oroutcome.Theconsumptionofanexcessivenumberofsweetscancauseobesity.Theeffectofthefaminein1921–22wasdevastating.

comparisonandcontrast

Youcancompareandcontrastinformationinthefollowingways.usingasentenceconnector

Conversely,theeffectofintravenousadministrationofthedrugisimmediate.Bycontrast,themorerecentpublicationismorestraightforward.usingacomparativeadverb

Owner-controlledcompaniesperformedbetterthanthosesubjecttomanagementcontrol.usingaverb

Theaimofthisreportistocompareandcontrastthesetwobusinessstructures.WewillcompareourownfindingswiththoseofMortimoreetal.(1988).Thesefindingscontraststronglywiththosefromothertests.

forandagainst

Youcanprovideanevaluationleadingtoaconclusioninthefollowingways.usinganadjective

Thismethodofproductionispreferable.usingaverb

Consumerspreferourproductsfortheirqualityandfinish.

usinganounThistypeofsurgeryhastheadvantagethatnoabdominalincisionisneeded.usinganadverbialclauseofreasonorpurpose

This typeoforganizationshouldbemuchsmaller, since itwill notneedpersonnel concernedwithlinemanagement.Youmusttakeasmuchcareaspossible,inordertoavoidaccidents.

ReferringbackandreferringforwardThemostcommonwayofmakingatextholdtogetheristoreferbacktosomethingthatyouhavementioned earlier, by using pronouns, demonstratives, determiners, and adjectives (see 10.2 to10.39).Itisalsocommontoreferforward,particularlyinlongertexts(see10.40to10.47).

referringback

Thisandthosearecommoninacademiccontexts:…theyhadcommissionedaspecificpieceofresearch.Thiscamesomewhatlate.There were, however, wide differences of opinion about party chances. Some of thosedifferences…Notethatthedemonstrativeisoftenlinkedwithanounreferringto:spokenevents

That’sagoodquestion.ideas

ThisviewisalsoheldbyReyandStiglitz(1988).actionsandevents

Duringthisprocess,cracksappearedinthelimestone.Thissituationcontinuedforalmosttwodecades.piecesofwriting

Asthisresearchhasshown,customerbrandloyaltyisveryhardtoachieve.Youusesuchasadeterminerandpredeterminertoreferback(10.29and10.30).Theygenerallyagreeonwhichaspectsofpoliceworktheylikeanddislike.Suchaconsensuswasoriginallyexplainedas…Thereporthighlightsthehighlevelofovercrowdinginsomeprisons.Insuchcircumstances…Otherwordsandexpressionsusedforreferringbackareprevious,above,andthe former…thelatter.Thepreviousargumentshavepointedtotwowaysinwhichthesystemmightbeimproved.Whatissaidabovegivesthebackgroundtowhatfollows.TheFrenchhavetwowordsforcitizenship:‘citoyenté’and‘civisme’,theformerdescribingthestatus,thelatter,attitudeandbehaviour.

referringforward

Toreferforwardtosectionsofthetext,youcanuse:followingasanadjective,orthefollowing, torefertotexts, ideas,andpiecesofwriting(see

10.43)Symptomsof theconditionmayincludeanyof the following:chestpains,headache,difficultybreathing,andjointpain.ThefollowingpassagesummarizesSchmidt’sviews:…theadverbbelow,normallyafternounsreferringtotextsandpiecesofwriting(see10.45)

ThetradeblockadewithIndia,describedbelow,resultedinsevereenergyshortages.

sentenceconnectors

Sentenceconnectorsshowtherelationshipbetweentwosentences,clauses,orsectionsoftext.Thefollowingareparticularlycommoninacademicspeechandwriting:

function sentenceconnectorsindicatingafurtherargument additionally,inaddition,also,furthermore,moreoverindicatingasimilarsituation again,equally,likewise,similarlyindicatingcontrast alternatively, in contrast, conversely, even so, however, nevertheless,

nonetheless,onthecontrary,ontheotherhand,althoughindicatingcause accordingly,asaresult,asaconsequence,consequently,hence,thereby,

therefore,thusindicatingpurpose inorderto,sothat,lest

ThestyleofyourmessageOnceyouhavedecidedonyourmessage,youneedtoformulateitsothatyoucanachievetheeffectyouareaimingfor.Commonwaysofpresentinginformationaredescribedbelow.

DistancingPresentyourtextusinganimpersonalvoice.Thisallowsyoutofocusontheissuesratherthanonthepeopleinvolved.ThestructuresbelowareespeciallyusefulforavoidingI.

impersonalit

Youcanremovefocusfrompeoplebyusingimpersonalit(see9.31to9.45).Itisalmostanoccupationalhazardacceptedbyvirologists.Useimpersonalitandapassiveformofareportingverbifyourmessageisanopinionheldbyanunspecifiedgroupofpeople(see7.69to7.73).Itiswidelybelievedthatthissubstanceisharmful.Itisacknowledgedthatresourcesareunevenlydistributed.Notethatyoucanalsouseareportingverbinthepassive,followedbyato-infinitive(see7.69).

Thissubstanceisbelievedtobeharmful.UVBandUVAarebothreportedtocauseskincancer.

thereis,thereare

Whenyouwanttosaythatsomethingexists,oryouwanttointroducesomethingnew,usethereasasubject(see9.46to9.55).Thereareseveralclaimstobeconsideredinrelationtothisperspective.Therearenofewerthanthirteendifferentspeciesofotter.

researchortextinsubjectposition

In a conclusion or an example, do not write I have discovered…. Instead, put a word such asfindingsorresultsinsubjectposition.Thesefindingssuggestthattherearetwodifferentprocessingmethods.Theresultsshowthatthisproblemiswidespread.

thepassive

Youcanusethepassivewithoutbytodescribeprocedureswhentheperformeroftheactiondoesnotneedtobespecified.Thetissuesamplewasremoved,analysedandstored.Theenginewasre-testedafterthemalfunction.Notethatitisimportantnottoover-usethepassive,asitcanmakeyourwritingdifficulttoread.

verbsthatindicateachangeofstate

Useverbs suchascontinue,decrease,and increase todescribe events that involve a changeofstate(see3.59to3.67).Thesituationcontinuestobeacauseforconcern.Therateofchangeslowedinthesecondhalfoftheyear.Theresultofachangeofstatecanbeshowninasubordinateclausebeginningwithan-ing form(see8.141).Pricesrose,leadingtoafallindemand.Appetiteislessened,resultinginweightlossanddietaryproblems.

ReportingAnimportantaspectofacademicspeakingandwritinginvolvesreporting(orciting)theworkofotheracademics.Citationscanbeusedtoexplainthebasisofyourwork,tosupportandillustrateyourarguments,ortocontrastyourideaswithotherwriters’theories.

Citations sometimes take the formofdirectquotes;however, the reported information isusuallysummarizedinyourownwords.ThefollowingreportingverbsarecommonlyusedinacademicEnglishtointroducecitedmaterial(see7.5to7.11).Thesesverbsindicatethetypeofactivityreported:

Iftheactivityis: research-related mental verbaluse: measure think state

calculate believe writeestimate consider definefind focuson challengeobtain

NuttallandGipps(1982)estimatethatthedirectcostoftheAPUwas£800,000peryear.CollinsandEllis(2001)alsochallengethetraditionalconceptoftheindividual.Notethattheverbsthatyouusewilldependonyouracademicdiscipline.Research-relatedverbsaremorecommon in technical and scientificwriting;mental andverbal activityverbs aremorecommoninthehumanitiesandsocialsciences.Theseverbsindicateyourattitudetothereportedmaterial:

Ifyouthinkitis: valid notvalid neutraluse: show failto discuss

establish overlook responddemonstrate ignore comment suggest

Wenger’sdatashowthat43percentofelderlypeoplenamedasaconfidantsomeonetheyhadknownforatleast50years.Thisevidencefailstoacknowledgetheimportanceofthechildren’sdiet.Theseverbsindicatethecitedauthor’sattitudetothematerial:

Iftheauthoris: positive negative neutral tentativeuse: argue refute state suggest

maintain object write believesee challenge discuss implyhold comment alludeto

BothSmithandGoodman(2000)maintainthatskilledadultreadingisfarfromerror-free.Blyarguesthattheprocessofinitiationintoadulthoodiseasierforwomenthanformen.Note that verbs that indicate attitude aremore commonly used in the humanities and the socialsciences.

ExpressingdegreesofcertaintyWhenyouareformulatingyourmessage,youneedtoconsiderhowstronglyyouwanttomakeyourclaim. Different structures express different degrees of certainty, and allow you to establish apositionthatyoucandefendifyouarecriticized.Forexample,itispossibletodefendthefollowingstatement:

Certainresearchershaveattemptedtoshowthatsomeunderprivilegedchildrencannotengageinplay.Thefollowingwouldbelesseasytodefend:Researchershaveshownthatunderprivilegedchildrencannotengageinplay.

notbeingprecise

Youcanusethefollowingadverbswhentheavailableinformationisnotprecise.quantity frequency degree limitationroughly often rather predominantlyapproximately frequently quite mostlyaround occasionally somewhat partly

seldom rarely partially

Increasedriskofinfectionispredominantlylinkedtopoorsanitation.

cautiouslanguage

You can usemore cautious language when you think that other people may disagree with yourstatement,orwhenyouwanttoexpressuncertaintyaboutwhetherornotapropositionistrue.Thismaybebecauseyoureallyareuncertain,orbecauseyouwanttocreateopportunitiesforreaderstodecideforthemselves.Thefollowinglistsshowdistancingstructuresthatarecommonlyusedformakingstementssoundmorecautious.

modalverbs semi-auxiliaryverbs adverbs prepositionalphrases adjectivescould seem possibly insomerespects uncertainmight appear seemingly inasense possiblemay arguably inmostcases can likely ingeneral apparently inprinciple evidently generally normally typically

Thereis,arguably,acommonthreadinallthesepositions.Aswillbeseenlater,currentmodelsareinadequateinsomerespects.Note that ifyouexpress toomuchuncertainty,or ifyou repeatedlyshow thatyouarenot sure ifsomethingistrue,yourmessagewillhavelessworth,anditwillbedifficulttointerpret.

EmphasizingIngeneralEnglish,youcanusestrongwordstoemphasizeapoint.InacademicEnglish,youoftenshowemphasisbychangingthenormalwordorderofastatement.

subordinateclauseinfirstposition

Subordinateclausesnormallyoccurinfirstpositioninacademictexts.Themainclausecarriesthenewormostimportantinformation.Youcanusethefollowingstructurestoshowthatsomethingimportantisgoingtobeannouncedattheendofthesentence.nominalrelativeclauses(see8.112to8.116)

Whatisnowrequiredisasystematicinvestigationofthedata.prefacingstructures(see9.73to9.78)

Thequestionwenowneedtoconsideriswhetherthedosageshouldbereduced.splitsentences(see9.25to9.30)

Itwasthisdeclarationwhichtriggeredtheeventsthatfollowed.

Index

Note:entriesinboldaregrammaticalterms;entriesinitalicsarelexicalterms.Atcertainentries(forexample,nouns andverbs),thereisalistoftermswiththe•symbol;theselistswillhelpyoutoquicklyfindallthemaincategoriesinalongsectionofthebook.AnumberprecededbyRreferstoaparagraphintheReferenceSection.

A

aandan1.228–1.229withcountablenouns1.228,1.235anwithwordsstartingwithavowelsound1.229notbeingspecificaboutwhichpersonorthingyouarereferringto1.230inphrasesthataddextrainformation1.231afterlinkingverbs1.232withuncountablenouns1.233usingindividualstogeneralize1.234afternotsuch2.130sayingaoraninsteadofone2.215infrontoflargenumbers2.221expressingspeed2.257withdaysoftheweek4.96infrequencyexpressions4.115

ability5.112,5.118–5.121ablebeableto5.224–5.226

about10.12beabouttoexpressingthefuture4.59infrequencyexpressions4.116asadverbofdirection6.67asprepositionindicationmovement6.97afterreportingverbtoindicatesubjectmatter7.85

above10.12absolute2.36absolutely2.148,6.50active9.8addressingpeople9.95–9.98titles1.55,9.97

adjectivalclause seerelativeclausesadjectives2.2–2.122•attributiveadjectives2.42–2.43•classifyingadjectives2.26–2.28,2.83–2.84,8.183•colouradjectives2.9,2.30–2.34•compoundadjectives2.16,2.94–2.102•-edadjectives2.15,2.77–2.93•emphasizingadjectives2.36–2.39•-ingadjectives2.15,2.63–2.76•predicativeadjectives2.44–2.53•qualitativeadjectives2.22–2.25,2.80•thatcanbebothclassifyingandqualitative2.29

usedasnouns1.66–1.72usingadjectivesasnouns1.170orderofadjectives2.14talkingaboutdifferentamountsofaquality2.18,2.140–2.156adjectivestructures2.19–2.21showingdisapproval2.37,2.38postdeterminers2.40onlyusedinfrontofanoun2.42–2.43thatalwaysfollowalinkingverb2.44–2.50followedbyto-infinitiveclauses2.51–2.52followedbythat-clauses2.53positioninnounphrases2.54–2.55listsofadjectivesusedafteranoun2.58–2.59differentmeaningswhenusedinfrontoforafteranoun2.59–2.60sayingthatthereisenoughofaquality2.149–2.151sayingthatthereisnotenoughofaquality2.152sayingthatthereistoomuchofaquality2.153–2.156comparativesandsuperlatives2.203–2.122withfractions2.241ascomplements3.132–3.137,3.162–3.171withhowinwh-questions5.34adding-lytomakeadverbs6.5,R137–R143thatdonotformadverbs6.27withnominalthat-clauses8.119waysoflinkingadjectives8.184–8.187,8.201withpluralnouns8.185adjectivesinimpersonalitstructures9.36,9.42

adverbialclauses8.6–8.82•clausesofmanner8.78•concessiveclauses8.65•conditionalclauses8.25–8.26•placeclauses8.73–8.77•purposeclauses8.43–8.48•reasonclauses8.49–8.53•reportingconditionalstatements7.59•resultclauses8.54–8.64•timeclauses8.8

adverbials6.1–6.121•adverbialsofdirection6.93–6.97•adverbialsofduration4.123–4.144•adverbialsoffrequency4.114–4.122•adverbialsofposition6.84–6.92•adverbialsoftime4.1–4.112•sentenceadverbials10.48–10.56seealsoadverbs andprepositionalphrases

forindicatingdurationandfrequency4.4–4.5positionof6.7forfocusing9.56forbeingspecific9.57–9.58foremphasizing9.62

adverbparticles6.54adverbs6.16•adverbsofdegree6.45–6.46•adverbsofmanner6.36•adverbsofplace6.53•focusingadverbs9.64•indefiniteplaceadverbs6.61-lytimeadverbs4.120typesofadverb6.15meaningsrelatedtoadjectives6.17

spelling6.18–6.19sameformasadjective6.24–6.25notrelatedtoadjectives6.29emphasizingadverbs6.49–6.50showingposition6.54–6.58indicatingdestinationsandtargets6.65afternouns6.72formationR136–R149

adviceandwarnings5.38reportingadvice7.39–7.42

affirmative5.6–5.9afterrelatingeventsorperiodsoftime4.107–4.108inexpressionsofduration4.129–4.130,4.139asprepositionindicatingdirection6.95intimeclauses8.15

again4.119age2.212,2.258–2.263exactage2.259approximateage2.260–2.262ofathing2.263

agreementnoun–verbagreement1.16,1.24,1.35,1.46,1.48withcollectivenouns1.48–1.50withadjectivesasheadwords1.68withtheyorthem1.123withindefinitepronouns1.129possessivedeterminerswithnoun1.199withquantityexpressions2.181,2.187withpartitives2.194withcardinalnumbers2.217–2.218withfractions2.244withplacenames6.124withtwonoungroupsassubject8.177firstwordoffiniteverbphraseandsubjectR92

all1.242usedinsteadofpersonalpronoun1.156asindefinitedeterminer1.224–1.225,1.242aspredeterminer1.251allof2.179–2.180inexpressionsofduration4.135atstartofsplitsentences9.28

almost5.89already4.84although8.66,8.71always4.45amounts2.194,2.176–2.207omittingof2.190–2.191partitives2.194–2.207partitiveswithuncountablenouns2.195–2.198partitivesreferringtocontentsandcontainers2.200endingin-ful2.201–2.203partitivesreferringtopartsandfractions2.204partitivesreferringtoindividualitems2.205pairof2.206–2.207

an seeaandanandwithbetweenexpressingarangeofnumbers2.271linkingtwoverbs:tryand…,comeand…,etc3.200atbeginningofresultclauses8.55

linkingclauses8.152linkingnounphrases8.172linkingadjectives8.181–8.183,8.185–8.186linkingadverbs8.188linkingprepositionsandprepositionalphrases8.191–8.192linkingmodifiers8.193withbothforemphasis8.195linkingmorethantwoclauses,phrases,orwordstogether8.200

another1.240asdeterminer1.224asquantityexpressionwithof2.179,2.182

any1.239structuresusedwithany-1.140asdeterminer1.224–1.225withvarioustypesofnoun1.239withcomparatives2.163,6.35asquantityexpressionwithof2.179,2.185,2.188.

anybody1.128–1.139anymore4.83anyone1.128–1.139anything1.128–1.139anywhere6.61–6.71apostrophes1.211–1.221,1.145showingpossession1.210spellingandpronunciation1.211,R32–R40showingcloseconnection1.214–1.216usedinprepositionalphraseswithof1.218–1.221

appear7.70,7.71article seedeterminersasfortalkingaboutwhatrolesomethinghasorhowitisperceived3.178afterverbs,describingthesubject3.179–3.181forcomparingthings6.106–6.108intimeclauses8.11inreasonclauses8.50inclausesofmanner8.79–8.81

as…asafterjust,quite,nearly,andalmost2.164as+adverb+as6.108

asif8.81–8.82asthough8.81–8.82atintimeexpressions4.91forrelatingevents4.92,4.93inexpressionsoffrequency4.121atallforemphasisinnegativestatements5.90referringtoposition6.89indicatingdirection6.95afterreportingverbtomentionthehearer7.78

attitudeofspeaker9.79–9.90attributiveadjectives2.42–2.43auxiliariespositionof5.12,5.13inquestionstags5.17withnot5.55–5.58leavingouttheauxiliary8.167whenleavingwordsout10.61–10.71formsofauxiliariesR80–R88

B

bareinfinitiveR127barely5.82–5.88baseformsR52–R53beinstructuresexpressingage2.259–2.263asalinkingverb3.126–3.131followedbyprepositionalphrases3.173followedbytimeexpression3.176asamainverb5.14,10.64inwhetherclauses8.41usedtoformpassives9.9getinsteadofbeinpassives9.24repeatingbewhenwordsareleftout10.64asanauxiliaryR80,R89contractedformsR81

because8.50become3.126beforerelatingeventsorperiodsoftime4.107inexpressionsoffrequency4.119inexpressionsofduration4.141asprepositionofposition6.86intimeclauses8.16

belief5.125below10.45best6.32,6.52better6.32,6.52hadbetter5.247

between2.271billion2.221–2.222billionsusedforemphasis2.224

bitabitandalittlebitassubmodifyingadverbs2.162abitasadverbofdegree6.52

bothusedinsteadofapersonalpronoun1.156asdeterminer1.242aspredeterminer1.251asquantityexpressionwithof2.179

broadnegatives5.82–5.88positioninclause5.83–5.84

but5.76,8.5,8.152–8.161afternegativewordsstartingwithno5.76usedforlinkingclauses8.152usedforlinkingadjectives8.187usedforlinkingadverbs8.188

byafteranounphrase2.286forspecifictime4.111infrequencyexpressions4.122asprepositionreferringtoposition6.89inpassives9.14listsofverbsusedwithbyinthepassive9.16

C

can5.161indicatingskillsandabilities5.118expressingawareness5.119talkingaboutgeneraltruths5.120–5.121indicatingbelief5.125askingforpermission5.142askingforhelp5.161makingoffersofhelp5.176indicatingability5.179

cannotindicatingimpossibility5.128indicatingcertainty5.132forbidding5.147–5.151makingrequests5.163showingunwillingness5.199showingpoliteness5.219–5.220

can’tmakingrequests5.165

capitalletters1.14cardinalnumbers2.208,2.213–2.231,R42–R45aspronouns1.157,2.220talkingaboutnegativeamounts2.216agreementwithnounsandverbs2.217–2.218largenumbers2.221approximatequantities2.224–2.225usedasquantityexpressions2.227–2.228writingandsayingcardinalnumbersR42–R45

causative3.211certainasanindefinitedeterminer1.245

classifyingadjectives2.26–2.29clauses

seealsomainclause andsubordinateclause•clausesofmanner8.78–8.82•concessiveclauses8.65–8.72•conditionalclauses8.25–8.42•placeclauses8.73–8.77•purposeclauses8.43–8.48•reasonclauses8.49–8.53•resultclauses8.54–8.64•timeclauses8.8–8.24

cohesion seereferringbackandreferringforward

collectivenouns1.47–1.51listofcollectivenouns1.51

colouradjectives2.30–2.34colournouns1.71,2.35addingextrainformationtocolouradjectives2.31approximatecolours2.32–2.33linkingcolouradjectives8.182

come3.200commonnouns1.3–1.4comparativeadjectives2.103–2.111positionofcomparativeadjectives2.55infrontofanoun2.104afteralinkingverb2.105usedasnouns2.109modifyingcomparativesadjectives2.157–2.163irregularforms6.32–6.35formationR20–R31

comparativeadverbs6.30–6.35,R150–R154forms6.31structures6.35formationandirregularformsR151–R154

comparingthings2.103–2.139,8.80–8.82comparisonofcolouradjectives2.34structuresusedaftercomparatives2.106position2.107moreandmorethan2.108withless2.110contrastedcomparatives2.111withlike2.132–2.134adjectivesmeaningthesame2.138modifyingadjectivesusedincomparisons2.139withlikeandas6.106–6.108,6.119withthan6.119

complement3.127,8.70,9.1,9.21seealsolinkingverbs

complete2.36compoundadjectives2.16,2.94–2.102formation2.95–2.96compoundqualitativeadjectives2.97compoundclassifyingadjectives2.98compoundcolouradjectives2.99longcompoundadjectives2.100–2.101foreigncompoundadjectives2.102

compoundnouns1.83–1.92twowords,onewordorahyphen?1.84listsofcompoundnouns1.85–1.88fromphrasalverbs1.89pluralforms1.91–1.92expressingage2.259

compoundverbs3.117–3.125writtenformsofcompoundverbs3.119formsofcompoundverbs3.120–3.121intransitivecompoundverbs3.122transitivecompoundverbs3.123–3.124inflectingcompoundverbs3.125

conditionalclauses8.25–8.42summaryofuses8.25beginningwithiforunless8.26inimperativestructures8.27choiceoftense8.28–8.32thingsthatoftenhappen8.29thingsthatoftenhappenedinthepast8.30possiblesituations8.31thingsthatmighthappeninthefuture8.32–8.33unlikelysituations8.34whatmighthavebeen8.35omissionofifwithshould,were,orhad8.36

contractionsn’tfornot5.61–5.62,5.104,5.249ofwillandwould5.108ofauxiliariesR80

conjunctions8.2–8.5,10.55subordinatingconjunctions8.4coordinatingconjunctions8.5functions8.153emphasizing8.194–8.199

coordination8.149–8.201

seealsolinkingwords,phrases,andclausestogetherlistofcoordinatingconjunctions8.149

copula seelinkingverbscouldindicatingabilityinthepast5.112,5.118–5.121indicatingawareness5.119talkingaboutgeneraltruths5.120–5.121indicatingpresentpossibility5.126makingstrongassertions5.128requestingpermissioninthepast5.144–5.145givinginstructionsandappealsforhelp5.160makingrequests5.164makingsuggestions5.183showingpoliteness5.219–5.220expressingopinions5.220inreportedclauses7.54

couldhaveindicatingpossibility5.117–5.141indicatinguncertainty5.139withnegativeforimpossibility5.141

couldnotindicatingimpossibility5.128withcomparativesforstrongassertion5.129makingrequests5.165showingunwillingness5.199–5.201

countablenouns1.15–1.22useofdeterminers1.17listofcountablenouns1.18singularandpluralforms1.19sameformforsingularandplural1.20singularformwithpluralmeaning1.21–1.22

D

dareanddaren’t5.248–5.253declarativeform5.7–5.10makingpromises5.9

definingrelativeclauses8.89–8.108,8.144–8.145delexicalverbs3.32–3.45listofdelexicalverbs3.33relativepronounsindefiningclauses8.89referringtopeople8.90referringtothings8.91useafterpronouns8.145

demonstrativeadjectives1.184–1.193demonstrativepronouns:this,that,theseandthose1.5,1.124–1.127determiners1.162–1.250•aandan1.228–1.229•demonstratives1.184–1.193•possessivedeterminers1.194–1.207•the1.163–1.83listofdefinitedeterminers1.163this,that,these,andthose1.184listofindefinitedeterminers1.223usingnounswithoutdeterminers1.227modifyingdeterminers1.248

difference2.157–2.168directobject seeobject

directspeech7.16–7.26changingtheorderofthesubjectandthereportingverb7.25punctuationofquotes7.26

ditransitiveverbs3.7,3.73–3.82,9.20lists3.82inthepassive9.20

doasdelexicalverb3.33foremphasis5.10asauxiliary5.15,5.26,5.56,5.69,5.252usedinformingquestiontags5.18replacingaverbphrasewhenwordsareleftout10.63

duration4.123–4.134nounphrasesthatexpressduration4.133startandendtimes4.142

during4.103–4.104,4.121dynamicverbsR120

E

eachassubject1.144aspronoun1.154,1.156foremphasis1.156usedinsteadofpersonalpronoun1.224,1.243asindefinitedeterminer1.243eachofandeachoneofasquantityexpressions2.186

eachotherandoneanotherasreciprocalpronouns1.142–1.143withreciprocalverbs3.70

-edadjectives2.15,2.77–2.93formandmeaning2.81–2.82modifying-edadjectives2.85–2.86withanactivemeaning2.87afterlinkingverbs2.88–2.90formedfromnouns2.91unrelatedtoverbsornouns2.92–2.93

-edparticiple2.293,2.300,3.201,3.212,8.137–8.138,8.142–8.143,R71–R80getwithan-edparticiple3.201wantandneedwithan-edparticiple3.212

either1.224,1.242,8.156asquantityexpressionwithof2.179,2.182usedwithorforemphasis8.197

either/or-questions5.22ellipsis seeleavingwordsoutelse1.138withindefinitepronouns1.138withindefiniteplaceadverbs6.63elseandorelseinresultclauses8.64

elsewhere6.63emphasisusingreflexivepronouns1.114,1.116–1.117,3.29–3.30usingall,both,oreach1.156emphasizingthe1.181emphasizingnumbersandamounts1.242,1.244.2.214,2.224emphasizingadjectives2.36–2.39,6.49–6.50submodifyingadverbsemphasizingadjectives2.148emphasizingfrequency4.24

emphasizingduration4.129usingdo,does,ordid5.10emphasizingwh-questions5.36usingneverfollowedbydo5.69puttingtheadverbialfirst6.8,6.82emphasizingcoordinatingconjunctions8.194–8.199usingsplitsentences9.25–9.30usingsentenceadverbials9.62–9.64fronting9.69–9.72

emphasizingadjectives2.36–2.39,6.49emphasizingadverbs6.49,6.50–6.50enoughasdeterminer1.224–1.225,1.241withadjectives2.150asquantityexpressionwithof2.179,2.185insentenceadverbials9.81

ergativeverbs3.59–3.67even1.128–1.139withcomparatives2.160evenifinconditionalclauses8.39eventhoughinconcessiveclauses8.67

everasfrequencyexpression4.114afternegativewordsforemphasis5.92

everystructuresusedwithevery-1.139asdeterminer1.224,1.243infrequencyexpressions4.114

everybody1.128–1.139everyone1.128–1.139everything1.128–1.139everywhere6.61–6.64,6.71–6.72,6.99,8.76except8.69exclamations9.91–9.94expectation5.132,5.136

F

far1.246modifyingdeterminers1.248withhowinwh-questions5.34followedbyadverbsofposition6.59asadverbofdestination6.65

feelings2.36few1.246asdeterminer1.224,1.241afewasdeterminer1.247aftertoo2.153asquantityexpressionwithof2.179,2.182

fewerasdeterminer1.154,1.246asquantityexpressionwithof2.189fewerthanindicatingamaximumamount2.267

finiteverbsR89first2.232–2.239focusinasentence,changing9.1–9.68bychangingthesubject3.59usingadverbials9.7

following2.232,4.107,10.43forlistofnounsusuallyfollowedbyfor2.288introducingindirectobject3.77,8.97withthepresentperfect4.34forlengthoftime4.125–4.129withwhatinwh-questions5.35inreasonclauses8.53aftersentenceadverbials9.83

forbidding5.147formerandlatter10.13–10.14fractions2.210,2.240–2.248,R48singularfractions2.241,2.242pluralfractions2.243agreementwithverb2.244aspronouns2.245expressedinfigures2.248

frequency4.114–4.122forandinwithgeneralorspecifictime4.132

fromfrom…toexpressingarangeofnumbers2.271regularintervals4.117–4.118prepositionalphrases4.121inexpressionsofduration4.138expressingdistance6.91indicatingstartingpoint6.98listofadverbsthatcancomeafterfrom6.99aftercertainreportingverbs7.80

fronting seeputtingsomethingfirstfuturecontinuous seefuturetimefuturepossibility5.134futuretime4.52–4.63,5.130–5.134will4.53generaltruths4.54,5.120–5.121futureprogressive4.55futureperfect4.56futureperfectprogressive4.57begoingto4.58plannedevents4.59presentprogressive4.60modalswillandshall5.110–5.134modalwould5.115

G

genericpronouns1.119–1.123gerunds see-ingnoungetwithan-edparticiplewithpassivemeaning3.201,9.24forshowingcause3.211withimpersonalit9.36

givenounsusedwithdelexicalgive3.43withtwoobjects3.73

goaslinkingverb3.157begoingtotoexpressfuturetime4.58,5.233begoingtotoexpressintention5.237

got seegetandhavegotgradability2.23–2.25

H

habitualactionsexpressedbysimplepresent4.11expressedbypresentprogressive4.20expressedbysimplepast5.32expressedbywould5.114expressedbyusedto7.57

hadhadbetter5.247inconditionalclauses8.36

halfaspredeterminer1.251,2.247assubmodifyingadverb2.147halfofbeforepronoun2.242

hardlyasbroadnegative5.82beforeatimeclause8.17

havehavegotforshowingpossession3.16nounsthatgowithdelexicalhave3.41forshowingcause3.211havegotasmainverbinyes/noquestions5.16havenotshortenedtohaven’t5.58invitingpersuasively5.180,5.181asauxiliary10.68,R84,R100,R107inflectedformsR80

have(got)tohavetoandhavegottoforsayinghowlikelysomethingis5.232havetoandhavegottoforindicatingimportance5.240,5.244havetoinreportedspeech7.56

havingand-edparticipleforshowingresults8.137

he1.96,1.99usedforreferringtopeopleingeneral1.123usedforreferringbacktoanindefinitepronoun1.133

her1.96,1.99asobjectpronoun1.104–1.106aspossessivedeterminer1.194–1.222

hers1.107–1.109herself1.111–1.118,3.26–3.31himasobjectpronoun1.104–1.106usedforreferringtopeopleingeneral1.123usedforreferringbacktoanindefinitepronoun1.133

himself1.111–1.118,3.26–3.31hisaspossessivepronoun1.107–1.109aspossessivedeterminer1.194–1.222

hopesandwishes5.210how5.33,5.34inwh-questions5.23–5.27inclausesaftersomeadjectives9.43inexclamations9.93inrhetoricalquestions9.94

however8.42hundred2.221hundredsusedforemphasis2.224

hyphens1.84,2.78,2.100,3.119

I

I1.96,1.97ifafterwhatinwh-questions5.35inconditionalclauses8.26,8.37

if-clausesusedtoreportquestions7.35listofverbsthatcomebeforeif-clauses7.36followedbythen8.26

imperative5.37makingappeals5.39givingexplanations5.40withlet5.41forbidding5.151givinginstructions5.170

imperialmeasurements2.253impersonalit9.5,9.31–9.45describingaplaceorsituation9.34asanobject9.35describingtheweather9.36givingtimesanddates9.37talkingaboutthetime9.38followedbylinkingverb9.39commentingonafactthatyouareabouttomention9.42,9.43

importance5.211–5.218,5.244–5.247impossibilityinexpressingage2.260describingwhatsomeoneiswearing2.285intimeexpressions4.94infrequencyexpressions4.121forendofaperiod4.130–4.131withgeneralorspecifictime4.132referringtoposition6.89extendedmeanings6.121usedwithverbsinthepassive9.16

indefinitedeterminers1.223–1.250withuncountablenouns1.225,1.226a/an1.228–1.235some1.236–1.238any1.239enough1.241all,bothandeither1.242eachandevery1.243littleandmuch1.244more,lessandfewer1.246no5.71

indefinitedirection6.71indefiniteplaceadverbs6.61indefinitepronouns1.6,1.128–1.141usedwithpersonalpronounsandpossessivedeterminers1.132–1.133usedwithelse1.138

indicative seedeclarativeindirectobject3.6inphrasesthatbeginwithapreposition3.74withto3.76withfor3.77–3.81ofverbswithtwoobjects6.113

indirectquestions5.15indirectspeech seereportedspeech-ingadjectives2.15,2.63–2.76describinganeffect2.64–2.67describingaprocessorstate2.68–2.72formandmeaning2.73–2.76

infinitivesR124–R135infinitivewithouttoR127-ingformsR133–R134-ingnouns1.77–1.82usedwithadjectives1.80,1.81

-ingparticiple:2.293,2.301,3.190–3.191,3.204,8.71,8.72,8.88,8.133–8.136,8.139–8.141,R59–R70verbsfollowedbyan-ingparticiple3.190–3.191afterpossessivedeterminer3.203-ingparticipleclauses8.71–8.72,8.88eventshappeningatthesametime8.133oneactionafteranother8.134reasons8.135–8.136innon-definingclauses8.141

instructions5.43,5.156–5.160,5.167,5.235–5.236firminstructions:will5.168imperative5.170

intensifiers seesubmodifyingadverbsintentions5.190–5.195,5.237–5.240reportingintentionsandhopes7.45–7.47

interjections seeexclamationsinterrogativeadverbs seewh-wordsinterrogativeform5.10–5.36

seealsoquestionsinterrogativepronouns1.151–1.153intransitiveverbs3.2–3.13,8.165followedbyphrasesthatbeginwithapreposition3.10–3.11followedbyanadverborprepositionalphrase3.12intransitivephrasalverbswithadverbs3.85–3.86intransitivephrasalverbswithprepositions3.87–3.88,9.23–9.24intransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs3.111–3.112linkingintransitiveverbs8.165

introducingyourstatement5.216–5.224,9.73inversionafteranadverbial6.15afteraprepositionalphrase6.83whenreportingverbcomesafteraquote7.25

irregularcomparativeformsR28,R153irregularpluralformsofnounsR12–R19irregularverbformsR71–R76itaspersonalpronoun1.100–1.101withbe3.130assubjectinsplitsentences9.26

its1.195–1.222itself1.111–1.118,3.26–3.31

J

justinfrontofas…asstructure2.164asemphasizingadverb6.50toshowrestrictions9.65

K

keepfollowedbyobjectcomplement3.163

L

lastshowingpositioninsequence2.232aspronoun2.254inexpressionsoffrequency4.119asverb4.133

leastleastandtheleastassuperlatives2.122assuperlativeadverbofdegree6.52

leavingwordsout10.60do10.63withnot10.66–10.69repeatingthemainverb10.70inconversation10.74inquestions10.75–10.76inreplies10.77–10.79whenyouareagreeing10.80–10.81

less1.246asdeterminer1.246formingthecomparativeofanadjective2.110lessthanindicatingamaximumamount2.267

let5.41likelihood5.122–5.123,5.232–5.234linkingadverbials seesentenceconnectorslinkingverbs3.126–3.181twoormoreadjectivesafteralinkingverb2.57function3.127followedbyapreposition3.129,3.172–3.177followedbyanadjective3.132–3.137listsoflinkingverbs3.133,3.138,3.174followedbyanoun3.138–3.145commentingonbehaviour3.149commentingonsuitability3.150commentingonanevent3.151commentingonwillingness3.152commentingonsomething3.153commentingonanaction3.154otherverbswithfollowingadjectives3.155–3.159

linkingwords,phrases,andclausestogether8.149–8.150linkingclauses8.151linkingverbstogether8.164–8.170linkingnounphrases8.171–8.172linkingpronouns8.178–8.179linkingadjectivesandadverbs8.180–8.189,8.201linkingqualitativeadjectives8.181

linkingprepositions8.191linkingprepositionalphrases8.192linkingmodifiersanddeterminers8.193linkingmorethantwoclauses,phrases,orwords8.200linkingpartsofaconversation10.57–10.59

littleasdeterminer1.225,1.244alittlemodifyingcomparatives2.162asquantityexpressionwithof2.179,2.183alittleasadverbofdegree6.52

lookaslinkingverb3.126,3.135

lotlots2.158alotofasquantityexpression2.178alotasadverbofdegree6.52

M

mainclauses8.1mainverbsR89makeasadelexicalverb3.44

manyasdeterminer1.224,1.241,1.247aftertoo2.153asquantityexpressionwithof2.179withhowinwh-questions5.35

massnouns1.28–1.31listofmassnouns1.31

mayindicatingpresentpossibility5.126maynotfornegativepossibility5.127expressingfuturepossibility5.134mayhaveforuncertaintyaboutthepast5.139askingforandgivingpermission5.143maynotforforbidding5.148makingrequests5.166offeringtohelp5.177mayaswellforsuggesting5.187expressinghopesandwishes5.210expressinganopinion5.221

me1.104measurements2.213,2.252–2.259,2.266–2.273metricmeasurements2.251afterlinkingverbs2.252adjectivesaftermeasurements2.253approximateamountsandmeasurements2.264

mightindicatingpresentpossibility5.126mightnotfornegativepossibility5.127,5.140indicatingfuturepossibility5.134mighthaveforpossibilityinthepast5.138mighthaveforuncertainty5.139makingrequests5.166makingpolitesuggestions5.186mightaswellforsuggesting5.187expressingapproval5.221

million2.221–2.222millionsusedforemphasis2.224

mine1.107–1.108modals5.94–5.257

seealsosemi-modalsseealsocan,could,may,might,must,have(got)to,shall,should,will,would

uses5.96–5.100,5.109–5.222specialfeatures5.101,5.108noinflections5.103negatives5.104questions5.105questiontags5.106contractions5.107–5.108referringtotime5.109fortalkingaboutthefuture5.130–5.134expressionsusedinsteadofmodals5.223–5.247

modifiers1.8,1.45,2.2–2.174innounphrasesstartingwiththe1.176innounphrasesstartingwitha/an1.231

mood seedeclarativeform,interrogativeformandimperative

moreasdeterminer1.224–1.225,1.246andmorethan2.108ascomparativequantityexpressionwithof2.189incomparativestructures6.52,R21,R26

mostasdeterminer1.224–1.225,1.241assubmodifyingadverb2.113insuperlativestructures6.52,R21,R26

muchasdeterminer1.225,1.244aftertoo2.153withhowinwh-questions5.34muchandverymuchasadverbsofdegree6.52

mustexpressingbelief5.125indicatingcertaintyaboutthefuture5.132mustnotfortalkingaboutundesirableactions5.152–5.153invitingpersuasively5.180–5.181makingpersuasivesuggestions5.185expressingintentions5.194–5.195indicatingimportance5.212,5.217

my1.194–2.206myself1.111–1.118,3.26–3.31

N

names seepropernounsnecessity5.213–5.214need5.248–5.253usedwithanothermainverb3.191,3.198,3.212withan-edparticiple3.212needtousedinsteadofmust5.245assemi-modal5.248–5.253needn’t5.249

negativepossibility5.127,5.140negativestatements5.49–5.93

•broadnegatives5.82–5.88•neither5.77–5.81•never5.66–5.70•no5.71–5.72•noone5.75–5.76•none5.74•nor5.77–5.81•not5.54–5.65•nothing5.75–5.76•nowhere5.75–5.76listofnegativewords5.49usinganyasadeterminer5.51positioninverbphrase5.55addingdo5.56positionwith-ingformsandto-infinitives5.59contractionsofnot5.61–5.62emphasisin5.69,5.90–5.93wordsbeginningwithno-5.75withmodals5.104

neither5.77–5.81asdeterminer1.224withnortoexpressalternatives5.77–5.81inreplies5.78–5.79positioninclause5.79withsingularnouns5.80asquantityexpressionwithof5.81neither…norlinkingadjectivesoradverbs8.187–8.188

never5.66asnegativeadverb4.114positioninverbphrase5.66usedwithdoasauxiliaryforemphasis5.69inimperatives5.70

nextshowingpositioninasequence2.232,2.237withtimereferencetoexpressfuture4.63usedforreferringforward10.44

no5.71–5.72structuresusedwithno-1.141withcomparativeadjectives2.163nolonger4.83asdeterminer5.71–5.72,1.224–1.225usingn’twithanyinsteadofno5.72withcomparativeadverbs6.35

nobody1.128–1.141,5.75–5.76nominalrelativeclauses8.112–8.116nominalthat-clauses8.117–8.118forcommentingonafactoridea8.122–8.125

non-definingnon-finiteclauses8.88,8.129–8.145non-definingrelativeclauses8.104,8.85–8.86,8.132–8.143relativepronounsinnon-definingclauses8.92forcommentingonafact8.110forcommentingonatimeorsituation8.111

none5.73asnegativepronoun5.73noneof5.74

non-finiteclauses8.129,8.162–8.163with-edparticiple8.138,8.142–8.143

non-finiteverbsR124noone1.128–1.141,5.75–5.76nor5.77–5.81

withneithertoexpressalternatives5.77–5.81linkingnegativeclauses5.79,8.156withneitherforemphasis8.198

not5.54positioninverbphrase5.55,5.59–5.60withhaveandhavegot5.56,5.58withdoasauxiliary5.57shortenedton’t5.61–5.62,5.104withveryandothersubmodifyingadverbs5.64usedforcontrast5.65,8.199linkingnounphrases8.172afterif10.25withreportingverbs10.26

nothing1.128–1.141,5.75–5.76nounmodifiers2.169–2.174singularandpluralforms2.170usingmorethanonenounmodifier2.171usedwithadjectives2.172useofpropernouns2.173–2.174

nounphrases1.1–1.12seealsonouns

nouns1.1–1.92•collectivenouns1.47–1.51•commonnouns1.3•compoundnouns1.83–1.92•countablenouns1.15–1.22•massnouns1.28–1.31•pluralnouns1.41–1.46•propernouns1.3,1.52–1.53•singularnouns1.34–1.40•uncountablenouns1.23–1.33determinerswithcommonnouns1.4addinginformationafterthenoun1.9–1.10noun–verbagreement1.16,1.24,1.35,1.42,1.68singularandpluralforms1.19listofuncountablenouns1.25–1.26thatarebothuncountableandcountable1.32thatarerarelyusedalone1.59–1.65alwaysusedwithmodifiers1.62alwaysusedwithpossessives1.63referringtomalesorfemales1.73listsofcompoundnouns1.85–1.88referringtoonethingonly1.167,1.235adjectivesafternouns2.58–2.62withprepositionalphrases2.275–2.276withadjectives2.291followedbyto-infinitive,-edparticiple,or-ingparticiple2.293followedbyto-infinitiveclauses2.294–2.299followedby-edparticipleclauses2.300withnoequivalentverb3.40usedwithhave3.41usedwithtake3.42usedwithgive3.43usedwithmake3.44usedwithhaveandtake3.45afterlinkingverbs3.138usedwithreportedclauses7.86,8.1formingpluralsofR2–R19

nowhere5.75–5.76,6.61–6.71n’t

contractionofnot5.61–5.62insteadofno5.72addedtomodals5.104

numbers1.157,R41–R49andquantityexpressions1.12referringtoanexactnumberofthings2.208ordinalnumbers2.209,2.232–2.239,R46–R47fractions2.210age2.212andagreement2.217–2.218withordinalsandpostdeterminers2.219aspronouns2.220aslabels2.226aftersubjectpronouns2.229incompoundadjectives2.230withtimeexpressions2.231followedbyfractions2.246percentages2.249

O

objectcomplement seeobjectofaverb,describingobjectofaverb,describing(objectcomplement)3.161–3.171objectalreadymentioned3.51–3.53verbswithobjectcomplements3.128

objectpronouns1.104–1.106ofinprepositionalphrases1.109,2.277–2.283afternounsandadjectives6.120withreportingverbs7.85

objects•indirectobjects3.6,3.73–3.82,6.113•directobjects3.3,3.14–3.18leavingobjectsout3.22–3.33,3.49–3.50inphrasalverbs3.101–3.106ofprepositions3.106,6.73,6.77withreportingverbs7.82–7.84

offersandinvitations5.44,5.173–5.175offersofhelp5.176–5.178onlistofnounsusuallyfollowedbyon2.288intimeexpressions4.96–4.98referringtoexactposition6.89withreportingverbs7.85

onceasadverboffrequency4.115referringtosequenceofevents8.15

oneasgenericpronoun1.121aspronoun1.161,3.140aspossessivedeterminer1.208asdeterminer1.249–1.250ascardinalnumber2.214–2.215

oneanother seeeachotherandoneanotheronly9.65opinions5.7orafterwhetherinconditionalclauses8.40

linkingwordsandphrases8.152,8.173,8.187,8.193,8.200ordersandinstructions5.37,5.45reportingordersandrequests7.39–7.42

ordinalnumbers2.209,2.232–2.239,R46–R47asmodifiers2.233writtenforms2.234withof2.235aspronouns2.236–2.237asadverbs2.238

otherothersandtheothersaspronouns1.160–1.161usedwithcountablenouns1.224usedwithpluralnounsanduncountablenouns1.240everyother4.118

oughttoexpressingexpectation5.133–5.136makingsuggestions5.184expressingimportance5.215,5.218

oughtn’tto5.104our1.194–1.208ours1.107–1.110,1.122ourselves1.111–1.118,1.122out6.68,6.94overtalkingaboutage2.260–2.261talkingaboutperiodsoftime4.106

own1.200,1.215

P

participlesR124–R135-edparticiple2.293,2.300,3.201,3.212,8.137–8.138,8.142–8.143,R71–R80-ingparticiple2.293,2.301,3.190–3.191,3.204,8.71,8.72,8.88,8.133–8.136,8.139–8.141,R59–R70

partitives seeamountspassive3.207,3.208,9.3,9.8–9.24,R109–R119,R129forexpressinggeneralbeliefs7.69inreportedspeech7.73–7.74formation9.9,R109–R119,R129withby9.14mentioningthingsormethodsused9.15ofverbsreferringtostates9.16phrasalverbsin9.17verbsthatareusuallyusedinthepassive9.18verbsthatarerarelyusedinthepassive9.19ofreportingverbs9.45

pastcontinuous seepastprogressivepastformsR52–R84pastperfect4.37–4.39,R102foremphasizingtimeandduration4.38forexpectationsandwishes4.39timeadverbialsusedwiththepastperfect4.49–4.51

pastperfectprogressive4.38–4.39,R103pastprogressive4.31–4.32,R99repeatedactions4.31contrastingevents4.32usedwiththepastsimple4.44timeadverbialsusedwithpastprogressive4.45foreventsplannedinthepast4.67–4.68

pastsimple4.27–4.30,R98forhabitualandregularactions4.30timeadverbialsusedwithpastsimple4.44

pasttime4.26–4.51•pastperfect4.37–4.39,R102•pastperfectprogressive4.38,R103•pastprogressive4.31–4.32,R99•pastsimple4.27–4.30,R98•presentperfect4.33–4.36,R100•presentperfectprogressive4.35,R101repeatedactions4.31usingtimeadverbialstoindicatepasttime4.40modalsin5.135–5.141

percentages2.249,R49performativeverbs(verbsusedtoperformanaction)7.64–7.66permission5.142–5.145personalpronouns1.5,1.95–1.106subjectpronouns1.96–1.103positioninclause1.105–1.106

persuading5.185persuasiveinvitations5.180–5.181

phrasalverbs3.83–3.116,6.111,9.17intransitivephrasalverbswithadverbs3.85–3.86intransitivephrasalverbswithprepositions3.87–3.88,9.23–9.24transitivephrasalverbs3.91–3.92usedbothwithandwithoutanobject3.93–3.96ergativephrasalverbs3.97–3.100positionoftheobject3.101–3.102whentheobjectisapronoun3.103transitivephrasalverbswithprepositions3.107–3.108intransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs3.111–3.112transitivethree-wordphrasalverbs3.113–3.114inquestionsandrelativeclauses3.115–3.116

placeclauses8.73–8.77placenames6.122–6.127fortalkingaboutthepeoplewholiveorworkthere6.125fortalkingaboutevents6.126asmodifiersbeforenouns6.127

pluralforms1.19–1.20,1.91–1.92,2.170,2.182,2.184,2.243,R2–R19pluralnouns1.41–1.46usewithmodifiers1.43withorwithoutdeterminers1.44

politeness9.90,5.219–5.220,5.222,5.186possession1.194–1.222possessivepronouns1.107–1.110possessivedeterminers1.194–1.210apostrophes(’s)1.211–1.221otherwaysofshowing1.222

possessivedeterminers1.194–1.210tableofpossessivedeterminers1.195–1.196position1.197–1.198agreementwithnoun1.199useofown1.200usesofpossessivedeterminers1.201–1.207genericuse1.208intitles1.210before-ingparticiple3.203

possessiveform seeapostrophespossessivepronouns1.107–1.110usedwithof1.109–1.110

possibility5.117,5.137–5.138,5.227–5.231,7.54,9.87postdeterminers2.40predeterminers1.251predicativeadjectives2.44–2.50prefacingstructures(introducingyourstatement)9.73–9.78preference5.206prefixes2.77,R68,R77–R78prepositionalphrases6.3,6.78–6.121referringtotime4.85–4.142,6.103positionof6.78afternouns6.100–6.101showingreason,cause,orpurpose6.110afternounsandadjectives6.117–6.120withreportingverbs7.85

prepositions6.73–6.121afterverbsshowingposition6.78afterverbsindicatingmovement6.79–6.83afterverbsindicatingactivities6.80–6.81showingposition6.85–6.87withcomparativeforms6.88showingpositionanddistance6.92showingdirection6.93–6.99usedwithverbs6.111–6.116extendedmeaningsofprepositions6.121

presentcontinuous seepresentprogressivepresentperfect4.33–4.36,R100situationsthatstillexist4.35emphasizingdurationofevent4.36timeadverbialsusedwiththepresentperfect4.46–4.48

presentperfectprogressive4.35–4.36,R101presentpossibility5.126presentprogressive4.17–4.20,R128momentofspeaking4.17emphasizingthepresentmoment4.18progressivechange4.19habitualactions4.20firmplansforthefuture4.60vividnarrative4.65inconditionalsentences8.29

presentsimple4.8–4.16generalpresentincludingpresentmoment4.9regularorhabitualactions4.11inreviews4.12–4.13incommentaries4.14inreporting4.15commenting4.16vividnarrative4.65inconditionalsentences8.29

presenttime4.7–4.25presentsimple4.8–4.16presentprogressive4.17–4.20usingtimeadverbialstoindicatepresenttime4.21–4.25

previous2.232,4.107,10.11promises5.8pronouns1.93–1.161•genericpronouns1.119–1.123•indefinitepronouns1.128–1.141•interrogativepronouns1.151–1.153•demonstrativepronouns1.124–1.127•personalpronouns1.95–1.106

•possessivepronouns1.107–1.110•reciprocalpronouns1.142–1.145•reflexivepronouns1.111–1.118•relativepronouns1.146–1.150asobjects3.75afterlinkingverbs3.145usedforreferringback10.3

pronunciationR1ofthe1.165ofaoran1.229ofthere9.46ofthepluralsofnounsR4–R8ofpossessivesR32–R40ofapostrophesformsR37–R38ofverbformsR55–R59,R72

propernouns1.3,1.52–1.58relationshipnouns1.54titles1.55innounmodifiers2.173–2.174

punctuationofquotes7.26ofnon-definingrelativeclauses8.86

purposeclauses8.43–8.48puttingsomethingfirst9.69verbfirst8.36–8.37adverbialsfirst9.70reportedquestionfirst9.71usingwholesentencestopointforward9.78

Q

qualifiers(expandingthenounphrase)1.178,1.231,2.272–2.301,6.100–6.101qualitativeadjectives2.7,2.22–2.25qualitative-edadjectives2.80compoundqualitativeadjectives2.97intensifyingqualitativeadjectives2.143–2.144reducingtheeffectofqualitativeadjectives2.145linkingqualitativeadjectives8.181

quantityexpressions2.176–2.193numbersasquantityexpressions2.227

questions5.10–5.36yes/no-questions5.12–5.13indirectquestions5.15questiontags5.16–5.21either/or-questions5.22withoutaverb5.27,5.47rhetoricalquestions5.46,9.94withmodals5.105reportingquestions7.32wh-questions7.37–7.38

questiontags5.16–5.21formingquestiontags5.17checkingstatements5.18replyingtotags5.19otheruses5.20all-purposequestiontags5.21withmodals5.106

quite2.193,6.49–6.50quotationmarks7.16,7.26quotes7.2,7.16

R

rarely5.82–5.88ratherbeforeacomparative2.162wouldrather5.206

reasonclauses8.49–8.53reciprocalpronouns1.142–1.145reciprocalverbs3.5,3.68–3.70referringback1.173–1.174,10.2–10.39withdeterminers10.4–10.5demonstrativesreferringtothings10.7–10.9demonstrativesreferringtosentences10.10withformerandlatter10.13–10.14referringtopiecesofwriting10.23withdoso10.27withadjectives10.32withadverbials10.38–10.39

referringforward10.40–10.47usingthisandthese10.41–10.42usingfollowing10.43usingnext10.44usingbelow10.45

usingsuch10.46reflexivepronouns1.111–1.118usedasobject1.113–1.114usedasobjectofpreposition1.115usedforemphasisorcontrast1.116–1.118,3.29–3.31inreportedspeech7.81

reflexiveverbs3.26–3.31inthepassive9.22

refusal5.116,5.196–5.198regret5.209relativeclauses8.83–8.116withsuperlatives2.116withindefiniteplaceadverbs6.62punctuationin8.86useafterpronouns8.87

relativepronouns1.146–1.150,8.84–8.116whoandwhom1.147which1.148that1.149whose1.150referringtopeopleindefiningclauses8.90referringtothingsindefiningclauses8.91referringtopeopleinnon-definingclauses8.93referringtothingsinnon-definingclauses8.94

reportedspeech5.113,7.27–7.85reportedquestions1.153,7.32–7.38reportingverbs3.24–3.25,7.5–7.15indicatingthewaythatsomethingissaid7.12negativesinreportingclauses7.13positionofreportingverb7.22–7.24positionofreportedclauses7.31timereference7.49tenseofverbinreportedclause7.52modalsinreportedclauses7.53–7.58makingyourreferenceappropriate7.60avoidingmentionofthepersonspeakingorthinking7.68–7.71referringtothespeakerandhearer7.72–7.81useofpassive7.73–7.74,7.69nounsusedwithreportedclauses7.86passiveofreportingverbs9.45

reportingverbs3.24–3.25,7.5–7.15,7.33–7.34showingthepurposeofspeaking7.7–7.8reportingspeechandthoughtininformalspokenEnglish7.14–7.15reportingstatementsandthoughts7.29reportingquestions7.32reportingrequests7.39–7.42reportingsuggestions7.43–7.44reportingintentionsandhopes7.45–7.47reportinguncertainthings7.48reportingconditionalstatements7.59usedforperforminganaction7.64–7.67mentioningthehearer7.77–7.80

reportingsomeone’sactualwords seedirectspeechrequests5.45,5.159–5.166,5.171politeadditionstorequests5.172reportingrequests7.39–7.42

resultclauses8.54–8.64rhetoricalquestions5.46,9.94

S

sformofverbsR52–R58’s seeapostrophessame10.33–10.35sameas2.135–2.137say7.6,7.36,7.84seem3.132–3.136,7.70–7.71,9.53seldom4.114,5.82–5.88semi-modals5.248–5.257dareandneed5.249–5.253inflectedforms5.250usewithothermodals5.251usewithdo5.252usedto5.254–5.258negatives5.257

sentenceadverbials9.56–9.68sentenceconnectors10.48–10.56indicatinganaddition10.49indicatingasimilarpoint10.50contrastsandalternatives10.51showingcause10.52showingsequenceintime10.53puttingpointsinorder10.54conjunctions10.55

several1.154,1.223–1.224,4.115,8.87severalof2.177,2.179,2.182

shalltalkingaboutthefuture4.53,5.110,R104expressingcertainty5.132shallnotforforbidding5.150givingformalinstructions5.169makingsuggestions5.188–5.189expressingintentions5.193

shan’t5.61she1.95–1.96,1.98shouldexpressingcertainty5.124expressingexpectation5.133–5.136shouldnotforundesirableactions5.152shouldlikeforrequests5.171makingoffersofhelp5.178makingsuggestions5.184expressingwishes5.205expressingimportance5.215,5.218beingpolite5.222

shouldn’t5.61similarity2.123thingswiththesamequality2.124–2.131withlike2.132–2.134sameas2.135–2.137adjectivesmeaningthesame2.138

sincewithpresentperfect4.34,4.137intimeclauses8.19inreasonclauses8.50

singularnouns1.34–1.40soso,sothatandsoastoinpurposeclauses8.43–8.47

soandsothatinresultclauses8.54–8.60soasasubstituteforsomethingalreadymentioned10.24–10.27ifso10.25sowithreportingverbs10.26

some1.236–1.238structuresusedwithsome-1.139asindefinitedeterminer1.223someof2.179–2.180,2.185

somebody1.128–1.139someone1.128–1.139something1.128–1.139somewhere6.61–6.71splitinfinitive6.11splitsentences9.4,9.25–9.30itasthesubject9.26usingwhatandall9.28–9.30focusingonthetopic9.29focusingonwhatsomeonewantsorneeds9.30

statements5.2–5.9stativeverbs4.69,R120–R122stillwithcomparatives2.160,6.51forexistingsituations4.77forexpectedsituations4.78

subjectpronouns1.96–1.104I1.97you1.98heandshe1.99it1.100–1.101we1.102,1.222they1.103

submodifyingadverbs2.142–2.158usedwithotheradverbs6.51

subordinateclauses4.6,8.1–8.145,R124subordinatingconjunctions8.1–8.82substitutingforsomethingalreadymentioned:usingsoandnot10.24–10.27suchwithnot2.130usedinresultclauses8.61–8.63asadeterminer10.29asapredeterminer10.30asanadjective10.31referringforward10.46

suffixes1.74–1.75,2.118,2.201,9.61suggestions5.48,5.182,5.183–5.189politesuggestions5.186

superlativeadjectives1.180,2.112–2.122,R20–R31usedinfrontofanoun2.114usedafteralinkingverb2.115structuresusedaftersuperlatives2.116–2.117usedwithotheradjectives2.118usedasnouns2.119–2.120usedwithordinalnumbers2.121theleast2.122

superlativeadverbs6.30–6.35,R150–R154

T

takelistofnounsusedafterdelexicaltake3.42,3.45forduration4.133

tenses,formationofR89–R123than2.106,6.35thatasdemonstrativepronoun1.124–1.126forjoiningclauses1.149,8.90–8.91asdeterminer1.184,1.187–1.189forreferringback10.7–10.10

that-clausesfollowinganadjective2.53forreportingspeech7.27–7.81forexpressingpurpose8.47–8.48withimpersonalit9.42–9.45

the1.163–1.183pronouncingthe1.165withanoun1.166specificplacesandorganizations1.168generalizingaboutpeopleandthings1.169usingadjectivesasnouns1.170formalgeneralizations1.171–1.172withlongernounphrases1.175withuncountablenouns1.179emphasizingthe1.181withindefinitedeterminers1.182withnumbers1.183withcomparativesandsuperlatives2.109,2.112–2.122withdaysoftheweek4.96

their1.194–1.210theirs1.107–1.110,1.123them1.104–1.106,1.123themselves1.111–1.118,1.123,3.26–3.31thenreferringbackorforward4.75,10.15inconditionalclauseswithif8.26,8.152,8.155

thereassubject3.131,9.6,9.46–9.55withbe3.131,9.6,9.46–9.52sayingthatsomethingexists9.46–9.47sayingthatsomethinghappened9.48describingsomethingthatishappening9.49contractions:there’s,there’dandthere’ll9.51withverbsotherthanbe9.53formalandliteraryuses9.54–9.55

theseasdemonstrativepronoun1.124,1.127asdeterminer1.184,1.186informaluse1.193forreferringback10.7forreferringforward10.41–10.42

they1.103,1.123this1.184asdemonstrativepronoun1.125–1.126asdeterminer1.185–1.186informaluse1.193forreferringback10.7,10.9forreferringforward10.41–10.42

thoseasdemonstrativepronoun1.124,1.127asdeterminer1.187–1.191

insteadofthe1.192forreferringback10.7

though8.66,8.70–8.71asthough8.78–8.82

thousand2.221–2.224thousandsusedforemphasis2.224

timeontime4.71atthesametime4.109everytimeandeachtime8.13bywhichtime8.21

timepositionoftimeadverbial4.3referringtoanearlieroralatertime4.21–4.25,4.71–4.73timeadverbialsandprepositionalphrases4.70–4.112previouslymentionedtime4.75specificclocktimes4.85–4.86,9.37–9.38clocktimes4.86timesoftheday4.87months,seasons,anddates4.89years,decades,andcenturies4.90inforperiodsoftime4.94inforspecifictime4.95on4.97–4.98orderingof4.99approximatetimes4.100–4.102over4.106eventsthathappenatthesametime4.109

timeadverbials4.70–4.112withreferencetothepresent4.21–4.25withreferencetothepast4.40–4.51withreferencetothefuture4.60–4.63toindicatepast,present,orfuture4.70

timeclauses8.8–8.24tensesintimeclauses8.9–8.12sayingwhenasituationbegan8.19sayingwhenasituationends8.20–8.22

timeexpressionsseealsotimeadverbials

usedformodifyingnouns4.143–4.144timereferenceinreportedspeech7.49titlesofpeople1.55,9.97–9.98usedwithoutnames1.56usedascountablenouns1.57ofworks3.170

toafterpredicativeadjectives2.46expressingarangeofnumbers2.271listofnounsusuallyfollowedbyto2.287inprepositionalphrasecontainingindirectobject3.76inreportedspeech7.70,7.77withrelativepronounasindirectobject8.97

to-infinitiveafteradjectives2.51–2.52,2.291afterordinalnumbers2.235afternouns2.294–2.299usedwhencommenting3.148–3.154afterverbs3.192–3.194verbsfollowedbyforandato-infinitive3.209

usedwithnot5.58inreportedspeech7.39–7.48,7.70showingpurpose8.45–8.46,3.188,3.199–3.200inimpersonalitstructures9.39–9.40formR126

too1.248,2.153transitiveverbs3.3–3.4,3.14–3.45,3.123differenttypesofobject3.15–3.16humanobjects3.17–3.18thatneedtobefollowedbyanadverborprepositionalphrase3.19–3.20ofpositionandmovement3.21–3.23reflexiveverbs3.26–3.31transitivephrasalverbs3.91–3.92,3.101–3.106transitivephrasalverbswithprepositions3.107–3.108transitivethree-wordphrasalverbs3.113–3.114transitivecompoundverbs3.123–3.124withan-ingparticiple3.204withato-infinitive3.206withaninfinitivewithoutto3.210linkingtransitiveverbs8.166withanobjectcomplement9.21

U

uncertainty5.137uncountablenouns1.23–1.33listofuncountablenouns1.25–1.26endingin-s1.33uncountable-ingnouns1.78–1.79usedwiththe1.179usedwithaoran1.233

undesirableactions5.152–5.153until4.140,4.142,8.20,8.24unwillingness5.196,5.199–5.201,5.241–5.243us1.104,1.122usedto5.254–5.257,7.57

V

verbs•auxiliaryverbs5.12–5.13,5.17,5.55–5.58,8.167,10.61–10.71,R80–R87•compoundverbs3.117–3.125•delexicalverbs3.32–3.45•ditransitiveverbs(verbswithtwoobjects)3.7,3.73–3.82,9.20•ergativeverbs3.59–3.67•intransitiveverbs3.2–3.13,8.165•linkingverbs3.126–3.181•performativeverbs(verbsusedtoperformanaction)7.64–7.66•phrasalverbs3.83–3.116,6.111,9.17•reciprocalverbs3.5,3.68–3.70•reflexiveverbs3.26–3.31•reportingverbs3.24–3.25,7.5–7.15,7.33–7.34•stativeverbs4.69,R120–R122•transitiveverbs3.3,3.14–3.45,3.123listofverbsofposition3.12verbsthatcanbeusedbothwithandwithoutanobject3.46

listofverbsthatcanbetransitiveorintransitivedependingonthemeaning3.48verbsthatdonotalwaysneedanobject3.49–3.50listoftransitiveverbsthatcanbeusedwithoutanobject3.50verbsthatcantakeanobjectoraprepositionalphrase3.55–3.57verbsofmovement3.58verbsthatinvolvepeopleaffectingeachotherwiththesameaction3.68verbsthatcanhavetwoobjects3.73–3.82verbsthatusuallyhavebothadirectobjectandanindirectobject3.82verbswithobjectcomplements3.128verbsthatrelatetocausingsomethingtohappen3.162verbsthatrelatetogivingsomeoneajoborrole3.164verbsofopinion3.165–3.168usingtwomainverbstogether3.182–3.211verbsfollowedbyan-ingparticiple3.190–3.191verbsfollowedbyato-infinitive3.192–3.194verbswithaninfinitivewithoutto3.205verbsfollowedbyforandato-infinitive3.209listofverbsusedtospecifyposition6.78verbsofthinkingandknowing7.9verbsoflearningandperceiving7.10–7.11verbsthatdescribethewayinwhichsomethingissaid7.19–7.21verbsusedwiththat-clauses7.30verbsusuallyusedinthepassive9.18listofverbsrarelyusedinthepassive9.19listofverbsoftenusedinsplitsentencesaboutneedsandwants9.30listofverbsthatcanhaveimpersonalitasobject9.35listofverbsusedwithimpersonalittodescribetheweather9.36verbformsR50–R88pronunciationR55,R57,R59formationofparticiplesR59–R75listofverbswithirregularpastformsand-edparticiplesR72formsofauxiliariesR80–R88formationoftensesR89–R119formationofinfinitivesandparticiplesR124–R135

very1.248,2.39,2.140,2.165,2.167vividnarrative4.65vocatives9.95–9.99withreportingverbs7.23

W

want3.191,3.198,3.212,5.236we1.102,1.122weather9.36whatasinterrogativepronoun1.151–1.152inwh-questions5.23–5.27,5.35whataboutandwhatofinquestions5.47–5.48innominalrelativeclauses8.112–8.116insplitsentences9.28–9.30inexclamations9.92–9.93

whatever5.36inwh-questions5.36inconditionalclauses8.42innominalrelativeclauses8.112,8.115

whatsoever5.91wh-clauses8.126–8.128when

inwh-questions5.23–5.27,5.31intimeclauses8.10–8.17,8.24inrelativeclauses8.104–8.105

whenever8.13,8.24whereinwh-questions5.23–5.27,5.31withadjectivessuchasnecessaryandpossible8.24inplaceclauses8.73–8.77inrelativeclauses8.104–8.106,8.114

whereverinwh-questions5.36withadjectivessuchasnecessaryandpossible8.24inconditionalclauses8.42inplaceclauses8.76

whetherinreportedspeech7.35–7.36,7.48inconditionalclauses8.40–8.41

whichasrelativepronoun1.148asinterrogativepronoun1.151–1.152inwh-questions5.23–5.27,5.30ofwhich8.102inrelativeclauses8.110–8.111

whichever8.42,8.115whileintimeclauses8.11,8.24inconcessiveclauses8.66,8.71

whilstintimeclauses8.11inconcessiveclauses8.66,8.71

whoandwhomasrelativepronouns1.147,8.84,8.90,8.93asinterrogativepronouns1.151–1.153inwh-questions5.23–5.28ofwhom8.102

whoeverinwh-questions5.36inconditionalclauses8.42innominalrelativeclauses8.115

whoseasrelativepronoun1.150,8.101–8.102asinterrogativepronoun1.151–1.153inwh-questions5.23–5.27,5.29

wh-questions5.23–5.36,5.48,5.258,9.94,10.77reportingwh-questions7.37–7.38

wh-words5.24–5.36•how5.33•what5.35•whenandwhere5.31•which5.30•why5.32•whatever,wherever,whoever5.36•whoandwhom5.28•whose5.29assubject5.25asobjectoradverb5.26usedtoreportwh-questions7.37–7.38

why4.26insuggestions5.48indefiningclauses8.107

willtalkingaboutthefuture4.53,5.108,R104expressinggeneraltruths4.54expressingcertainty4.55–4.56,5.131expressinglikelihood5.123willnotandwon’tforforbidding5.149givinginstructionsandappealsforhelp5.158givingfirminstructions5.168makingoffersandinvitations5.174expressingintentions5.191–5.192willnotandwon’tforrefusal5.197inreportedspeech7.55

wishes5.202–5.205,5.207–5.208with2.286afteradjectives2.50inreportedspeech7.79inthepassive9.15–9.16

within4.130,4.131won’t5.18,5.21,5.61,5.104,5.149,5.191,5.197wordorder5.5,8.7,8.36,8.54,8.62,8.70,8.75,8.99–8.100,8.131,8.144,9.1–9.2,9.21,9.67,9.96positionofadjectives2.19–2.21,2.54–2.62positionofnumbers2.213,2.219,2.233positionofobjects3.79,3.101–3.106,3.115,6.77positionofadverbsandadverbials4.41,4.71–4.84,6.7–6.13,6.24,6.48,6.50,6.61innegatives5.55–5.59,5.66–5.68,5.79,5.83–5.87inreportedspeech7.22–7.25,7.27,7.31

worseandworst6.32,6.52,R28wouldtalkingaboutthingsthathappenedregularlyinthepast5.114thinkingaboutthefuture5.115wouldnotforrefusal5.116,5.198expressinglikelihood5.123expressingcertainty5.124wouldhaveforpossibility5.137givinginstructionsandappealsforhelp5.159makingoffersandinvitations5.175expressingwishes5.203–5.204wouldrather,wouldsooner5.206wouldhaveforwishes5.207–5.208beingpolite5.222usedinreportedspeech7.54–7.55

wouldlikegivinginstructions5.167makingrequests5.171

wouldn’t5.104,5.175,5.198

XYZ

yes/no-questions5.12–5.14,5.46reportingyes/no-questions7.35–7.36

yetusedwithcomparativesandsuperlatives2.160,4.81referringtoexpectedsituations4.79–4.81usedtolinkwordsandclauses8.152,8.157,8.187–8.188

you1.98,1.104,1.120your1.194–1.210yours1.107–1.110,1.120yourself1.111–1.118,1.120,3.26–3.31

yourselves1.111–1.118,3.26–3.31

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