TEACHING VALUES AND IMPLEMENTING PHILOSOPHIES: DILEMMAS OF THE YOUTH SPORT COACH

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to (1) identify the values and life skills that coaches deem important and the manner in which coaches claim to teach these desired outcomes, and (2) examine the philosophies of youth sport coaches and the degree to which coaches implement such philosophies. In order to address these two areas, in-depth interviews averaging 74 minutes in length were

conducted with 22 youth sport baseball and softball coaches (10 women and 12 men). Analysis of the responses of these individuals revealed that coaches generally recognized the importance of teaching a wide range of values and life skills to youth sport participants, yet struggled in articulating how they attempt to teach youngsters these outcomes. Secondly, inconsistencies were noted between the stated coaching philosophies of the coaches and the actual implementation of these philosophies. Various factors were identified that may contribute to these two main findings.

Recognizing that approximately 35 million children between the ages of 6 and 16 are involved in youth sport activities (Leonard, 1998), it goes without question that youth sports occupy a prominent place in the lives of many youngsters. Childhood and adolescence are critical periods for the learning of socially appropriate values and life skills that provide the foundation for adulthood. Because youth sport participation takes place during an influential time in an individual's life, it is imperative that the social, emotional, and physical development outcomes of participation be closely monitored.

Youth sport programs frequently have been identified as a positive socializing agency for children and adolescents (Barber, 1982; Roberts & Treasure, 1992). Through participation in sport youngsters formulate values and explore behaviors assumed to be important for functioning in the larger society. A variety of values and life skills have been targeted as possible outcomes of youth sport participation. For example, outcomes such as fair play, respect for others, cooperation, decision-making, working with others, skill development, leadership, and moral development have been associated with participation in youth sports (Barnett, Smoll, & Smith, 1992; Decker & Lasley, 1995; Paulson, 1980; Roberts & Treasure, 1992; Seidel & Reppucci, 1993; Siegenthaler & Gonzalez, 1997; Smith & Smoll, 1991).

Despite the commonly cited positive outcomes of youth sport participation, some research findings as well as general commentaries on youth sports have brought into question the type of outcomes and social learning derived from participation in this context (Bredemeier, 1988; Eitzen, 1984a; Seidel & Reppucci, 1993; Weiss & Hayashi, 1996). These works often challenge whether the structure and value climate of youth sport programs actually promote the development of positive social values and behaviors. Examples of outcomes resulting from participation include undue stress and tension, low levels of moral reasoning, overemphasis on winning, poor self-esteem, cheating, internalization of adult norms, disregard for opponent, and lack of respect for others (Adler & Adler, 1994; Bredemeier, 1988; Decker & Lasley, 1995; Sage, 1998;

Title: TEACHING VALUES AND IMPLEMENTING PHILOSOPHIES: DILEMMAS OF THE YOUTH SPORT COACH ,  By: McCallister, Sarah G., Blinde, Elaine M., Weiss, Windee M., Physical Educator, 00318981, Late Winter2000, Vol. 57, Issue 1Database: Academic Search Elite

ContentsMethods Results Discussion REFERENCES Table 1

Siegenthaler & Gonzalez, 1997).

The nature of what children and adolescents learn through their participation in youth sports depends on many factors. Youngsters are constantly observing their environment and the actions of others within this context. Although a variety of individuals impact the social learning emanating from youth sport participation, the coach occupies a key position in terms of this experience (Petlichkoff, 1993). The youth sport coach may in fact be the most significant individual in determining the values and life skills that children learn through participation (Steelman, 1995). Much of the learning that occurs in this context is dependent on the coach and the environment this individual constructs. Smith and Smoll (1991) concluded that youngsters are very accurate in their perception of coaching behaviors and readily internalize these perceptions. Because coaches are in positions of authority and influence, their values and philosophies regarding the sport experience may directly impact the participatory experience for the youngsters in their charge (Steelman, 1995).

Although much has been written regarding the youth sport context, little of this work specifically focuses on the thoughts and perceptions of the coaches who work in this environment. When youth sport coaches have been the focus of research, questionnaires and observational techniques often have been utilized to learn about coaching behaviors and effectiveness (Dubois, 1981; Smith & Smoll, 1990; Smith, Smoll, & Curtis, 1979; Smith, Smoll, & Hunt, 1977; Smith, Zane, Smoll, & Coppel, 1983). Rarely has this information gathering used in-depth interviews to ascertain what coaches are actually thinking and teaching in the youth sport program. As the coach is a central figure in the youth sport experience, knowing more about the thoughts and perceptions of coaches as to what occurs in this context might be useful in improving youth sports.

An important determinant of the values and life skills that youngsters learn from youth sport participation relates to the ability of coaches to identify and teach desirable values and behaviors. Participants are unlikely to learn selected values and life skills unless the environment is structured in such a manner by the coach to promote these outcomes (Bredemeier, 1988; Horrocks, 1980; Paulson, 1980). Moreover, the philosophies of coaches and their ability to implement these philosophies are crucial in influencing the type of learning that takes place in the sport context. For example, the extent to which coaches can articulate their philosophies and the degree to which their behavior parallels those philosophies are important in determining the nature of the participant's experience.

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to (1) identify the values and life skills that coaches deem important and the manner in which these desired outcomes are taught, and (2) examine the philosophies of youth sport coaches and the degree to which coaches implement such philosophies. For example, what values and life skills do coaches attempt to teach participants? How do coaches teach such values and life skills? What general philosophy guides the actions of coaches? And to what extent are youth sport coaches able to implement their stated philosophies?

In order to gain insight into these questions, in-depth interviews were conducted with youth sport coaches. Interview questions focused on issues related to the identification and teaching of values and life skills as well as the ability of coaches to articulate and implement coaching philosophies. By talking to youth sport coaches we can gain insight into factors that may either enhance or detract from the quality of the youth sport experience for participants.

Methods

Sample

Coaches from two neighboring communities involved in youth sport softball and baseball programs (designed for ages 7-12) were recruited to participate in this study. Both of these communities were located in the southern region of Illinois and had populations under 30,000. The youth sports of baseball and softball were identified as being representative of traditional youth sport programs commonly found in many communities. Also, narrowing the selection of sports to only baseball and softball tended to standardize the sport context in which the coaches were involved. Selection of the 7-12 age group was due to the desire to use a group that was still in the learning stage of sport, yet one that was involved in a competitive sport format.

According to the administrators of the youth sport programs, both communities utilized similar governing philosophies in the operation of their respective programs. In general, both programs were organized according to age group and were considered to be instructional in nature. Minor participation fees were charged to all youngsters in the program.

Lists of coaches in these two programs were obtained from the program administrators. To control for any possible interaction effects of gender of coach and gender of participants, only men who were coaching boys (n = 46) and women who were coaching girls (n = 12) were considered for inclusion in the final sample. A final sample size of approximately 20-25 coaches was deemed appropriate given the interview design of the study. Since adequate numbers of both men and women were desired for the final sample, all available women and a random sample of 30 male coaches were sent a mailing describing the study. Coaches interested in participating returned an informed consent form. Telephone contacts were then made with the coaches who responded in order to set up a time, date, and location for the interview. Human Subjects approval was obtained for the procedures utilized throughout the study.

The final sample of coaches interviewed included 10 women and 12 men who were currently coaching youth sport softball or baseball. The mean age of participants was 37.4 years with a range in age of 21-48 years. Relative to coaching involvement at the youth sport level, these 22 individuals averaged 11 years of experience. Eighteen of these coaches had participated in youth sports as a youngster and nineteen had been involved in organized sports at the junior or senior high school levels. Interestingly, 18 of the coaches reported having a child currently participating in youth sports.

Interview Guide

A set of interview questions was developed by the researchers to explore various aspects of the coaching experience of youth sport coaches. Those questions utilized in the current paper focused on the following two general areas: (1) values and life skills deemed important to teach by youth sport coaches, and (2) coaching philosophies of youth sport coaches. Questions related to values and life skills focused on such areas as the specific values and life skills identified by the coach as important to teach to team members, methods used by coaches to teach values and life skills, and importance that coaches placed on specific values or life skills identified by the interviewer (e.g., winning, fair play, participation, fun, respect, decision-making). Relative to questions exploring the philosophies of youth sport coaches, specific items asked coaches about their general coaching philosophies, how coaches implement their philosophies, positive and negative aspects of youth sport programs, and similarities/differences of their philosophy with that of other coaches. Sample questions from the interview schedule are provided in Table 1.

Data Collection and Analysis

Interviews were conducted by two individuals experienced with interviewing techniques. The large majority of interviews took place in a research laboratory on a university campus. Interviews were tape-recorded and averaged approximately 74 minutes in length.

Interviews were transcribed into text and then proofed for accuracy. In order to identify general themes emanating from the responses of coaches, three individuals independently performed a content analysis. These individuals carefully read the 22 transcriptions and then identified common patterns and trends in the responses of coaches. Results from this content analysis were compared and discussed prior to determining the final coding categories. Summary sheets containing an overview of the coaches' responses were developed for each coding category. In addition, each researcher identified actual quotes from the coaches that illustrated the various patterns and trends.

Results

Analysis of the interview responses focused on the following two areas: (a) identification of values, life skills, and philosophies deemed important by coaches, and (b) ability of coaches to teach these values and life skills and to implement their philosophies. The responses of coaches are summarized and direct comments from the coaches are used to illustrate the various patterns that emerged.

Identification of Values, Life Skills, and Philosophies

In general, these youth sport coaches were in agreement when asked to identify values and life skills that need to be taught and reinforced in youth sport programs. Also, similar coaching philosophies were noted in the responses of coaches. The values, life skills, and philosophies espoused by these coaches were consistent with functionalist's views of sport that generally highlight the positive and socially desirable outcomes of sport participation (Coakley, 1993).

When these youth sport coaches were initially asked to identify the values and life skills they taught in their youth sport programs, responses were generally limited in scope and somewhat gender specific. The most commonly identified value or life skill these coaches claimed to teach related to various elements of sportsmanship. This response was particularly common with the male coaches. A number of coaches viewed good sportsmanship as "not showing up the opposing team after a win," or being sure to shake hands and say "good game," even after a loss. Others discussed dimensions of sportsmanship such as honesty and playing by the rules.

Several of the coaches responded to this same question by discussing the value of support and encouragement for teammates. This response was more common among the female coaches. For example, coaches discussed values related to supporting others regardless of ability, encouraging teammates despite mistakes, respect for teammates and opponents, and the importance of teamwork.

Later in the interview, coaches were asked to respond to a list of specific values and life skills presented by the interviewer (e.g., winning, fair play, participation, fun, respect, decision-making). Coaches were encouraged to discuss the importance they placed on these values and life skills, and how they taught them. Although few of these values were mentioned when coaches were initially asked what values they try to teach, nearly all the coaches indicated that they thought these values were important. In particular, coaches felt these were values that they tried to incorporate into their youth sport program.

Similarities also were noted in the coaching philosophies of these individuals. Although several coaches struggled in terms of articulating their coaching philosophy, most discussed components consistent with the youth sport programs in which they were involved. The two areas discussed most often when coaches were asked about their philosophies related to the importance of youngsters learning skills and having fun. Noticeably limited were remarks regarding the value of participation, importance of competition, and the relative emphasis placed on winning and losing. These components of their philosophies became apparent only when the interviewer specifically asked coaches to discuss these areas. In general, these youth sport coaches felt that all children should get to participate regardless of ability and that participating in youth sports provided the opportunity for youngsters to develop their physical skills. They also felt that the emphasis placed on competition and winning should be decreased.

Teaching Values and Life Skills and Implementing Philosophies

Several questions in the interview explored the extent to which coaches teach the values and life skills they identified as important, as well as implementing the philosophies that they discussed during the interview. In general, coaches thought they were successful in teaching the values and life skills they felt were important. However, when asked to specifically describe how they taught these values and life skills, many coaches straggled in their explanations. In a similar manner, contradictions were sometimes noted between the coaching philosophies espoused by coaches and their actual actions or behaviors as coaches.

Relative to the teaching of values, many coaches experienced difficulty explaining how they attempt to teach the values and life skills they deemed important. Responses were somewhat evasive and often did not focus on the actual teaching itself. Rather than discussing the steps used or the points emphasized in teaching a particular value or life skill, most coaches focused on their own specific coaching behaviors when talking about the teaching process. For example, several coaches used negative reinforcement, including actions such as benching an athlete or making the players run, as a response to correct inappropriate behavior. One baseball coach indicated he attempts to teach various aspects of sportsmanship to his players (e.g., no cussing, no negative talk) by punishing negative behaviors with having the players run laps or do pushups. Other coaches assumed that leading by example was sufficient in the teaching of values and life skills. For example, one baseball coach indicated the main value he tried to teach was sportsmanship. When asked how he taught this value, the coach stated "I try to serve as a role model."

Moreover, rather than structuring the sport environment to promote the learning of specific values or life skills, many coaches assumed that merely talking about a value or telling youngsters how to respond in a situation was an effective means of teaching. For example, one coach indicated that she emphasizes the values of honesty, hard work, and trying your best. When asked how she promotes such values, this coach responded, "I talk about 'em. I tell them what I expect of them ... other than just telling them and talking to 'em I really don't promote it in any other way."

Absent in the remarks of these youth sport coaches were discussions about modifying the environment to facilitate the active learning of values or utilizing developmental teaching progressions to reinforce learning. Although coaches did cite examples of inappropriate behavior by their players and how they personally handled these incidents, their explanations rarely focused on allowing youngsters to review the inappropriate behavior and learn from the situation. The teachable moment of allowing the youngsters to proceed through the steps of problem solving was missed.

In terms of implementing coaching philosophies, there were some indications of

inconsistency between the stated philosophy of coaches and comments about their coaching practices and behaviors. These inconsistencies were evident as coaches provided specific examples and stories about their coaching experiences when responding to other questions throughout the interview. In general, these inconsistencies most often emerged in the areas related to the importance of winning and the importance of participation. On the other hand, few examples of inconsistency were noted in the two areas coaches originally identified when asked to discuss their coaching philosophy--importance of teaching skills and making the participation experience fun.

Through the comments made by these youth sport coaches, it was obvious that many coaches described behaviors that were contrary to their coaching philosophies. And, in some situations, coaches provided a rationale for their behavior that may have been inconsistent with their general philosophy. Examples are provided from the interviews to illustrate these inconsistencies.

Several coaches discussed the importance of providing an opportunity for all youngsters to participate in games. Such a belief is consistent with most youth sport programs that are instructionally based. Yet this belief was not always based on the important benefits that an individual can gain from participation. When talking about why it is important for everyone to participate, one coach commented "it's very important, they have all paid their money." Another coach commented "if you pay your $25.00, they should have the right to play." Several coaches related the right of participation to the financial investment by parents.

Another area of inconsistency emerged when the coaches were discussing the emphasis placed on winning. The majority of the coaches reported that their coaching philosophy tried to emphasize "playing to the best of your ability", "it's okay to lose as long as you tried your best", "having fun", and keeping the competition in perspective because "it's just a game." However, a number of examples of coaching behaviors contrary to these philosophies were discovered through further discussions with the coaches. An area of conflict sometimes surfaced between the areas of winning and having fun. Although some coaches made it clear that having fun was a main priority, there was a tendency to assume that having fun was the result of winning. For example, a baseball coach was discussing being a role model to his team and what that entailed when he commented, "I try not to place too much of an emphasis on winning. Although I do tell them that, you know, if you want to have fun out here, the most fun is winning."

Some coaches would start out with good intentions of keeping the competition in check and maintaining a healthy playing environment. However, as the game would get more serious, some of the youth sport coaches would experience a lapse of philosophy where the win-win attitude would appear. For example, a softball coach was discussing how she tries to put personal and team improvement above winning. However, she followed this statement with the comment, "But don't get me wrong, if I'm in a game in a tight situation, I'm gonna do what I can to win a game, but that's probably competitiveness." Or, as noted in the response of a baseball coach, there was an apparent conflict between winning and his previous comment that "I try to play every kid an equal amount of time." This coach commented:

There are times if you have a close game, it is more fun to win than it is to lose. And the kids enjoy it more when you win. And there are times at the end of the game when you have to make certain personnel moves to try to win the ball game ... You might stick a kid in right field but at least he's playing.

Winning also was used as the rationale as to why a softball coach felt she had been successful in teaching particular values to her athletes. When asked if she felt she had been successful in teaching the values of honesty, hard work, and trying your best, the

coach went on to say she felt successful because her team improved from a 2-11 win/loss record to a 13-1 season the following year.

Another contradictory example between the stated coaching philosophy and comments describing coaching behaviors related to the practice of using team meetings after the conclusion of a game as a means to put the contest into perspective. Although most coaches indicated that their coaching philosophy stressed reducing the importance of competition and winning, team meetings were generally held only after a loss. Coaches indicated that this meeting was held with the intent to inform the youngsters that "winning isn't everything" and "you tried hard and that's what's important". Yet it appeared that these meetings were an opportunity for coaches to critique performance with the emphasis being placed on mistakes. As one coach explained, "they need to know what they did wrong so they won't make that mistake again." The underlying message to youngsters may be that losing is important (despite what the coach may say) since team meetings only take place after a loss.

Despite being able to identify or discuss components of a coaching philosophy that would generally be consistent with that espoused by youth sport programs, coaches struggled at times with incorporating this philosophy into their actual coaching behaviors. And, in the majority of these situations, it was apparent that coaches were unaware of this contradiction.

Discussion

The coach obviously occupies a critical role in determining the values and life skills that youngsters learn in a youth sport program as well as the nature of the experiences that participants are provided. The degree to which a coach is able to teach and reinforce values and life skills and implement an educationally sound coaching philosophy significantly impacts the social learning of the youth sport participant. And as suggested by Petlichkoff (1993) and Saffici (1996), the nature of coach and athlete interactions and the positive/negative features of this experience also impacts the likelihood of whether an individual will continue involvement in the sport context.

As previously reported, the coaches in this sample recognized the importance of teaching a wide range of values and life skills to youth sport participants but struggled in articulating how they attempted to teach these desired outcomes in their own program. Several factors related to the personal demographics of the coaches themselves are important to consider when explaining these findings. The coaches represented in the present sample undoubtedly parallel youth sport coaches in many programs across the United States.

First, it is important to remember that all of these coaches were volunteers and none were reimbursed for their coaching duties. Second, according to the coaches interviewed, the most important reason for entering the role of coach related to having a child (or children) who was participating in the youth sport program. Third, several coaches indicated that their selection as coach of the team was by default since no one else was interested in the position. These three factors taken together suggest that prerequisites for the role of youth sport coach are minimal.

In addition to the selection process, it is important to look at the degree of preparation and training coaches have for this role. In the present sample, 17 of the 22 coaches interviewed felt they were adequately prepared to coach when they first entered this role. Factors such as playing experience in the sport (ranging from backyard ball to minor league baseball) or watching professional baseball led to perceptions of being prepared, as well as the assumption on the part of many respondents that coaching at the youth sport level required minimal knowledge or preparation. Interestingly, when asked to discuss their training for coaching, none of the 22 coaches reported any

structured or systematic preparation.

Combining the dynamics of how coaches are selected and their lack of preparation for the role, it is not surprising that coaches struggled when asked to describe how they taught various values and life skills. Although coaches realize that youth sports can be an important learning context for youngsters and verbally support the importance of teaching values and life skills, most youth sport coaches have not been trained in how to structure a learning environment to promote desired outcomes. Structured activities that provide youngsters with the opportunity to practice `valued' behaviors and receive positive feedback regarding their actions are necessary to ensure that this learning is taking place.

At times it appeared that the common perception of these coaches was that these desired values and life skills would automatically occur through participation in youth sports. This social learning is certainly not automatic and typically is not acquired only through talking or role modeling. And, as was obvious in the discussion about contradictions in implementing philosophy, the behaviors and actions that coaches display (and thus the behavior being modeled) may not be consistent with what is socially desirable. As argued by Eitzen (1984b), coaches sometimes display behaviors that we do not want our youngsters to model (e.g., cheating, demeaning individuals).

The second major finding of the study related to the inconsistencies between coaching philosophies and actual coaching behaviors. Such inconsistencies are important because those involved in a sport program are much more likely to remember what was done rather than what was said (Stewart, 1993). Several factors may help in explaining these inconsistencies, not only in our present sample, but in youth sport programs across the country.

First, there is little doubt that most youth sport coaches can recognize (and in some cases articulate) components of an educationally sound philosophy for youth sport programs. These images are often formulated based on what coaches were told as participants in sport, society's idealized vision of the positive value of sport participation, and through exposure to youth sport program guidelines or mission statements. This is consistent with Stewart's (1993) belief that most coaches are effective at "talking" a good philosophy. Despite this sensitivity to the goals of youth sport programs, most coaches encounter other forces that compete with their ability to actually implement their philosophy. Coaching behavior is obviously the best indicator of coaching philosophy (Stewart, 1993).

Most coaches in our sample had previous participation experience in organized sport. Eighteen coaches had participated in youth sport programs as a child and 19 individuals had been involved in organized sport at either the junior high or high school level. As noted by numerous coaches throughout the interviews, these past experiences in sport had exposed them to a variety of coaches and thus influenced their own approach to coaching. Since many of their more recent experiences occurred in the formally organized and competitive sport programs found at the high school level (or in some cases college level), it was not surprising that several coaches brought remnants of this philosophy to the youth sport context. In addition, it was apparent that many of these youth sport coaches were extremely competitive individuals, a quality many cited as having learned through their own sport participation. Thus, implementing the espoused philosophy of youth sport programs often became difficult when considering the previous experiences of coaches in the realm of sport.

Another force that appeared to lead some coaches to drift from their stated coaching philosophy was the influence of parents. Expectations from parents often put pressures on coaches that ran counter to the stated goals of youth sport participation. Some parents were very focused on winning and playing the best athletes, and thus did not

see the youth sport context as one that emphasized learning or instruction. Often times these youth sport coaches succumbed to peer pressure from parents thus resulting in situations where some coaches "played for the win" or deviated from their philosophy that everyone should play an equal amount of the time.

One final force that may have been operating in this context relates to the influence of the professionalized sport model found at many higher competitive levels in the United States. The influence of this sport model, which promotes winning and being the best, is difficult to escape. Coaches are undoubtedly influenced by its presence and at times youth sport programs begin to resemble miniature models of professional sport. Although most coaches did not talk about such an orientation in terms of their own behavior, many cited instances where opposing coaches utilized such an approach to coaching.

In situations where youth sport coaches move to more professionalized orientations in their approach to sport, there is an increased risk that a mismatch will exist between the orientation of the coach and that of the participant. Research still supports the notion that most children participate in sport to have fun, to be with friends, and to learn new skills, and that children will continue to participate in sport if their needs are being met (Petlichkoff, 1993). If coaches overemphasize winning or only play the best players, outcomes may not be as positive for youngsters and may even lead to dropping out of sport (Petlichkoff, 1993)

In summary, these youth sport coaches appeared to have good intentions in terms of providing a quality experience for the participants in their program. Despite these intentions, however, coaches often were not adequately prepared to structure the youth sport context as a viable learning environment. In addition, competing external pressures made it difficult to keep coaches "on track" in terms of implementing the desired philosophy of youth sport programs. Thus, it is apparent that in order to enhance the value of sport programs for our youth, greater attention needs to be given to the selection, monitoring, and professional development of individuals in the role of youth sport coach.

Table 1

1. Could you please describe your philosophy of coaching baseball/softball when you first started coaching at this level? Has your philosophy changed over time?

2. Could you please describe what you do as a coach to put your present philosophy into practice?

3. What types of values do you emphasize for the youngsters on your baseball/softball team? What do you do as a coach to promote the development of these values? Do you feel successful in these efforts?

4. How important is winning in the total realm of your coaching? What types of things do you do as a baseball/softball coach that reflect your views about the importance of winning?

5. How important is letting all children participate in the total realm of your coaching? What types of things do you do as a baseball/softball coach that reflect your views about letting all children participate?

6. Do you try to develop any form of decision-making or leadership skills in the individuals you coach?

7. Do you feel your philosophy is similar to the other coaches you encounter in your coaching

activities?

8. In general, what impact do you think participation in your youth sport program has on the youngsters you coach?

9. Looking at youth sports in general, what do you see as some of the negative values being learned by participants?

10. Looking at youth sports in general, what do you see as some of the positive values being learned by participants?

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By Sarah G. McCallister; Elaine M. Blinde and Windee M. Weiss

Dr. Sarah G. McCallister, Dr. Elaine M. Blinde and Windee M. Weiss are in the Department of Physical Education at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale

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