Closing the gap or perpetuating inequality? Indigenous paternal imprisonment and the next generation Susan Dennison Funding Sources:Queensland Department

Closing the gap or perpetuating inequality? Indigenous paternal imprisonment and

the next generation

Susan Dennison

Funding Sources: Queensland Department of Premier and Cabinet (Indigenous Criminal Justice Research Agenda)

ARC Future Fellowship (FT0991557)

School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

Aims

To examine the potential effects of Indigenous paternal imprisonment by exploring:

How father-child relationships change as a consequence of imprisonment

Barriers to parenting in prison

Father’s perceived wellbeing of their children

Opportunities to support parenting by Indigenous fathers in prison


Parental incarceration and inequality

» African-American children disproportionality experience the imprisonment of their father

» Net effect is usually harmful

» It creates a cascade of difficulties for families


Evidence of large-scale and enduring effects of parental incarceration on the next generation of children

Parental incarceration and inequality

» Racial gaps in behavioural problems up 46%

» Racial differences in aggressive behaviour up 24%

» Racial gaps in homelessness up 64%

» Increase in infant mortality (Wakefield & Wildeman, 2014)


Parental imprisonment perpetuates racial inequality in USA


What does this mean for the Australian context?

Our rates of paternal incarceration for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children virtually mirror those of African-American children

» 1 in 4 African-American children (Wakefield & Wildeman, 2014)

» 1 in 5 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children (Dennison et al, 2013; Quilty, 2003)

Our high imprisonment rates of Indigenous men and women create the ideal conditions for ongoing disparity (Weatherburn, 2014)


What does this mean for Closing the Gap?

Closing the Gap: The Prime Minister’s Report 2015

Some improvements in education and health

Most targets are not on track to be met» Close gap in life expectancy within a generation» Halve the gap in reading, writing, and numeracy (improving

school attendance is critical)» Halve the gap in employment outcomes

Little consideration for the role of over-representation of Indigenous adults in prison and no consideration for the effect of parental imprisonment on children and communities


What are the macro-level concerns?

There is a clear need for macro-level policy changes to reduce Indigenous imprisonment rates

» Weatherburn (2014) argues for key changes around parenting and child development, education, employment, reducing substance abuse, bail reforms and reducing recidivism.

These approaches, and those initiatives seeking to close the gap, are operating in conjunction with the ongoing damaging effects of parental incarceration

How do we bring Indigenous paternal imprisonment into this conversation?

» What are the mechanisms producing this negative effect on children?

» How does imprisonment of Indigenous men effect father-child relationships?


What are the micro- and proximal- level concerns?

Indigenous fathers, children and imprisonment Opportunities to maintain contact

in prison and be involved in parenting can impact a sense of self-efficacy, identity as a parent, experience of parental generativity, and long term social generativity

Missed opportunities has consequences for children

The experience of being cared for during childhood is critical to the development of fathering (Cassidy & Shaver, 1999)



Research Questions

1. How do Indigenous men in prison identify with, and involve themselves in, parenting?

2. What is the degree and quality of contact that Indigenous men have with their children?

3. What barriers do Indigenous fathers experience in maintaining relationships and parenting while in prison?

4. How can parenting by Indigenous fathers be supported in prison?


The Fathers

41 fathers, aged 21 – 50 years, Median = 34 years

83% identified themselves as Aboriginal, 5% Torres Strait Islander, 12% both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander

92% had served a prior sentence, Median = 4

7% married, 51% living with partner, 34% not in relationship, 7% in casual relationship

1 – 9 children per participant (M = 3.15, SD = 2.09)

91% were biological fathers of the children


The Fathers

42% of participants grew up without a father present

26% reported being raised with harsh or abusive parenting styles


The Children

129 children (53% male)

Ages one month – 17 years, Median = 9 years

32% were experiencing their first episode of paternal imprisonment

Experience of prior paternal imprisonment ranged from 0 – 10 episodes, Median = 1 prior episode

Cumulative time with a father in prison ranged from 1 month – 172 months, Median = 28 months

45% of children were living with their father prior to his imprisonment


RQ1 – Engaging in parenting

Prior to imprisonment:» 80% reported playing and interacting with children prior to

imprisonment

» 65% involved in disciplining children

» 23% reported being involved in the children’s day-to-day care

» 60% engaged with their children on a cultural level prior to imprisonment

During imprisonment:» 41% reported that they participate in parenting with at least one child

while imprisoned

» 62% kept up to date with children’s lives


RQ 2: Degree and quality of contact

Only 22% of men received visits from their children, 66% phone contact, 12% videoconferencing, 42% had some letter contact

46% had no contact with at least one of their children

Quality of relationship:

» 17% remained negative

» 32% remained positive

» 5% changed to positive

» 46% changed to negative

“children need to be given love and affection, to deny them that is inhumane… lose the intimate relationship with child in prison”


RQ 2: Degree and quality of contact

29% suggested there should be more children’s resources to allow fathers to interact with children

“I use a toilet roll to play catch or footy with him…he just wants to be amused”

More frequent or longer visits (12%), family days with BBQ’s (12%), visits in the open air (22%), eating food together (15%), having family photos taken (2%), more privacy (12%)

64% of fathers reported problems maintaining a relationship with at least one of their children

“lost everything… missing out on my sons and they are missing out on me”


RQ 3: Barriers to maintaining relationships and parenting 41% cited cost and/or distance as the primary reason that

families did not visit

“If I’m lucky I get to talk to them on the phone every now and then…only seven minutes…can’t really have much of a conversation”

41% reported they did not want visits from their children“can’t stand the thought of bringing them in here, and that you wouldn’t want them to see how we live in here”. He said his son “would say ‘wow’” but that his daughter would be frightened. He said his sons would “want to be here” and that they would think it was cool “…is deadly” but that it is not once you are here.

“I won’t ask them how they feel about me in here…don’t want to burden them. Just want them to go to school with a healthy mind, not with a ton of bricks on their head”.


Impact on children

56% of men believed their imprisonment had a negative impact on their children’s lives (a further 15% were unsure)

» Problems included experiencing shame, being bullied, behavioural problems, substance use, emotional difficulties, academic problems, and growing up without a father figure

“prison has made them strangers and not freely spoken the way children should speak…it is like the children are in prison themselves”

“everyone has gone haywire since I been inside…”


RQ 4: Support for Indigenous fathers?

Only two participants had attended a parenting program

51% of men said they would find a prison-based parenting program useful, including:» Teaching fathers how to emotionally connect and communicate with

children, teaching them about drug and alcohol abuse and mental and physical abuse, how to abstain from criminal activity, how to deal with children being bullied, how to budget and financially maintain contact, how to be a responsible parent, how to facilitate their children’s education and encourage work ethics, how to instill cultural values, how to raise children of different age groups, how to provide for children’s basic needs

39% said a post-release program would be useful, focused on parenting and relationships

Where to from here?

Need policies that support parenting in prison – place children at the centre of policies

Assist men to develop their role and identities as fathers

Programs that support children and caregivers during the imprisonment period and post-release

Mitigate the effect of paternal imprisonment for other strategies to take full effect



Further information

A version of this paper is published in:

Dennison, S., Smallbone, H., Stewart, A., Freiberg, K. & Teague, R. (2014). “My life is separated”: An examination of the challenges and barriers to parenting for Indigenous fathers in prison. British Journal of Criminology, 54, 1089-1108.

For more information please contact:

» [email protected]

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Documents

Closing the gap or perpetuating inequality? Indigenous paternal imprisonment and the next generation Susan Dennison Funding Sources:Queensland Department