Support the cognitive development of children

Cognitive development

Before we start, let’s just briefly look at some theorists of the cognitive domain and what they have to say.

Researchers and theorists such as Piaget, Vygotsky and Skinner have developed theories around cognitive development and there are a variety of approaches to teaching which have grown from the work of these and other theorists, such as those espousing Behaviourism, Information Processing, and Constructivism.

Jean Piaget Jean Piaget has had a great influence on the way that we understand children. He explained children’s development in terms of their cognitive development. According to Piaget their development is largely due to maturation of the brain and nervous system and active exploration of the environment.

Piaget proposed that the following principles underpin all cognitive development:

1. the child is an active learner2. the child must be given opportunities to explore, discover ad experiment.

Piaget believes that children think differently from adults. This is not because children know less than adults, but because their thinking processes are different. That is, infants, toddlers, preschoolers and school-aged children have different thinking strategies and have quite different ways of problem-solving and exploring the environment.

He believed that children’s thinking passed through four separate stages and changed qualitatively in each of these stages. He emphasised the importance of maturation and the provision of a stimulating environment for children to explore. He believed children were active learners. Piaget’s stages are:

• Sensori-motor stage – Birth to two years. This stage consists of six substages that also show significant gains in the child’s thinking as they progress through infancy. Children are using their physical or motor skills and their senses to explore their world and develop their cognitive understandings.

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• Pre-operational stage – Two to seven years. In this stage children are less reliant upon senses and physical exploration and according to Piaget are ‘illogical’ thinkers. During this stage even though someone has shown them that two balls of dough exactly the same size and got them to agree that the balls are the same size, when one is flattened, children will usually tell you that one of them is now bigger. This inability to conserve is a feature of the preoperational stage.

• Concrete operations – Seven to twelve years. In this stage which aligns with middle childhood, children are beginning to be able to demonstrate much more logical thinking. They do though need concrete materials to help them reach the correct conclusions. Thus in this stage you will see children working on mathematical problems but using blocks or counters or even their fingers to help them work out the answer.

• Formal operation – 12 years on. This final stage encompasses the rest of our lives. Piaget believed that once we reached twelve we were capable of much more abstract thinking and able to solve problems in our ‘heads’. We can deal with much more complex issues.

How does Piaget’s theory apply to the care of children?If we understand how children think and learn, we can provide a stimulating environment that will support their learning. This will involve a good range of experiences and a free-choice approach so that each child will be able to follow their own interests at the level they are ready for. Using Piaget’s theory, the carer’s role is to provide stimulation and to observe carefully to see when to step in and interact or change experiences.

For more information on Piaget try these websites:

http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/development/piaget.shtml

http://tip.psychology.org/piaget.html

http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html

You can also simply type Piaget into Google and you will receive thousands of potential web sites.

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Piaget continued…Piaget has been, and continues to be, an important influence on how we think about children's thinking skills. He was important because he saw children as active participants in their own learning. Lev Vygotsky also saw children's thinking developing in stages, but he emphasised the social and cultural influences on a child's learning.

Lev Vygotsky Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory is also another theory to be considered when looking at cognitive development. You will also learn about his theories when learning about social development. We have only learnt much about Vygotsky, a Russian theorist who died in 1934, since the 1990’s. Vygotsky developed his theories around the same time as Jean Piaget but the main difference was that Vygotsky emphasised the importance of relationships and interactions between children and more knowledgable peers and adults. He believed that children’s cognitive understandings were enriched and deepened when they were ‘scaffolded’ by parent, teachers or peers (Berk 1996).

Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky did not see the child as a solitary discoverer of knowledge, but saw the child learning within social interactions with others. Social interactions involve communicating, so Vygotsky also emphasised the role of language in the development of the child's thinking processes.

Like Piaget, Vygotsky saw children as active partners in their own learning, with this participation growing as their ability to interact with others develops. Vygotsky therefore emphasised the importance of language development, learning and teaching to the child's cognitive development.

Vygotsky believed that thinking in concepts was not possible without verbal thinking. While thinking and language initially develop independently, they are merged once language is developed to create verbal thought. Speech and thought changes over time and becomes more internalised.

Vygotsky sees the adult as vital to the process of 'scaffolding' the child's behaviour. When you scaffold a building you support it structurally while internal developments occur. It is a common sight on building sites. We scaffold children's development almost without thinking. Consider this example:

Bonnie is completing a three-piece puzzle with knobs on top. She has the last piece over the space, but it is upside down. She pushes harder. Her caregiver says 'Try turning it, Bonnie', but Bonnie looks confused. The caregiver puts her hand over Bonnie's, and turns the piece slightly, saying 'See, Bonnie? Turn it'.

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal DevelopmentVygotsky also sees the child's ability to think logically as developing in stages. He has outline four different stages of conceptual development. They are:

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Vygotsky’s four different stages of conceptual development

Stage Characteristics1. Thinking in unordered heaps Preschool stage of development.

Beginnings of conceptual though.

Children use trial and error. Children use problems solving techniques.

Three subphases

3. Thinking in concepts stage Children are able to think in more abstract concepts and make associations.

Cannot see two associations simulatiously

4. Thinking in true concepts stage Mature thinking. Manipulate a number of abstract concepts.

Adapted from Nixon and Aldwinckle (2003)

While Piaget did not feel there was any use in presenting materials and problems to children which were beyond their developmental capacity, Vygotsky saw an important role for adults in extending children's learning beyond what they were capable of independently. Vygotsky used the term 'Zone of Proximal Development' to describe the extension of skills a child is capable of with adult help.

Picture a toddler who has a large knob puzzle with a simple bear shape. The toddler tries to put the teddy in the hole, but has it upside down. He tries to get it in, cannot and moves away. This child, operating independently is unable to complete the puzzle. Along comes a caregiver, who reengages the toddler with the puzzle and says, ‘look, here is his ears, see here is the space for the ears.’ The caregiver then puts the teddy bear right way up and just to the side of the hole. The toddler slips the puzzle into place. Now the toddler is capable of doing the puzzle. By careful scaffolding the child’s zone of proximal development has been expanded.

Vygotsky saw language as an integral part of the development of cognitive skills. As the child acquires language she or he is able to talk through a particular problem. We sometimes do this as adults when confronted with a new task. The most recent one for was setting up a new computer 'This plug goes there, so where does this one go...

How does Vygotsky’s theory apply to the care of children?Children learn with the guidance and assistance of those in the environment. Sensitive carers in the child’s world will know that children will need assistance and will know when to step in and guide the child to support them in the learning process. Children need interactions on a one-to-one basis and these conversations will assist their learning.

For more information try this website:

http://tip.psychology.org/vygotsky.html

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http://www.kolar.org/vygotsky/

You can also simply type Vygotsky into Google and you will receive thousands of potential web sites.

A brief look at other theorists of cognitive development Jerome Bruner emphasised the connection between language and thought. He saw children as an active participant in making sense of their world. Like Vygotsky, he sees cognitive development to be a social process. Discovery learning where the environment provides the answers but the child makes the connections is promoted by Bruner. He, like Vygotsky, uses the term scaffolding to describe the role of others in fostering a child’s social development (Nixon and Aldwinckle, 2003).

Information processing theory sees the mind’s structure as similar to a computer, with information going in through the senses, being processed, and memory skills being used to decide if the material is retained or lost.

Learning theories (Bandura, Skinner and other behaviourists) emphasise the importance of reward or punishment if shaping a child’s learning as well as the importance of role models and caregiver input (Nixon and Aldwinckle 2003).

Cognitive development of the infant from four weeks to 18 months

Brain growth in infancyOne of the most significant changes in infancy is brain growth. Research on brain development came to the forefront in the 1990s with the use of new brain imaging technologies. These studies have proved what many teachers and caregivers have always known—that both nature (that which is inherited) and nurture (that which is influenced by the environment) are vital for us to reach our maximum development. The studies have confirmed that early care has a long-lasting impact on our ability to develop, learn and relate to others. A baby’s brain develops at an amazing rate: by age three it is as complex as it will ever be.

The brain comprises billions of brain cells called neurons. Neurons send and receive information across the organs and muscles. Connections are made between neurons. These connections are called synapses. By the age of two, babies have the same number of connections or synapses as adults. When the connections are not used, they disappear and are discarded. For connections to become permanent, they need to be used so they are reinforced by experience. This results in the individual becoming competent in particular skills or tasks such as coordination of movement, language or problem solving.

It has been argued that the pruning and reinforcing of connections in the brain explains why there are cultural variations in skills and thinking. For example, when children grow up in a

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hunter-gatherer society, they may acquire the neural connections needed for efficient hunting at an early age. On the other hand, children growing up in an inner city environment wouldn’t use these connections and so would lose them. Brain growth is said to be an interaction between biology and cultural experiences.

Cognitive developmentCognitive development is the development of the use of the mind. The mind is the thinking part of the brain - the part that is used for recognising, memorising, solving problems, knowing and understanding. Children’s minds are active from the time they are born. Day by day, as the child grows and matures, the mind develops and the baby learns about the world he or she lives in.

During the first 18 months, the child learns mainly through seeing, touching, tasting, hearing and smelling (the senses). The infant learns by actively exploring the environment using the developing motor skills of movement, grasping and coordination. The infant learns by actively doing things.

Behaviour which uses both the senses and motor skills to learn about an object is called

The following passage describes an infant playing with a rattle.

Lucy crawled over to the toy basket. She grasped a rattle by the handle and immediately brought it to her mouth. She started to suck the rattle. She stopped sucking and removed the rattle from her mouth. She waved it around above her head. She transferred the rattle to her other hand. Again she brought the rattle to her mouth and started to suck on it. She removed it from her mouth and banged it on the floor. She repeated banging the rattle on the floor.

In this description, you can identify a number of motor actions and sensory behaviours through which Lucy learnt many things about herself and objects in her environment. For example, Lucy learnt about the size, shape, weight and texture of the rattle by grasping, lifting, mouthing, sucking and waving ita combination of sensory and motor behaviours. She learnt about her own ability to make things happen when she banged the rattle and produced a sound and then banged the rattle again.

Some behavioural signs of cognitive development are:

• exploring and experimenting with objects using the senses and developing motor skills (eg, watch a baby play with a rattle at different ages)

• behaviour which shows anticipation of what will happen next (eg, slapping hands on the table waiting for food or excitement when the stroller comes out)

• ability to see the difference between familiar and unfamiliar people and objects (eg, reacting differently to mum and dad and strangers)

• imitating the behaviours of other people (eg, copying the waving action of others or picking up the phone and putting it to the ear)

• being purposeful and goal-directed in their behaviour (eg, baby sets out to get the ball under the table)

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• deliberately doing an action to cause a particular thing to happen (eg, the infant hits the jack-in-the-box toy to make it open); the infant is learning about the basic principle of cause and effect — action A produces response B

• experimenting (eg, hitting a toy drum in a variety of ways and with different implements to see what happens)

• solving problems using a trial and error approach (eg, an older infant will solve an insert puzzle by trying to fit each piece in each hole until they finally come to the solution).

All these behaviours indicate that an infant is developing understanding of how things work and increasing their knowledge about the world.

Object permanence and person permanenceTwo important cognitive developments during the infancy period have to do with memory.

Object permanence relates to the understanding that objects continue to exist even though they are out of sight. Before an infant has reached this stage, they will not search for a toy that is hidden, for instance. A young infant operates on the principle of ‘out of sight, out of mind’.

By 18 months, infants’ behaviour shows that their memory is developing. For example, an 18-month-old will:

• remember and go and get the tee-shirt they want to wear• search for an object that has been hidden• go outside to get the ball that they were playing with the previous day.

People permanence emerges at around eight months. Infants become upset at the absence of a primary caregiver because they begin to understand that the person continues to exist when they are not within their sight. They no longer operate on the principle of ‘out of sight, out of mind’. How often have you seen little ones crying at their mother’s absence and pointing towards the door where she went out.

Stages of cognitive development

InfancyAn infant is developing many cognitive skills in the first 18 months of their lives. In this section we will look at the perceptual skills of infant, their development of object permanence and the development of their memory or thinking skills.

Perceptual abilities of the infantAt birth an infant is called a neonate. They have already entered the world with a variety of perceptual abilities that will be enhance and refined over the period of their infancy. Researchers have found that visually, neonates can follow moving objects, but not in a refined or smooth way. At this stage although infants can see, they do not have 20:20 vision. This will

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not develop for a number of years. Their focal distance is approximately the distance from your face to your elbow (around 14cm) when holding a baby in the crook of your arm.

Neonates can discriminate between voices and recognise their mother’s voice as well as recognising her smell. They will react to strong smells. They also have the ability to distinguish between sweet, sour, bitter or salty tastes.

At one month, the infant’s ability to scan the environment becomes more refined. They particularly enjoy looking at faces and when tested by researchers have been shown to prefer to look at complex patterns

By six months, infants can discriminate colours as well as depth. Researchers have tested the infant’s ability in this area by designing a ‘visual cliff’ exercise. The researchers tried to get babies to crawl across an area of clear glass which showed the floor several feet below them. Most infants refused to cross the glass surface showing they had a good understanding of depth perception (Berk, 1996).

The infant’s vision will develop over the period of infancy and beyond. At birth the muscles responsible for eye movement are not developed enough to give full vision. It is common to see infants blinking to prevent damage to their retina by over exposure to light. They are very nearsighted. An object that we can see clearly away 200 metres, infants would need to be six meters away from it to see it with the same amount of detail.

Piaget’s substages of the sensori motor stageBetween the ages of 2 - 18 months, the infant will continue to learn and develop. The use of senses is of the utmost importance to this infant exploring and learning about the world around them. When you complete the next activity you will remember that not only that the infant is in the sensori-motor stage, but this child will be negotiating five specific substages during the first 18 months. The last substage will be discussed when we explore toddlers’ development.

Substage 1 is often referred to as ‘general assimilating’. This stage covers the first month of the infant’s life. During this stage the infant is using already existing schema to survive. Initially schema are the innate reflexes an infant is born with. Sucking and grasping are two examples. These innate reflexive actions are designed to help the survival of the infant. Over the rest of infancy, the infant will build upon these schema to explore and learn about the

The second substage ‘Primary Circular Reactions’ is generally in evidence between one month and until about four months of age. This substage is centred on the infant’s body. During this stage the infant will make a movement with one part of their body such as waving their hand in front of their face. This will attract their attention and the infant will try to

The third substage is called Secondary Circular Reactions and typically occurs between four and eight months. By now the infant is beginning to coordinate actions. They have built upon their initially reflexive schemas. Examples of coordinated actions include both reaching and grasping. By reaching out to grasp an object the infant is demonstrating they are in this third

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The fourth stage Coordination of Secondary Reactions typically occurs between 8-12 months. Here we are beginning to see true goal directed behaviour. The infant will combine different behaviours to produce a desired effect. A classic example in this stage is when the infant drops their spoon from the high chair. The carer reaches over and picks it up. The child immediately drops it again and the game continues. The infant is showing awareness of their ability to produce an effect. During this stage we see an improvement in the ability of the infant to imitate actions/behaviours.

Substage five or Tertiary Circular Reactions is demonstrated between 12 and 18 months. In this substage we see the infants repeating actions but they are beginning to experiment with the actions. Instead of simply dropping the spoon over the side of the high chair, they will vary the distance they throw the spoon and height they drop the spoon from to see the different effects. Here they are truly experimenting and beginning to show true problem solving behaviours.

Cognitive development of toddlersDuring the toddler years, there is a change in the way the child learns about the world and objects in the world.

During toddlerhood, the child moves from learning about the world using their senses and motor behaviour (as in the infant stage) to using more sophisticated learning or cognitive skills.

Cognitive abilitiesThe toddler develops the following cognitive abilities:

• symbolic functioning• improved memory skills• understanding of some concepts• problem solving in the mind.

Symbolic functioningThis means that toddlers learn to use and understand symbols that represent the real thing.

Examples of symbolic functioning:

• As toddlers learn language, they use words for objects, people and events that are there or happening in the present. Toddlers understand that the word ‘ball’ is a symbol for or represents the round rolling object that they were playing with yesterday.

• A toddler draws a picture of a circle and straight lines and says ‘my daddy’. The drawing is a symbol for or represents his or her real daddy.

• A toddler picks up a leaf and floats it in the water and says ‘the big boat’. The leaf is a symbol for or represents a boat.

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• A toddler puts on dress-up clothes and pretends to be someone else.

The ability to function symbolically is shown in the toddler’s play. The toddler’s play becomes more imaginative. The toddler acts out ideas and thoughts in his or her play. This type of play is called pretend play.

For example, the toddler will pretend:

• to be other people during play (eg mummy mowing the grass or daddy cooking the dinner—if the toddler has seen this behaviour at some time)

• a toy or piece of equipment is something else (eg block construction becomes a farmyard or a zoo).

Improved memory skillsDuring the infant stage the main type of memory used is called recognition memory. This means that the infant recognises something when he or she sees it again.

During the toddler stage recall memory becomes more efficient. Recall memory is when you retrieve something from your memory without having to see something or experience something again.

Recall memory is shown in the toddler’s play when the toddler picks up a broom and sweeps the floor. The toddler recalls seeing his father doing this on a previous occasion and repeats the action. This is different to directly imitating behaviour that is happening at the time. By using recall memory, the toddler imitates behaviour and actions that have happened in the past.

Understanding of some conceptsA concept is not a concrete object. A concept is an understanding of a quality of something. For example, the words ‘big’ and ‘small’ only have meaning when they’re used to describe something else.

Towards the end of the toddlerhood stage, children are just beginning to show some understanding of the concepts of:

• size: eg big, little• colour: may know two or three colours• number: may have an understanding or one, two and ‘a lot’• shape: may recognise and name a circle only• space: may begin to show an understanding of words and use these words in their

language which describe an object’s position (eg, in, on, under, behind)• time: the two-and-a-half to three-year old has only a hazy understanding of time

(understanding time by linking it to real events, eg ‘we will go to the park after you have eaten your lunch’; toddlers do not understand words such as ‘later’ or ‘in a minute’ or ‘last week’)

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• right and wrong: by three years of age children show an understanding of right and wrong; their behaviour will show that they know when they have done something wrong. Children of this age do the right thing to avoid punishment or receive a reward.

• same and different: children are able to match objects that are the same and identify those that are different.

Problem solving in the mindYou know that infants have a basic understanding of the principle of cause and effect (action A causes response B).

By three years of age, children will experiment with materials to produce different results. For example, they will change the slope of a piece of wood they are using as a car track to increase the speed of the car. Most importantly, this problem is worked out in their head before they make the changes.

Toddler behaviour which indicates cognitive developmentBy observing or watching a toddler’s behaviour, you will be able to get an idea of a toddler’s level of cognitive functioning.

The following behaviour will help you identify a toddler’s cognitive functioning:

• play behaviour: pretend and dramatic (acting out the behaviour of others) play• language: how toddlers use language (asking questions, expressing their ideas);

language goes beyond just labelling objects• understanding of concepts• experimentation and problem solving in their play.

Never take over children’s play. A good caregiver knows when to step in and suggest and participate and when to withdraw and allow children to continue with their own ideas.

Influences on cognitive developmentAs with all other areas of development, heredity (cognitive potential) and experiences and opportunities in the environment influence cognitive development.

The child’s temperament (heredity) and personality (life experiences) also influence a child’s cognitive functioning.

Learning will be influenced by a child’s:

• level of curiosity• eagerness to explore and experiment• concentration levels• persistence at a task

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• distraction levels.

A caregiver’s strategies can promote curiosity, exploration and experimentation by presentation of activities in a child-focused way and by responding positively to children’s questions and comments and enthusiasm for learning.

Just as easily, a caregiver can kill a child’s natural curiosity by being disinterested, ignoring, inflexible and rigid about what the children should do, when they should do it and how they do it.

Cognitive development of preschool yearsThe foundation for cognitive development during the preschool stage has been established during the infant and toddler stages. However, during the preschool stage, children’s thinking becomes more sophisticated and complex. Preschoolers’ thinking becomes less egocentric and they begin to decentre (that is, they begin to focus on more than one aspect of a situation or problem).

Thinking in symbolsPreschool children become more efficient and flexible in symbolic functioning. Symbolic functioning is when the child uses symbols to represent the real object or person. For example, the block pushed along the ground represents a train.

Memory skillsThere are two types of memory: recognition memory and recall memory.

Recognition memoryRecognition memory develops at an early age. It occurs when you remember something when given a visual or auditory cue. For example, someone asks about your memory of a particular person and your memories are very uncertain or hazy about the person being talked about. Then you are shown a photograph of the person and your memory becomes clear.

Recall memoryRecall memory is much more complex. Recall memory is used when someone is asked to relate or write about a series of events that have happened. For example, a witness to an accident is asked to recall and write down exactly what happened at the time of the accident.

In general, during the preschool years recognition memory is better than recall memory but there are leaps and bounds in the recall memory area compared to toddlers. There are also big developments in recall memory skills between three and five years. Check this out for yourself.

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Egocentric thinking in preschoolersDuring the preschool stage, children start to become less egocentric. Preschool children can show an awareness of another person’s point of view and can be guided to think about the needs of other people.

Preschool children will offer sympathy to a child who has fallen over or offer to share an ice-cream with the child who has dropped an ice-cream (sometimes), which shows some understanding of the other child’s needs and feelings.

This does not mean that you can expect preschool children to consider the needs and feelings of others all the time—in many situations the child will see things egocentrically and your role is to help the preschooler become less egocentric. You can do this by asking questions and making suggestion about the feelings and the needs of other people.

CenteringPreschool children still tend to focus on a single feature of a problem or situation and ignore other aspects.

Here’s an example of centration in a preschooler’s thinking:

Years ago when my three-year-old and I were watching TV and we saw a man with bright-orange, spiked hair. My daughter jumped up from her chair and pointing at the TV exclaimed, ‘Look, Mummy—a dinosaur!’

In this scenario, the child centrates or focuses on one aspect of the man’s appearance and then identifies what she sees.

Your role is to help children to look further by your questions and comments.

Understanding of conceptsA concept relates to the understanding of ideas or the qualities of something. We used the example that words such as ‘big’ and ‘small’ only have meaning when they are used to describe something. We learnt that, during toddlerhood, children are beginning to show some understanding of size, colour, number, right and wrong, and same and different.

Concepts that preschoolers are beginning to develop

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At the preschool stage, children’s understanding of a range of concepts improves. However, full understanding of many concepts is not achieved until the next stage of development— that is, middle childhood.

Let’s now look at the concepts that preschoolers are now starting to develop.

NumbersPreschool children may count by rote up to 20 or higher but that does not mean they understand the concept of number. It means that they have remembered the numbers and can repeat them. They are not actually counting to 20.

Three-year-olds are starting to develop an understanding of one-to-one correspondence, that is, they start to assign one number, in the correct sequence, to one object.

It is not uncommon to find that a child who can correctly count to 20 by rote cannot count a set of objects and arrive at the correct answer. For example, a four-year-old who is asked to count nine coins might say ‘one, two, three, four, sixteen, ten’. Three-year-olds counting their fingers may come up with a different answer each time because they may skip one or more fingers or count one finger more than once.

When a child can assign one number to one object consistently it means that the child has developed the concept of one-to-one correspondence. On average, a five-year-old can consistently count up to five objects correctly.

Preschool children learn to compare amounts of things and determine more, less, fewer or the same amounts. They also develop some understanding of ordinal numbers or positioning (eg, first, second, third) especially in relation to their own position. (All preschoolers want to be first!)

ColourDuring the preschool years, children learn to recognise and correctly label colours. They also develop a preference for a particular colour or coloursthis is seen in their selection of objects, paint and clothing.

ShapeDuring the preschool years, children learn to recognise and correctly label the main geometric shapes—a circle, a square, a triangle and a rectangle. They will also describe things as being round, flat or long.

SizePreschool children understand that something is big or small and use size words to describe objects. They like experimenting with words such as huge, enormous or minute.

However, they do have some difficulty in understanding the effect distance has on size. For example, a child of five may believe that a house that they see in the distance actually grows

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larger as they approach it. Also, a child’s view of something will affect their concept of size. For example, if a child is afraid of a particular dog, the dog will be seen as very big, even if it is actually quite a small dog.

SpacePreschool children gradually understand how much space an object takes up. For example, children come to understand how much space their bodies require to fit through a particular passageway or whether there will be enough room for a particular object to go into a particular space.

Weight and massChildren at the preschool stage are starting to gain a concept of which things in their environment are heavy or light. For example, they may try to pick up a friend and say, ‘I can’t; you’re too heavy for me to lift’ or if they are helping in the garden and then try to pick up a large rock, they might say, ‘Ooh, this one is really heavy!’

They are also gaining some understanding of things that may sink or float in water. They will spend hours at the water trough or in the bath experimenting with objects that are heavy and will sink to the bottom and other things that are light and will stay afloat.

TimeA full understanding of time requires a person to understand all the following aspects of time: seconds, minutes, hours, morning and afternoon, day and night, weeks, months, years, decades, centuries, yesterday, today and tomorrow.

Preschoolers tend to give meaning to time by linking it to concrete events and activities: bath time is after dinner; bedtime comes after a story, and so on. They often refer to events in the past as having occurred yesterday and things that they know will happen in the future as happening tomorrow. You will hear them say things like: ‘We’re going on holidays tomorrow’ or ‘You remember when we went on holidays yesterday’.

MatchingPreschool children can tell if two items are the same or different. The characteristics by which they compare them, however, may not be the same as what we would use to compare.

An example of matching games are picture bingo or the card game, concentration.

Classification or sortingDuring the preschool years, children gradually are able to sort objects into different groups using a particular characteristic of the objects—they sort by colour or shape or size. For example, if you give a child a button jar they will initially sort them by either colour or size. Later they will be able to sort by colour and size.

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Seriation (putting objects in order)Preschool children gradually learn to put objects in order from the smallest to the biggest or the shortest to the tallest. They are successful if there are only three or four items to put in order. If there are too many items they will get confused.

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Reasoning abilitiesReasoning describes the thinking processes used in working out or explaining why things happen.

Children in the preschool stage of cognitive development may use a type of reasoning which is illogical.

Preschool children have the tendency to think that if two events occur around the same time, one is caused by the other—for example:

A parent tells a three-and-a-half-year-old to get undressed and get into the bath. The child starts to cry and says, ‘I don’t want to go to bed’ even though it is early morning.

The child has reasoned that because bath time always occurs before bedtime then the next step would be going to bed. In other words, the child has made a causal connection between bath time and bedtime.

A preschooler may reason that the red light at the traffic lights stops the car. They think that because the car stops at the red light then it must be the red light causing the car to stop.

These types of reasoning can result in the preschool child making illogical and, to an adult, irrational connections between events and bits of information. They may contribute to the development of misconceptions about events and anxiety.

Young children may feel that they are to blame for bad things happening—for example:

Four-year-old Tommy was very naughty and his mother was cross. Soon after that, his mother became ill and was rushed to hospital. Tommy may think that his naughtiness caused his mother’s illness.

Four-year-old Maria had broken an ornament. Soon afterwards, her mother and father started arguing and her father left the house. Maria may think that she caused her father to leave because she broke the ornament.

Reassure themYoung children need reassurance that when something bad happens in their lives, they are not to blame. They need love and affection and simple explanations to help them see that situations like divorce, death, accidents and illness are not caused by their behaviour.

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Language and cognitive developmentDuring the preschool years, language and cognitive development are linked. Language provides the child with an important tool for learning.

The child can use language to:

• ask questions and gain information that increases their knowledge about object and events

• understand and express concepts (for example, colour or size)• ask problem-solving questions (for example, how does that work or why does that

happen?)• experience situations without actually being there (for example, through books

and television)• express their own thoughts, likes, dislikes, interests and ideas.

Cognitive development of school-age children

Ways of thinkingDuring middle childhood, children begin to think logically. However, they tend to need concrete objects to help them solve problems rather than being able to use abstract ideas. For example, in the early years of school they may need to use counters, an abacus or number lines to solve addition, subtraction and multiplication problems. This is why their thinking has been described as being ‘concrete’.

The school-aged child is now less egocentric. They are now more able to view the world from other people’s perspectives. They now start to see that people can see things in different ways and that this can be because of different situations and different experiences.

They are now able to look at several aspects of a problem (or decentre). If you remember, when they were preschoolers they were unable to decentrethey tended to be only able to focus on one aspect of a situation at any given time.

Children now have a better concept of time and distance. They can start to estimate how long it will be before they get somewhere or how long it will be before school holidays, for example.

They now have a longer attention span and will be able to reflect on events. They can now think before they act.

MemoryThe ability to remember improves during middle childhood. This improvement in memory is partly due to an increasing memory capacity and partly because children learn memory strategies that help them remember. For example, they may start to write things down that

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they want to remember or learn something off by heart (for example, multiplication tables) they have to remember.

Summary of cognitive changes in middle childhood

Abilities they gradually developBetween the ages of five and 12 children gradually develop the ability to:

• understand that different people see things differently and can have different ideas (children gradually become less egocentric in their thinking)

• consider different aspects of a problem (decentre)• understand the difference between fantasy and reality• think logically about situations and problems• remember things using a range of strategies• focus their attention and concentrate for longer periods of time• ignore other things happening around them when concentrating• extend their ability to function symbolically, eg, maths symbols are used such as

plus, minus, multiplication and division.

What they learn to doDuring middle childhood, children learn to:

• do maths—that is, add, subtract, multiply and divide• tell clock time• reason through problems• organise and sort information in a logical way• read and write• find information for themselves by reading and research.

What they like to doDuring middle childhood, children like to:

• find out how things work, eg, suggest hypotheses or theories to explain things happening and test out their theories

• make things that work from raw materials, eg, construction with wood• figure out puzzles• participate in games that require strategy and logic• produce an end product that is admired by others.

Ability to thinkAlthough, during middle childhood, children’s ability to think becomes more flexible, their understanding is still tied to what is real and what they experience.

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In order to learn, they still need learning situations to be very concrete with concrete or real materials. The new learning situation should be connected to their own past experiences or what they have seen themselves.

Children in middle childhood still find it difficult to think about abstract ideas. For example, the concept of world economy or working in a particular occupation for a living would be very difficult for school-aged children to understand as these types of things are beyond their experience and not real to them.

The ability to use logic and strategies to play a game develops gradually. For example, a six-year-old will play a very different game of chess or monopoly or card games to that played by a twelve-year-old.

As you have learnt, entry into primary school has a significant effect on the child’s development. School-aged children are learning the skills and behaviours that are required by their society. How well they develop those skills will affect their development of self-esteem. In our society, there is quite a strong emphasis on how well children do at school. Therefore, we need to give some attention to how children learn because this will have an effect on how well they do at school and thus how they will feel about themselves.

Learning

What is learning and how do school-aged children learn?Learning can be defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes. Learning also includes extending and refining concepts and developing an awareness of relationships between concepts.

In the past, learning was mainly seen to be concerned with remembering facts and information. Learning was believed to be a passive process, mainly involving listening to teachers, taking notes and reading information in books. Knowledge and information was expected to flow from the teacher to the student. However, we now know that children learn best when they are actively engaged in the learning process and that learning is a continuous and life-long process.

What else do we know about learning?We know that:

• children learn through direct experiences involving the use of their senses• children learn through self-discovery and exploration of a variety of materials and

situations• children learn most effectively when they are interested in something and are

participating in experiences that are relevant to their lives• self-esteem influences a child’s ability and desire to learn• children will develop confidence if they have successful learning experiences• children learn in different ways

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• children learn from each other. When encouraged to engage in cooperative situations, they can refine their language skills and understanding of new concepts and relationships.

What influences children’s learning?Perhaps one of the greatest influences on children’s learning is their development and use of language. Language allows them to think aloud and discuss their thoughts, talk through tasks, ask questions, explain concepts and review what they know.

Children’s learning is influenced by the attitudes and actions of adults. If adults value children and what they are doing, then children are more likely to extend their learning.

A child’s cultural background and the social context in which they live will also affect learning. Cultural differences such as attitudes, expectations and the way they are parented can have a significant effect on children’s learning.

Some parents take on a teaching role as part of their parenting style and so actively encourage children to think and work out solutions to common everyday problems. This then supports their learning. However, in other households, children may not be encouraged to solve problems because the parents believe that it is the parents’ responsibility, so children are not given the opportunity to extend their learning in this situation.

Cognitive stages of playThe way children play reflects their intellectual or cognitive development. There are two useful ways to classify play according to the cognitive ability it reflects. One was developed by Jean Piaget and the other by the more contemporary Sara Smilansky.

A child is playing in a sandpit. She picks up a bucket and shovels sand into it. She carries the bucket to another part of the sandpit where she tips the sand out. She then notices another small bucket. This time she places this second bucket on her head. She then continues to repeat the process of filling her first bucket with sand, carrying it to another part of the sandpit and tipping it out.

The child is using the same equipment in two very different ways. On the one hand she is using the bucket to lift and carry some sand. Smilansky would call this ‘constructive’ play as the child has manipulated the materials in a purposeful way. However this child is also using another bucket pretending the bucket is a hat. Piaget would all this ‘symbolic’ play as the child is pretending the bucket is something else.

The relationship between the two cognitive play classification systems

Child’s age Piaget’s play stages Smilansky’s play stages0-two years Sensorimotor play

Children use their motor skills and sense to explore objects in their

Functional play

This if a form of repetitive play where children explore and act on objects in the

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environment. They delight in the repetitive use of their physical and sensory skills.

environment, including their own bodies. In functional play, simple actions such as poking, dropping, banging and throwing are repeated.

18 months – two years

Symbolic play

Children use one object to represent another. Being able to do this signals a significant change in their thinking. It means that they now think using an internal representation or idea.

Constructive play

Children manipulate objects in purposeful ways to achieve results

Dramatic play

This is similar to Piaget’s symbolic play but also includes games of pretence (the children imagine and take on roles). With younger children dramatic play begins with simple imitations of adult behaviour.

From about age six

Games with rules

Children play games and take part in activities that are structured and governed by rules. The children accept the rules and cooperate with others in play.

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Provide environments and experiences which stimulate cognitive development and encourage children to explore and problem solve

How can we support infants’ brain growth?Early stimulation by parents and caregivers will promote brain growth. For example, by providing things for babies to look at, manipulate and respond to, we are strengthening and reinforcing the connections between neurons. This will then support children’s development later on. Of course, we need to take care that we don’t overstimulate babies, as this could interfere with healthy neural development.

Recent research has shown that one of the most powerful influences on infant brain growth is attachment. Attachment is the process whereby infants bond emotionally with significant adults. When babies’ needs are met promptly and consistently and with warmth and affection, they not only develop a sense of trust but are also likely to reach optimal brain growth.

It is important that we are warm and responsive to infants. Through one-to-one interactions, games, rhymes and eye contact, we will help stimulate their brain development.

When babies experience stress or trauma, a hormone called cortesal is released and this may impair brain growth and break a number of connections between the neurons. Therefore, we as carers need to provide an environment where infants feel safe and secure. We need to be warm in our responses to them and ensure that there are lots of opportunities for one-to-one interaction so that attachments can develop.

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How can we support infants’ cognitive development?For optimum cognitive development, the infant needs:

• toys and materials to explore and manipulate• experiences and toys and equipment that stimulate the senses• opportunities for discovery and exploration• interaction with and attention from caregivers• to learn language.

It seems logical that if we are to support infants’ cognitive development, we will need to provide an environment that is stimulating and enable them to solve problems in their world. When we know what to expect in terms of cognitive skills, we can provide experiences that allow infants to practise and extend their thinking.

For instance, peek-a-boo games will be enjoyed by infants and will support their development of object permanence. Providing rattles and toys that are open-ended in design will stimulate infants’ problem-solving skills and encourage them to repeat actions and experiment and explore ways to play with them.

Consider the following scenario.

Jessica, aged nine months, has her own special cupboard in the kitchen. It is filled with pots, pans and lids, plastic bowls, wooden spoons and plastic cups. She seems to gain immense pleasure at pulling everything out to start off with. She then picks up things separately and explores them with her mouth. Then she pats them, picks them up and bangs them on the floor. She watches the bowls spin as they hit the floor. She then starts banging things together and makes a horrendous noise.

Jessica is exploring objects in new and old ways. Her thinking skills are allowing her to develop her understanding of the properties of the objects in that cupboard. If her carer is present, lots of her actions can be verbalised and she will start to hear different concepts as loud, soft, hard, noisy, together, apart and so on.

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Just imagine how much more Anna would learn if her carer had stayed and prompted other ways to play with the ball (eg hiding the ball behind his or her back and ringing the bell and encouraging Anna to find it). This would encourage Anna to problem-solve.

Toddlers’ cognitive needsFor optimum cognitive development, toddlers need:

• opportunities to use their developing imagination in their play• toys and activities which encourage experimentation and problem solving in their

play

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• toys and activities which encourage understanding of concepts• lots of exposure to language• active participation (learning through discovery)• sensitive adult input which guides, prompts and supports the toddler’s learning.

Toddlers — the caregiver’s roleWhat can the caregiver do to support and promote a toddler’s cognitive development?

What the caregiver should do ExamplesProvide pretend play props Include home-corner equipment, dress-up box,

construction toys (eg, blocks, Duplo)

Provide materials that encourage imagination and creativity.

Include sand, playdough, paint, drawing materials

Provide toys and activities that encourage problem solving and understanding of concepts.

Include puzzles, matching games, nesting toys

Ensure that the equipment matches the toddler’s level of skill development

Include dress-up clothes that can be pulled on, puzzle pieces that are easy to hold and manipulate, puzzle pieces that are large with clear drawings

Encourage children to act out simple situations and events.

Act out stories such as ‘Goldilocks and the Three Bears’

Use lots of language with children Ask questions—how, why, what if—to encourage problem solving

Answer children’s how and why questions ‘You have to wash your hands because…’

Guide, prompt, suggest and extend children’s play Remember Vygotsky’s concept of the zone of proximal development

Never take over children’s play A good caregiver knows when to step in and suggest and participate and when to withdraw and allow children to continue with their own ideas

Special issues for caregiversHere we’ll look at egocentrism, centration and attention span in toddlers.

Egocentrism and centration You may think that toddlers (because such great developments have taken place in the cognitive area) are able to think logically and reason through problems. This is not so! Toddlers still have a long way to go before they can solve problems like adults.

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Remember Piaget’s theory from your earlier study. One of the principles of Piaget’s theory is that children think differently to adults.

Piaget suggested that toddlers can’t think logically and reason through a problem because of certain characteristics of their thinking processes.

Young children’s thinking is egocentric: that is, they see things only from their own point of view.

Young children tend to focus in on a single aspect of a situation or an object at a time and ignore other things. This is called centering.

EgocentrismYoung children cannot take into account the ideas or needs of others. This does not mean that young children are deliberately selfish, although their behaviour at times may appear that way. It means that because of their stage of cognitive development their thinking is not yet flexible and that they are in a stage of self-centred thinking.

Children at the egocentric stage of thinking

Examples of egocentric behaviour:

• A young child talks to you about something that happened at home but the explanation comes out of nowhere (she expects you to know everything she knows).

• A child hides by covering his eyes (because if he can’t see you then you can’t see him).

• Children’s games have their own rules which can change on a whim; their rules are the only ones to follow.

• A young child sits in front of the TV and is totally unaware that someone else’s view is blocked.

• A young child pushes his or her way to a carer’s lap totally unaware of the other children who are already in position.

• The young child grabs a spade being used by another child and justifies it on the basis that ‘I want it’.

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All these are examples of egocentric behaviour. As children matures cognitively, their thinking becomes more flexible and gradually they begin to realise that others’ needs and ideas and thinking are different to their own.

A good caregiver recognises the toddler’s egocentrism and does not condemn the child for selfish behaviour but continually states the needs of others and gently guides the toddler’s behaviour in a positive way.

CenteringAnother important feature of toddlers’ thinking is the tendency to focus on a single feature of an object or situation.

Example 1The two-and-a-half to three-year olds are taken on a visit to the zoo. On their return, the caregiver asks Tommy what he liked about the zoo. Tommy says ‘I liked the ice-cream’. Tommy has ignored all the animals and has focused on the one aspect of the trip that is important to him. The caregiver will need to draw out other aspects on the visit by gentle questioning.

Example 2

Two children sit at the dinner table with their father. Mr Dash patiently counts out four strawberries for each child. He places one lot of strawberries in a small round dessert bowl and one lot on a dinner plate. The strawberries on the dinner plate are passed to three-year old Aaron. Aaron starts to cry, saying: ‘Cynthia’s got more!’

Even though Aaron has watched the strawberries being divided equally, he still thinks his sister has more. Why? Which aspect of this situation has he centred on?

Aaron has centred or focused on the amount of space the strawberries have taken up in the bowl compared to the strawberries on the large plate. Cynthia looks to have more strawberries. Aaron has ignored the process of dividing up the strawberries equally.

As children mature cognitively and their thinking becomes more flexible, they begin to take into account other aspects of situations and their thinking becomes more logical.

A good caregiver needs to:

• gently point out different aspects of situations

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• ask questions which turn children’s attention to other aspects of situations to help children broaden their view

• understand that children decentre (think about a range of different aspects of a situation) with maturity and experience.

Attention spanAttention span refers to the ability to concentrate and focus on something over a period of time.

Young children are active doers, not passive observers. The two-and-a-half to three-year old has limited attention span in situations which require the child to be a passive observer or listener. An average two-and-a-half to three-year old will sit and listen for about five to ten minutes. You will find that young children will stay at an activity for a much longer period of time if they are actively doing something. A good caregiver will plan activities to ensure that the children are actively involved.

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How do we encourage preschoolers to develop memory skills?To encourage preschoolers to develop memory skills, here are some strategies we suggest you use to help them store and get back information.

Ask questions Ask questions such as, ‘Now that you have done that, how can we remember how to do it next time?’

Repeat routine steps We might repeat steps involved in particular routines such as getting ready for morning tea (eg Go to the toilet if you need to, wash your hands, dry your hands and find a place to sit to wait for your fruit).

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Repeat activities We can repeat activities or provide familiar equipment for the children to reuse.

Take photographs We might take photographs of children involved in particular activities or on excursions.

Provide opportunities for recall We can provide opportunities for children to recall special events or experiences by talking with them on a one-to-one basis and asking open-ended questions (questions that require more than one or two words to answer) in a logical order.

Encourage dramatic play We can encourage dramatic play so that children can re-enact earlier experiences.

Encourage physical recreations We can also encourage them to physically create something to help them remember something.

How to explain conceptsIt is important, when working with and caring for young children, to use concrete physical materials and actions to explain concepts and ideas.

For example, preschoolers do not see love as feeling or an emotion the way adults do. Love to a young child is seen in terms of hugs and cuddles and somebody being there.

If you ask a young child to tell you what love is the answer might be ‘My mummy loves me because she buys me ice-creams.’

Children see things in a very concrete way. When trying to explain difficult concepts to young children the concept must be made real and concrete for them. The explanations given must in some way be linked to the child’s real-life experiences and current knowledge.

How do we support preschoolers’ cognitive development?Here are examples of scenarios that require support on your part as a caregiver.

Preschoolers need their basic physical needs to be met before they can learn effectively and participate and be involved in cognitive-type activities.

Jo cries a lot in the afternoons. Lee is often lethargic and lacking in energy.

What does this suggest? Perhaps Jo is tired and by the afternoons needs rest. Perhaps Lee is not feeling well or is hungry and needs an energy boost.

Feeling tired or hungry or unwell will interfere with effective learning and problem solving. Children (and adults) cannot concentrate and pay attention to what is happening. A caregiver

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needs to ensure that children are well rested, have an adequate nutritional diet and are in good health.

Preschoolers need their basic emotional needs to be met before they can learn effectively.

Clare never asks questions and refuses to participate in activities. She prefers to watch from the sidelines. Tommy will not let go of his special ‘bear’ and cries if it gets misplaced. Jodie finds group situations difficult, and she will bite and hit other children who try to play with her.

Clare may lack confidence and won’t have a go at a challenging activity. Tommy may be feeling insecure in the centre environment and this will hinder learning. Jodie needs help to develop positive social skills—skills which will have a positive impact on her learning. Before cognitive needs can be met effectively, a child’s emotional needs for security, affection, praise and recognition must be met. Caregivers need to encourage and model positive social interactions. Caregivers must praise children’s input, efforts and achievements. This will increase a child’s confidence, independence and initiative to explore and experiment with materials and equipment in the environment.

Preschoolers need an interesting and inviting environment.

The children never seem to choose to use the puzzles. On investigation, staff realise that the same puzzles have been on offer for the past three months. The puzzles are in a mess and some pieces are missing.

The centre environment, equipment and materials must be arranged in such a way as to invite and encourage children’s participation. Variation in what is offered is important—otherwise, children will get bored. Equipment and materials should be changed and updated on a regular basis.

Preschoolers need interesting, inviting and challenging experiences.

You decide on a cooking experience for the children. You set up a table for your demonstration—and ask the children to gather around to watch you. The children, after a while, get bored and start leaving. Within ten minutes, you are the only one left.

Preschoolers are doers. They need to be actively involved in experiences. Experiences that require children to actively participate, cooperate with and interact with other children will encourage thinking and problem-solving skills.

Preschoolers need adult input.

The children decide to set up a shop using the equipment and materials in both the dress-up box and the home corner

You should:

• praise and support the children’s ideas• suggest, guide, extend and expand their ideas but not direct or dominate the

experiences

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• ask and answer questions giving children the opportunities to describe, give explanations and pose their own questions

• be enthusiastic and interested in the children’s play• be flexible in how materials and equipment are used by children.

Preschoolers need adults’ respect.

You become upset when Tommy refuses to participate in the block activity that you have set up especially for him.

A child’s choice of whether or not to participate in an activity must be respected.

Children’s individual interests, previous experiences and abilities must also be respected.

Preschoolers need repetition to reinforce concept learning.

You want to teach the three- to four-year-olds to correctly identify the primary colours of red, blue and yellow. How do you go about it?

You could:

• provide activities that emphasise the colours• reinforce the learning during routines and during free play.

Preschoolers need problem-solving experiences.

During water play, you want to encourage the children to think about objects that float as well as those that sink.

You can:

• encourage children to give solutions by posing questions such as: What do you think will happen?

• give children explanations, introduce new vocabulary, answer questions, give information and facts

• not jump in with a solution—give children time to think and try to solve the problem

• never tell children their ideas are wrong—instead, offer alternative ideas• encourage children to test out their ideas.

Activities which promote cognitive development during the preschool yearsBelow are a number of specific activities you could get your preschoolers involved in to promote their cognitive development.

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Activities to promote preschoolers cognitive development

To promote the development of imagination, self-expression, and grasp of concepts, you could use the following activities:

• Provide a range of unstructured materials (for example, sand, blocks, paint, collage materials, dress-ups). Allow children to use these materials to represent whatever they choose.

• Provide props that trigger dramatic play based on previous experience (for example, firemen’s equipment after a visit to the fire station).

• Encourage children to pretend to be someone else when giving explanations (for example, if you were so-and-so or such-and-such).

• Use drama in music (for example, acting-out songs, nursery rhymes).• Encourage role-play and dramatic play (for example, dress-ups, props).• Using well-thought-out problem-solving questions (how, when and why), involve

the children in picture discussions relating to past experiences.

To promote writing skills you could use the following activity:

• Encourage writing letters and numbers depending on the readiness of the child—usually the four- to five-year-olds are ready for this.

To promote memory development you could use the following activity:

• Devise games that require memory (for example, concentration, missing-items game).

To promote curiosity about science you could use the following activities:

• Involve children in simple experiments (for example: What will happen if we leave an ice block out in the sun?).

• Provide activities that show processes occurring (for example, show them how to grow their own plants).

• Provide simple factual explanations of physical events (for example, how rain occurs).

• To promote a good grasp of concepts you could use the following activities:

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• Involve the children in cooking activities (for example, measuring, quantities) and sorting activities (for example, using buttons and blocks).

• Encourage them to look at same and different characteristics (for example, through ‘Lotto’ games).

Board and table gamesBoard and table games are a fun way to help develop children’s cognitive skills. Many board games require concentration, memory, problem-solving and reading skills and some require writing skills or the use of strategies.

Make a visit to your local toy shop and browse through all the different board and table games available. In many cases there is a junior version and a version for older children and adults. By looking at both versions you can see how a game can be modified for the different skill level of children.

Think about the skills required to play the games.

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Finally, Listed below are other activities which will support and promote children’s cognitive development in an out-of-school-hours-care environment. It should always be remembered that activities in an OOSHC environment should be fun for the children and chosen freely by the children.

Science activities Magnets, magnifying glasses, growing vegetables, worm farms, bug collecting, ant farms.

Construction activities Lego—with engines and moveable parts, model-building kits, off-cuts of raw materials to make such things as cubby houses and go-carts, making things they can use (eg, kites), pulling apart and putting back together things with mechanisms (eg, old clocks).

Cooking activities Pitta bread with fillings, pizzas, biscuits, pikelets, main meals such as spaghetti bolognese.

Puzzles Crosswords, tangrams, dot-to-dot games, riddles to work out.

Creative activities Concerts, puppet shows, magic shows.

Collections Stamps; coins; model cars; cards — football, cricket, basketball; fad cards such as Pokemon; shells; stickers; dolls.

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