Second Language Acquisition

Instructional Principles

Rod Ellis: Principles of instructed language learning• SLA research and theories contribute

to how the language should be instructed, or taught.

• Some controversies– What approaches?– The efficacy of teaching explicit

knowledge– Types of corrective feedback– Etc.

Principle 1: Instruction needs to ensure that learners develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions and a rule-based competence.

• Formulaic expressions fluency• A rule-based competence (knowledge of

specific grammatical rules) complexity and accuracy

• Problem of traditional classroom instruction: Focus on forms– Teaching of specific grammatical rules through

the systematic teaching of pre-selected structures

– Criticism: rote learning, suitable for young beginner learners

Principle 1: Instruction needs to ensure that learners develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions and a rule-based competence.

• Teaching implications– Teach formulaic expressions first– Teach grammar later– Notional-functional syllabus

• Focus on functions and pragmatic purposes of the language

– Introductions, greetings, good-byes; – Invitations, Apologies, Condolences; – Gratitude, Compliments, Congratulations; – Requests, Commands, Warnings, Directions; – Offers, Seeking Permission; – Advice, Intention; – Pleasure, Displeasure; – Expressing your opinion

Principle 2: Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus predominantly on meaning

• Two kinds of meaning– Semantic meaning

• the meanings of lexical items or of specific grammatical structures

– Pragmatic meaning• the highly contextualized meanings that arise

in acts of communication

Principle 2: Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus predominantly on meaning

• Main focus on pragmatic meaning – Optimal learning condition is created

when learners are engaged in decoding and encoding messages in the context of actual acts of communication;

– Pragmatic meaning leads to true fluency in an L2 learners;

– Tasks aimed at creating pragmatic meaning is intrinsically motivating.

Principle 3: Instruction needs to ensure that learners also focus on form.

• Conscious attention to form helps acquisition more attention results in more learning

• Teaching implications1. Grammar lessons

• Inductive approach (to encourage students to notice pre-selected forms)

• Deductive approach (to establish an awareness of the grammatical rule)

Principle 3: Instruction needs to ensure that learners also focus on form.

2. Focused tasks • Comprehension + processing of particular

grammatical structures in the input;• Production of the structures when

performing the task

Principle 4: Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit knowledge.

• Implicit knowledge – Procedural i.e. unconscious;

verbalizable when made explicit; accessed rapidly and easily; available for use in rapid, fluent communication = competence

• Explicit knowledge– Conscious, learnable, verbalizable, typically

accessed through control processing (to overcome difficulty in using L2)

Principle 4: Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit knowledge.

Principle 4: Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit knowledge.

• Teaching implications – Communicative tasks (a lot of practice, focus

more on meaning, then on form) to encourage the development of implicit knowledge

• Controversies on the teaching of explicit knowledge– Is explicit knowledge of any value in and of

itself?– Is explicit knowledge of value in facilitating

the development of implicit knowledge?

Principle 4: Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit knowledge of the L2 while not neglecting explicit knowledge.

• Krashen and explicit knowledge – The monitor hypothesis• Learners use explicit knowledge only when

they monitor, they focus on form and have sufficient time to access the knowledge – Limited use of explicit knowledge

Principle 5: Instruction needs to take into account the learner’s built-in syllabus.

• Natural order and sequence of acquisition learner’s built-in syllabus• Learners would automatically proceed

along their built-in syllabus as long as they had access to comprehensible input and were sufficiently motivated.

• Grammar instruction played no role in the development of implicit knowledge (acquisition).

• Grammar instruction could contribute only to explicit knowledge (learning).

Principle 5: Instruction needs to take into account the learner’s built-in syllabus.

• What are some teaching possibilities given the learner’s built-in syllabus?• Adopt zero grammar approach (with task-

based activities)• Ensure that learners are developmentally

ready to acquire a specific target feature (probably impractical, highly individualized

Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning requires extensive L2 input.

• FLA: the amount and quality of input affect the speed of acquisition of children

• SLA: more exposure (extensive input) = more and faster language learning– The positive relationship between

length of residence in the country where L2 is spoken and language proficiency

– Positive correlations between the amount of reading and proficiency/literacy

Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning requires extensive L2 input.

• Teaching implications– Maximise use of the L2 inside the

classroom (L2 used as the medium and the object of instruction)

– Create opportunities for students to receive input outside the classroom.• Extensive reading programmes (e.g. graded

readers)• Self-access centres for students to use

outside class time

Principle 6: Successful instructed language learning requires extensive L2 input.

• If the only input students receive is in the context of a limited number of weekly lessons based on some course book, they are unlikely to achieve high levels of L2 proficiency.

Principle 7: Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for output.

• Controlled practice exercises output limited in terms of length and complexity

• Oral and written tasks allow students to interact with each other in the classroom.

- ‘Pushing’ students to speak (when they are not ready to speak but have to) can put a lot of stress on them, causing anxiety and frustration (of not being able to communicate effectively)–Increasing output does not guarantee the language acquisition–Language acquisition can actually take place without interaction (i.e. through reading and listening)

Principle 8: The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2 proficiency.

• Interaction automatises existing linguistic resources and create new resources.

• Interaction hypothesis: – Interaction fosters acquisition when a

communication problem arises and learners are engaged in negotiating for meaning.

– Interaction makes input more comprehensible, provides corrective feedback and pushes learners to modify their own output in uptake.

Principle 8: The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2 proficiency.

• 4 key requirements to create an acquisition-rich classroom– Create contexts of language use – Provide opportunities for learners to

use the language to express their own personal meanings

– Help students to participate in language-related activities beyond their current level of proficiency

– Offer a full range of contexts catering for a full performance in the language

Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners.

• Learning is more successful when– the instruction is matched to students’

particular aptitude for learning.– the students are motivated• Teachers can do little to influence students’

extrinsic motivation but there is a lot they can do to enhance their intrinsic motivation

Principle 9: Instruction needs to take account of individual differences in learners.

• Learner strategies training can raise students’ awareness of approaches to learning (and learners can be flexible in the use of approaches)

• Teachers should motivate students to learn.– Improve the quality of teaching, e.g. making

instruction clear through simple explanation and teach at a pace that’s not too fast and not too slow

– Bear in mind that it’s the teacher’s responsibility to ensure that students are motivated and stay motivated.

Principle 10: In assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is important to examine free as well as controlled production.

• 4 types of measurement in classroom:– Metalinguistic judgement (e.g.

grammaticality judgement test)– Selected responses (e.g. multiple

choice)– Constrained constructed response

(e.g. gap filling exercise)– Free constructed response (e.g.

communicative task)

Principle 10: In assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is important to examine free as well as controlled production.

• Multiple choice (2) and gap filling exercise (3) are more effective in measuring form-focused instruction

• A communicative task (4) is the least effective. – 4 is best used to measure learners’ L2

proficiency.– The ability to get a multiple choice question

right does not mean the student is able to use the target feature in actual communication.

Principle 10: In assessing learners’ L2 proficiency it is important to examine free as well as controlled production.

• Learner performance can be assessed in 3 ways– A direct assessment of task outcomes

• Most promising, but best with a single correct outcome

– Discourse analytic measures• Not suitable for busy classroom teachers

– External ratings• Practical but require considerable expertise to

ensure the validity and reliability of the ratings of learner performance.