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Clapalong
Howdidyouknowwhentoclap?beatortactus
Tactus:abasicpulse– Rateatwhichwespontaneouslytapwhilelisteningtomusic.
– Evenlyorregularlyspaced.– Typicallyfallsintherangebetween0.6and0.75seconds(80to100eventsperminute).
– CommonlycoincideswiththebeatratebutremainsanundifferenIatedpulse.
Beat:– Arecurringmomentwhentoneonsetsaremoreexpected.– Strong-weakdifferenIaIon.– OccurswithinarepeaIngpaPernofbeats-meter.
HowdoweidenIfythem?
Mostarehighlightedoraccented– Clearonsets– RelaIvelyloud– Notesplayedareusuallyharmonicallyimportant– Lowdowninthetexture,thebasslineisbringingthemout
• Quick
Tapalong
We readily insert additional beats and form a metrical structure
Even when the rest of the information doesn’t match/support it
Our tapping is not merely responsive
Howdoyouknowit’sthebeginningofthebar?
• RepeIIon/Parallelism• Loudest• Longest• Lowest• Strongbasenotes• Cadences• Suspension(onstrongbeat)• AlternaIngstrong/weak
Strong beat early
Formalised in Lerdahl and Jackendoff
HumanpercepIonofmusicalstructure
• RhythmandIme– Metricalstructure– Timeandmemory
• MusicalpitchincogniIon
Howdowerecognisethemetricalstructure?
• BuildingonfirstbeatidenIficaIon
• Hierarchyofbeatstrengthinthebar– e.g.binaryvs.ternary
• RelaIonshipbetweenbars
TemporalAwareness
HowareweawarethatImehaspassed?àThroughthepercepIonofCHANGE
TemporalAwareness
Changemaybe:• External:awareofeventsoccurringintheenvironment(Heraclitus,Plato)
• Internal:awareofchangesinourownpropriocepIvestate(James1890)
• Mental:psychologicalawarenessofduraIon(Bergson1911,Langer1953)
TemporalAwareness
Or,“Eventsareperceivable;Imeisnot” (Gibson1975)
àTheeventsthataremostsalientinmusicpercepIonaresoundonsets.
Someconstraintsonourexperienceofthings(music)happeninginIme
• TemporalresoluIon• Engagement• Amountofprocessing• Schemata• PredicIons• Memory• Complexity• Similarity
The perception of time
0.005 sec 0.05 sec 0.5 sec 5 sec 1 minute 1 hour ????
span of working memory or
perceptual present
Short-term memory for events and
event-structures
Long-term memory
limit on "grain" of temporal perception
TimeandMemory
TimeandMemory
“TheexperienceofaduraIonofa[Ime]intervalisaconstrucIonformedfromits‘storagesize’-asstoragesizeincreasestheexperienceofduraIonincreases.”
Ornstein, 1969, p. 42
Ornstein, R.E., (1969), On the Experience of Time, (Harmondsworth: Penguin).
TimeandMemory
• “Storagesize”– Rateofevents– APenIveness– Otherevents
TimeandMemory
✗
Focal attending
Focal attending
Focal attending
Focal attending
reference period
(preferred tempo)
Future-oriented attending
Analytic attending
Reference level
Dynamic Attending (Jones 1986, Jones and Boltz 1989)
Focal attending
Focal attending
Focal attending
Focal attending
reference period
(preferred tempo)
Future-oriented attending
Analytic attending
Reference level
Metre
Four‘levelsofanalysis’LerdahlandJackendoff
• Metrical– Basedonprinciplesofbinary&ternaryhierarchy– Strictlylimitedintermsofthelevelstowhichthehierarchymightextend,
• Grouping– Structurelargelypredicatedoneventsatthelevelofthemusicalsurface
– Includesgroupsofmanysizes,includingthe“phrase”
– Chunking
Four‘levelsofanalysis’
• MetricalandGroupingRules– Largelyderivedfrommusicalsurface– MoredeterminedbythemusicalsImulusandgeneralaspectsofourperceptualsystemsthanbyanyspecifically(schemaIcallylearned)musicalconsideraIons,
– ThoughmusicalconsideraIonscanplayarole(esp.ingrouping).
TemperleyApreferencerulesystemevaluatesmanypossibleinterpretaIonsandchoosestheonethatbestsaIsfiestherulesformeter,phrasestructure,contrapuntalstructure,harmony,andkey,aswellaspitchspelling.
Preferencerulesystemsnotonlyshowhowmusicalstructuresareinferred,butalsoshedlightonotheraspectsofmusic:musicalambiguity,retrospecIverevision,expectaIon,andmusicoutsidetheWesterncanon(rockandtradiIonalAfricanmusic).
TemperleyProposes a framework for the description of musical styles based on preference rule systems and explores the relevance of preference rule systems to higher-level aspects of music, such as musical schemata, narrative and drama, and musical tension.
RhythmandImeSummary
• Wereadily(andquickly)hearandrespondtoapulseinmusic(andotherinfo)
• Wereadilyhearametricalstructureinmusic(andotherinfo)
• Forbothoftheseweusecuesinthemusic• TogethertheyarepartofamulI-levelledstructure
• Wecangenerateourownpulseindependentlyofmusicorwithit
• TheoristssuchasJonesandLerdahlandJackendoffhavesummarisedpaPernsofbehaviourandsometheories
MusicalpitchincogniIon
≠
• HowdowelearnpitchrelaIonshipsandfuncIons?– InherentcharacterisIcsofthefrequencieswehear?
– ProporIonofImeyouhearpitchrelaIonshipsandassociatedfuncIons?
– Longtermmemory?– Shorttermandonthefly?
ACTUAL WORLD
(POTENTIALLY AVAILABLE INFORMATION)
MODIFIES
DIRECTS
SAMPLES
MODIFIES DIRECTS
DIRECTS DIRECTS
GENERIC PREDISPOSITIONS
DIRECTS
SCHEMA OF PRESENT
ENVIRONMENT PERCEPTUAL EXPLORATION
LONG-TERM MEMORY
ACTUAL PRESENT ENVIRONMENT (AVAILABLE INFORMATION)
ATTENTION
ACTION
AuditorySceneAnalysis
• Whatdowedowhenwehearsomethingasamelody?
X
XO XO XO XO XO XO XO XO XO XO XO XO
X O X O X X O X O X X O X O X X O X O X
Figures perceived
law of proximity
law of similarity
law of good continuation
XO XO XO XO XO XO XO XO XO XO XO XO
X O X O X X O X O X X O X O X X O X O X
X X X X X X
X
X X X X X X
X
X X X X X X
Figures presented
Auditorysceneanalysis
• ‘…istheprocesswherebyalltheauditoryevidencethatcomes,overIme,fromasingleenvironmentalsourceisputtogetherasaperceptualunit'(Bregman,1993).
Auditorysceneanalysis
• AcousIcal• Psychological
– Psychoacous)cal:primarilyconcernedwiththewaysinwhichourauditorysensoryapparatus(outer,middleandinnerearandassociatedneuralstructures)transformsacousIcalinformaIonintothe'languageofthebrain',neuralimpulses.
– Cogni)ve:moreconcernedwiththewaysinwhichthisneuralinformaIoncomestohaveafuncIonalsignificanceforus.
Cogni3veapproachestopitchCogni1vestructuralism
Cognitive dimensions of musical pitch
A
B C
D
E F
G
C#
D #
F#
G#
A#
Chroma circle
C
D
E F#
G#
A# G
A
B C#
D#
F
Circle of fifths
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
C#
D#
F#
G#
A#
B
C
A#
A
G
G#
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
Pitch height dimension (as discrete linearly-organised
categories)
C
B B B
C C C C C C C
B B B B B B B
B
C C
Pitch height dimension (as linear continuum)
https://recursivearts.com/virtual-piano/
Elaine Chew
after Krumhansl, 1990
Units and links in Bharucha's MUSACT system
Cogni3veapproachestopitchIntervallicrivalrytheory
• Longtermvs.shorttermmemory• Dynamicvs.staIcaPributesoftonalstructure
• Intervallicrivalrymodel– Centresonprocessesofkeydiscovery,
• CogniIve-structuralistaccount– Centresonprocessesofreinforcementoftonalfunc)on.
• BothnecessaryforalistenertofollowtonalmusicinrealIme.
• "psychologyofeartraining”– not
• "psychologyofmusic”
Cook 1994
Summary
• It'slikelythatalltheseprocesses–– ofauditorysceneanalysis,oftheabstrac)onandschema)cisa)oninlong-termmemoryofregulari)esofmusicalpitchorganisa)on,(aswellasoftheabstrac)onofthe'virtualroots'andrela)vestabili)esofchords)
• playsignificantanddeterminantrolesinourexperienceofpitchorganizaIoninmusic.
Cross 1997
WhatwouldatheoryofourpercepIonofmusicalpiecestakeintoaccount?
• Severaltheorieshavebeenproposed.• Don'thaveacomprehensivetheorythatdealswithallthedifferentprocessesthatseemtobegoingonwhenweexperienceapieceofmusic.
Solo
Social - Duo - More
- Entrainment - Two-person neuroscience
Lab
Beyond
Perception
Production
• Pitch • Rhythm • Time • Phrasing • Movement • Language • Emotion • Development • Performance
(improvisation) • Musicians’ health • Brain • Body • Evolution • Health & wellbeing • Daily life
Language and linguistics
Computer Science & AI
Neuroscience
Medicine
Psychology
Music Therapy
Musicology
Ethnomusicology
Anthropology
Child development Education
Dance / Dance psychology
Performance
• Pitch • Rhythm • Time • Phrasing • Movement • Language • Emotion • Development • Performance
(improvisation) • Musicians’ health • Brain • Body • Evolution • Health & wellbeing • Daily life
Self report Observation
Comparison groups
Modelling
Neuro
Music analysis
Task based
Physiological
Questionnaire
Interview
Focus group
Experience Sampling
Video
Audio
• Pitch • Rhythm • Time • Phrasing • Movement • Language • Emotion • Development • Performance
(improvisation) • Musicians’ health • Brain • Body • Evolution • Health & wellbeing • Daily life
SomereadingBregman, A. L. 1994 AuditorySceneAnalysis.Ch2inMcAdams,S.&Bigand,E.(Eds),Thinkingin
sound.Oxford:OUP.Clarke,E. 1999 “RhythmandTiminginMusic,”inThePsychologyofMusic(2nded),ed.
Deutsch,Academicpress.Cross,I. 1997 Pitchschemata.InSloboda,J.&Deliège,I.(Eds),PercepIonandcogniIonof
music.Hove:ThePsychologyPress.seehPp://www.mus.cam.ac.uk/~cross/PCM/
Drake,C.,&ParncuP,R.
2001 “PercepIonandCogniIon:Rhythm”intherevisedNewGroveDic1onaryofMusic,London,Macmillan
Jones,M.R. 2016 “MusicIme”inOxfordHandbookofMusicPsychology,ed.Hallam,Cross&Thaut,OUP(2ndedn)
Krumhansl,C.L. 1990 CogniIvefoundaIonsofmusicalpitch.Oxford:OUP. London,J. 2001 “Rhythm”intherevisedNewGroveDic1onaryofMusic,London,Macmillan.
London,J. 2012 HearinginTime,OUP,2ndedn.(esp.Chapter2)Pöppel,E.,&WiPmann,M.
1999 “TimeintheMind”intheMITEncyclopediaoftheCogni1veSciences,MITPress.
