Citizenship Policies in an Era of Globalization Still the Prerogative of the Nation-State?

Maarten Vink Maastricht University European University Institute

Questions & Answers •  Is citizenship still the prerogative of the

nation-state? –  Yes, but… –  Therefore, we still see major differences

•  What are the main trends in citizenship policies in Europe?

–  Equal treatment women / men (ius sanguinis) –  Inclusion 2nd and/or 3rd generation (ius soli) –  Acceptance of dual citizenship –  Introduction of ´integration´ conditions –  Withdrawal of citizenship

Ia. Citizenship •  A legal status and relation between an individual

and a state that entails specific legal rights and duties –  Universal Declaration: right to citizenship (Art. 15)

•  Citizenship policies regulate the acquisition and loss of citizenship –  In ‘citizenship law’ or ‘nationality law’, but in some

countries also in Constitution

•  Traditionally seen as ‘last bastion of sovereignty’ –  The rules to determine who is a citizen (and who not)

fall within ‘domaine réservé’ of states

Ib. Citizenship: the European Union •  Every person with the nationality of a member state

is a ‘citizen of the Union’. –  Citizenship of the Union shall complement and not replace

national citizenship.

•  Increasing constraints through the case law of the Court of Justice of the EU. –  National competence needs to be exercised with ‘due regard

to Community law’ (Micheletti). –  For example, withdrawal of citizenship should ‘observe the

principle of proportionality so far as concerns the consequences it entails for the situation of the person concerned in the light of European Union law’ (Rottmann).

European Convention on Nationality (1997)

IIa. Patterns in citizenship policies •  Traditional typologies, e.g.

–  ‘Civic’ vs. ‘ethnic’ regimes; –  ‘Inclusive’ vs. ‘exclusive’ regimes

•  Citizenship regimes defy easy generalization as citizenship is closely linked to political and demographic context of a state –  state-building processes –  migration experiences –  changing political contexts

•  Citizenship laws can be inclusive to some, while exclusive to others

Purpose Functional component

Intergenerational continuity

Ius sanguinis: acquisition by descent Ius soli: acquisition by birth in territory Loss of citizenship due to voluntary renunciation

Territorial inclusion

Ordinary naturalisation: residence conditions Ordinary naturalisation: language conditions Ordinary naturalisation: economic conditions Ordinary naturalisation: assimiliation conditions

Singularity Ordinary naturalisation: renounce former citizenship Loss of citizenship due to acquisition other citizenship

Special ties Special naturalisation: cultural affinity Special naturalisation: reacquisition by former citizens

Genuine link Loss of citizenship due to residence abroad

Vink and Baubock (2013)

Vink and Baubock (2013)

Citizenship configurations: a typology

Ethnocultural inclusion

Strong Ethnoculturally selective

Expansive

Weak Insular Territorially selective

Weak Strong

Territorial inclusion

•  Online observatory •  47 Countries •  Information on

citizenship laws – Country profiles – Laws / Case law – Country reports – Comparative tables and

citizenship law indicators (36 countries)

– Statistics – News & Discussion

www.eudo-citizenship.eu

IIIa. Trends in citizenship policies •  Instrumentalization

– Since 1980s – Citizenship policies as ‘integration’ policies – Elite-driven

• Politicization – Since 1990s – Citizenship policies as ‘identity’ policies – Society-driven

Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)

IIIb. Trends in citizenship policies

1.  Equal treatment men / women - Extension of ius sanguinis

2.  Inclusion 2nd and/or 3rd generation - Extension of ius soli

3.  Acceptance of multiple citizenship 4.  Introduction of ´integration´ conditions 5.  Securitization and withdrawal of

citizenship

Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)

1. Extension and limitation of ius sanguinis Introduction of citizenship attribution iure sanguinis a patre et a matre FRA IRE GER POR FIN SWI* (’45) (’56) (’75) (’81) GRE (‘06) (’84)

SPA DEN ICE BEL (’78) (’82) NET SWI*

NOR AUT (’85) SWE ITA (’79) UK

(’83)

| | | | | | | 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)

1. Extension and limitation of ius sanguinis

•  Extension to children born out of wedlock – LUX (87), DE (93), ICE (98) DEN (99), UK (02), FIN

(03), NOR (06) for biological fathers •  SWE (05) also to non-biological mother (art. ins.) • Open question: surrogate mothers?

– Cf. Genovese v. Malta (ECtHR, 11 October 2011) •  Citizenship has an impact on ‘social identity’ • Gender discrimination violates Art. 8 ECHR

•  Conditional when born abroad, 1 parent citizen – SLO (registration), LAT, LIT (parental consent)

•  Limitation to first generation born abroad – BE (85), DE (00); see also IRE, POR and UK

Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)

2. Extension and limitation of ius soli

•  Ius soli countries amend their ius soli principle –  UK (83: perm. residence), IRE (04: 3 years)

•  Ius sanguinis countries introduce ius soli –  GER (00: 8 years)*, GRE (10: 5 years, both parents) * with obligatory citizenship choice between 18-23!

•  Ius sanguinis countries provide for ex lege acquisition via double ius soli –  FRA, NET (53), SPA (82), BEL (92), POR (06), LUX

(09), GRE (10)

Vink and De Groot (2010); Vink and De Groot (2013)

Ius soli (birthright)

Trends: access to citizenship by birth at territory (‘ius soli’)

3. Increasing acceptance of multiple citizenship

Extension ius sanguinis /ius soli à increasing occurrence of multiple citizenship

à why avoid dual citizenship in case of naturalization (immigrants + emigrants), but accept multiple citizenship for children with parents with different citizenships, or for second and third generation immigrants?

Renunciation

demand

Loss due to

voluntary

acquisition

Strasbourg

Convention

(Ch. 1)

Second

Protocol

ECN

AUT Yes Yes Yes – Yes

BEL –   – (2008) – (2008) – –

BUL Yes – (1948) – – Yes

CYP – – – – –

CZE Yes (1993) Yes (1993) – – Yes

DEN Yes Yes Yes – Yes

EST Yes (1992) Yes (1992) – – –

FIN – (2003) – (2003) – – Yes

FRA – – (1973) – (2009) – (2009) –

GER Yes* (2000) Yes* – (2002) – Yes

GRE – – – – –

HUN – – – – Yes

ICE – – (2003) – – Yes

IRE – – – – –

Renunciation Loss Strasbourg 2nd Prot. ECN

ITA – (1992) –(1992) – (2010) – (2010) –

LAT Yes Yes – – –

LIT Yes Yes – – –

LUX – (2009) – (2009) – (2009) – –

MAL – – – – –

NET Yes* Yes* Yes Yes Yes

NOR Yes Yes Yes – Yes

POL Yes* – – – –

POR – – (1981) – – Yes

ROM – – – – Yes

SLK – Yes (2010) – – Yes

SLN Yes – – – –

SPA Yes (1990) * Yes (1990) * – – –

SWE – (2001) – (2001) – (2002) – Yes

SWI – (1992) – – – –

UK – – – – –

Dual citizenship

Fully  tolerated  

Only  for  immigrants  

Tolerated  in  prac6ce  

Not  tolerated  (excep6ons)  

Not  tolerated    

Only  for  emigrants  

4. Naturalization: opening + thickening

• Residence requirements •  Introduction/restriction integration

conditions •  Increasing costs of naturalisation

– Great variety: from 0 to 1300 euro (Greece)

Naturalization: years of residence

Trends: language tests

Trends:  civic  knowledge  tests  

5. Withdrawal of citizenship

•  Status of citizenship less secure? •  Discovery of fraudulent acquisition

–  DK (06), FI (03), NL (03), BE (06), DE (06) – time?

•  Deprivation due to criminal or ‘prejudicial’ behavior –  UK 02, DK 04

•  International instruments (ex.): –  Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (1961) –  European Convention on Nationality (1997)

To conclude

• Citizenship still (largely) prerogative of national state – Different types of regimes – No single European approach

• Some (contrasting) European trends – More emphasis on role of citizenship in

integration process: ius soli, toleration dual citizenship, decreasing residence req.

– More emphasis on symbolic dimension: language & integration, ceremonies

Bibliography

•  Vink, M. and R. Bauböck (2013). Citizenship Configurations: Analysing the Multiple Purposes of Citizenship Regimes in Europe. Comparative European Politics. Forthcoming.

•  Vink, M. and G.R. de Groot (2013). Citizenship Policies in the European Union: International Framework and Domestic Trends. In M. Lopez and M. Siegel, eds. A World in Motion: Trends in Migration and Migration Policy. Oxford University Press. Forthcoming.

•  Vink, M. and G.R. de Groot (2010). Citizenship Attribution in Western Europe: International Framework and Domestic Trends. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(5) 713-734.

•  Vink, M. and G.R. de Groot (2010). Birthright Citizenship: Trends and Regulations in Europe. Comparative Report, RSCAS/EUDO-CIT-Comp. 2010/8. EUDO Citizenship Observatory, pp. 35.

•  De Groot, G.R. and M. Vink (2010). Loss of Citizenship: Trends and Regulations in Europe. Comparative Report, RSCAS/EUDO-CIT-Comp. 2010/4. EUDO Citizenship Observatory, pp. 52.