Citizen Participation and Collaborative Environmental Management in the Marine Oil Trade of Coastal Alaska

This article was downloaded by: [University of Chicago Library]On: 20 November 2014, At: 00:19Publisher: Taylor & FrancisInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registeredoffice: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Coastal ManagementPublication details, including instructions for authors andsubscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ucmg20

Citizen Participation and CollaborativeEnvironmental Management in theMarine Oil Trade of Coastal AlaskaGeorge J. Busenberg aa Graduate School of Public Affairs , University of Colorado atDenver and Health Sciences Center , Denver, Colorado, USAPublished online: 10 Apr 2007.

To cite this article: George J. Busenberg (2007) Citizen Participation and Collaborative EnvironmentalManagement in the Marine Oil Trade of Coastal Alaska, Coastal Management, 35:2-3, 239-253, DOI:10.1080/08920750601042310

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08920750601042310

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as tothe accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinionsand views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Contentshould not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sourcesof information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever orhowsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arisingout of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Anysubstantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms &Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ucmg20

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.1080/08920750601042310

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08920750601042310

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Coastal Management, 35:239–253, 2007Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 0892-0753 print / 1521-0421 onlineDOI: 10.1080/08920750601042310

Citizen Participation and CollaborativeEnvironmental Management in the Marine Oil

Trade of Coastal Alaska

GEORGE J. BUSENBERG

Graduate School of Public AffairsUniversity of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences CenterDenver, Colorado, USA

This study compares the contributions to policy change made by two Regional Citizens’Advisory Councils that participate in the environmental management of the marineoil trade in coastal regions of Alaska. Both councils are remarkably well-funded andlong-enduring examples of citizen participation in environmental policy. This study findsthat both councils have applied their substantial funding resources to make significantcontributions to policy change (policy contributions) in the marine oil trade of coastalAlaska. This study also finds that both councils have greatly magnified their policycontributions through collaborative efforts with many other organizations active in themarine oil trade of Alaska. Therefore, the overall policy contributions of the councilsresult from the joint application of council resources and collaborative efforts.

Keywords citizen participation, coastal oil pollution, collaboration, Exxon Valdez

Introduction

This study compares the contributions to policy change made by two Regional Citizens’Advisory Councils (RCACs) established in Alaska in response to the 1989 Exxon Valdezoil spill disaster. These councils are designed to allow local citizen involvement in theenvironmental management of the marine oil trade in coastal regions of Alaska. Overtime, the councils have sought a number of policy changes in the marine oil transportationsystem of Alaska. The purpose of this study is to assess the effectiveness of the councilsin contributing to policy change in this system, and to identify the central factors thatcontribute to council effectiveness. This study finds that the two councils have combinedtheir substantial funding resources with multi-organizational collaborations to make awide array of contributions to policy change (policy contributions) in the marine oil tradeof coastal Alaska. One council has made policy contributions in the areas of marine icedetection, weather reporting, marine and terminal firefighting, and tug escort vessel systems.

This study was supported by grants from the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF SBR-9520194, NSF SBR-9710522). This study is dedicated to the memory of Frances M. Lynn.

Address correspondence to George J. Busenberg, Graduate School of Public Affairs, Universityof Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, 1380 Lawrence Street Center, Suite 500, CampusBox 142, P.O. Box 173364, Denver, CO 80217-3364, USA. E-mail: [email protected]

239

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14

240 G. J. Busenberg

Both councils have made policy contributions in the areas of environmental research andresearch on oil spill response.

Citizen advisory councils are widely used as a method of citizen participation inenvironmental management (Lynn & Busenberg, 1995). Citizen advisory councils consistof small groups of citizens who meet repeatedly to consider policy issues and to adviseother organizations. Councils of this type can operate for many years, as have the councilsexamined in this study. The trait that often distinguishes citizen advisory councils fromother methods of citizen participation examined in the literature (such as public hearings orsurveys) is the potential for long-term interactions between the council participants. Theselong-term interactions allow the participants in citizen advisory councils to engage in anextended process of mutual learning through recurring dialogue, thereby promoting well-informed participation in the technically complex issues of environmental management(Beierle & Cayford, 2002; Busenberg, 2000; Chess & Purcell, 1999; Rowe & Frewer, 2000).

The findings of this study add to previous research on the role of resources in shapingthe effectiveness of citizen participation in environmental management. In this study, theeffectiveness of the councils is defined by their ability to secure the implementation ofthe policy changes they seek. According to the resources hypothesis proposed in previousresearch, the effectiveness of citizen participation efforts will be enhanced by increasedaccess to resources such as funding and technical assistance (Arnstein, 1969; Busenberg,2000; Cohen, 1995; Krimsky, 1984; Lynn & Busenberg, 1995; Lynn, 1987). The policyrecords of the two RCACs provide a useful test of the resources hypothesis, in that thecouncils have access to significant financial resources (and frequently apply those resourcesto support technical assistance for their projects). To that end, this study compares thepolicy contributions of the councils over the period 1990 through 2004. The results of thisstudy provide partial support for the resources hypothesis. In particular, both councils haveapplied their resources to support an extensive series of research and development projectsconcerning environmental management in the Alaskan oil trade.

However, this study concludes that the resources hypothesis provides a necessaryyet insufficient explanation of council effectiveness. In many cases, the councils do notpossess the resources (or political authority) necessary to secure the implementation oftheir policy proposals through unilateral action. In such cases, the effectiveness of thecouncils depends on their collaborative capacity (defined here as the capacity of thecouncils to build supporting networks of collaboration with other organizations activein their policy domains). This study reveals that both councils have greatly magnifiedtheir policy contributions by forming a series of multilateral collaborations with otherorganizations involved in the management of the Alaskan oil trade (Koontz et al., 2004).

This study therefore finds that both RCACs have made significant contributions to theenvironmental management of the marine oil transportation system in Alaska, and also findsthat the overall effectiveness of the councils results from the combined application of councilresources and collaborative efforts. The following sections of this study present a detailedexamination of the origins, structures, resources, and policy contributions of the councils.

The Origins of the Advisory Councils

In 1989 the oil tanker Exxon Valdez struck a reef and spilled approximately 11 milliongallons of oil into the waters of Prince William Sound, Alaska. Oil spilled from the ExxonValdez subsequently spread over more than one thousand miles of Alaskan coastline,affecting the Prince William Sound region (also referred to as the Sound), the Cook Inlet

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14

Collaborative Environmental Management in Alaska 241

region (also referred to as the Inlet), and Kodiak Island. Policy reforms enacted in responseto this disaster fundamentally reshaped the environmental management of the marine oiltransportation system in Alaska (Alaska Oil Spill Commission, 1990; Birkland, 1997).These reforms included new state requirements found in Alaska Statute Title 46 (AS46) and new federal requirements found in the U.S. Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (PublicLaw 101-380, referred to here as OPA 90). OPA 90 established a federal requirementfor two self-governing councils designed to provide advice concerning the environmentalmanagement of the marine oil trade in Alaska. These councils included one RegionalCitizens’ Advisory Council (RCAC) for the Prince William Sound region (the PrinceWilliam Sound RCAC) and another RCAC for the nearby Cook Inlet region (the Cook InletRCAC). The Prince William Sound RCAC was established in 1989 (prior to the enactmentof OPA 90) and was subsequently certified as meeting the OPA 90 requirement for an RCACin Prince William Sound. The Cook Inlet RCAC was established in 1990. Each RCAC wasdirected by representatives of local communities and interest groups in coastal regions atrisk from oil spills in the marine oil trade of Alaska. These local representatives constitutedthe voting board of directors for each RCAC. Each RCAC also incorporated nonvoting exofficio members from state and federal agencies active in this policy domain, including theAlaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC), the U.S. National Oceanicand Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the U.S. Coast Guard, and other agencies. OPA90 required that the RCACs receive annual funding from the oil industry in their respectiveregions. The oil industry was not represented in the membership of the RCACs, and theRCACs operated as self-governing organizations (Cook Inlet RCAC [CIRCAC], 2004;Prince William Sound RCAC [PWS RCAC], 1991a, 1999c).

The two advisory councils have faced major responsibilities since their inceptions,due to continuing shipments of oil in the Prince William Sound and Cook Inlet coastalregions. Oil shipped in Prince William Sound is produced on the North Slope of Alaska,and transported overland through the Trans Alaska Pipeline System to a terminal at theport of Valdez. Tankers are loaded with oil at the terminal, and then sail through thewaters of Prince William Sound to the Gulf of Alaska (Alaska Oil Spill Commission, 1990;Busenberg, 2001). In Cook Inlet, oil is produced at offshore oil production platforms andtransported to onshore facilities through pipelines. Tankers laden with oil sail through thewaters of Cook Inlet between destinations in the Inlet, and to other regions (CIRCAC, 1993,2002). Both the Prince William Sound and Cook Inlet coastal regions possess ecologicaland scenic values that can be severely damaged by marine oil spills. Furthermore, thesecoastal regions contain numerous hazards (including severe weather and marine ice) thatcan lead to oil spills and impede marine oil spill response operations.

In sum, the environmental management of the marine oil transportation system inAlaska has always posed major policy challenges. Since their inceptions, the two RCACshave made numerous contributions to the environmental management of this system. Thisstudy compares the policy contributions of the two advisory councils from 1990 through2004, using the research methods described in the next section.

Research Methods

This study applied case study methods to compare the policy contributions of the twoadvisory councils from 1990 through 2004. Field research was conducted in Alaska bythe author to gather relevant documents and to interview respondents involved in themanagement of the Alaskan oil trade. Field and telephone interviews were conducted with

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14

242 G. J. Busenberg

71 respondents representing major organizations active in this policy domain (including thePrince William Sound RCAC, the Cook Inlet RCAC, the U.S. Coast Guard, ADEC, NOAA,and oil corporations active in Alaska). Numerous reports generated by these organizationswere gathered and analyzed in the course of this study. These reports provide a highlydetailed chronology of events in this policy domain from 1990 through 2004; referencesto these reports are provided throughout this study. Together, these data sources allow adetailed examination of the operations and policy contributions of the two advisory councils.The results of this analysis are presented in the sections that follow.

The Prince William Sound RCAC

The Prince William Sound RCAC (PWS RCAC) is directed by a board of representativesof communities in the region affected by oil spilled in the Exxon Valdez disaster, as wellas representatives of groups representing local interests in the areas of environmentalprotection, recreation, tourism, commercial fishing, and aquaculture. OPA 90 requires thatthe PWS RCAC receive annual funding from the regional oil industry, and the financialresources of the PWS RCAC are substantial. In budget statements from the period 1991through 2004, the PWS RCAC reported mean annual revenues of $2.95 million (in 2004U.S. dollars). The PWS RCAC has used its funding to support a staff organization (with16 staff members as of 2004) as well as numerous research and development projectsconcerning the environmental management of the marine oil trade in the Sound (PWSRCAC, 2004a). Funding resources therefore play a direct role in the operations of thecouncil. In a 2004 report, the executive director of the PWS RCAC noted that “overseeing acomplex shipping system is expensive, requiring a professional staff and frequent recourseto hired experts for technical analysis and advice” (PWS RCAC, 2004c). In addition toits staff, the human resources of the PWS RCAC include contributions of volunteers (whoparticipate in council committees) and the board of directors (PWS RCAC, 1991b). ThePWS RCAC has also collaborated with many other organizations in a long series of projectsdescribed below. Major projects of the PWS RCAC examined in this study are in thecategories of environmental research, research on oil spill response, marine ice detection,weather reporting, marine and terminal firefighting, and tug escort vessel systems. Theseprojects are examined below.

Environmental Research

The PWS RCAC has applied its funding to create a long-term environmental monitoringprogram in the Exxon Valdez oil spill region, and to support a wide array of environmentalresearch projects. The environmental monitoring program was required by OPA 90, andwas designed to provide a baseline assessment of environmental conditions in the ExxonValdez oil spill region. These data could aid natural resource damage assessment effortsin the event of a future oil spill in the region (PWS RCAC, 2004b). Beginning in 1993,the monitoring program supported periodic sampling at 9 sites. A tenth sampling site wasadded in 1999 (PWS RCAC, 1993b, 2000b). The PWS RCAC subsequently formed apartnership for environmental monitoring with the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council(an intergovernmental organization that oversees the use of civil settlement funds resultingfrom the Exxon Valdez disaster). In 2003 the Trustee Council began collaborating with thePWS RCAC to fund the continuation of the long-term environmental monitoring program,

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14


and to integrate that program into a larger-scale ecosystem research and monitoring programfor the Gulf of Alaska (PWS RCAC, 2003b).

In addition to long-term environmental monitoring, the PWS RCAC has supporteda number of other environmental research projects in the Sound. One set of studiesfunded by the PWS RCAC examined the pollutant discharges and ecological effects ofoil terminal operations in the port of Valdez (PWS RCAC, 1992a, 1997b, 1998b, 1999b).The PWS RCAC also funded research projects concerning the ecological and economicthreats posed by non-indigenous aquatic species (which could be transported into the Soundfrom other waterways in the ballast water of oil tankers). The non-indigenous species studieswere supported through a collaborative effort involving the PWS RCAC, the oil industry,ADEC, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the U.S. Coast Guard, the NOAA NationalSeaGrant Program, the University of Alaska, an environmental fund, and the SmithsonianEnvironmental Research Center. The studies confirmed that non-indigenous species werereaching the waters of the Sound in the ballast water of oil tankers. The studies also testedmethods for reducing the threats posed by non-indigenous species (PWS RCAC, 1997a,1997c, 1998a, 1998b, 1999b, 2000c, 2001a, 2004a, 2004c).

In sum, the PWS RCAC has applied both its own resources and collaborative effortsto conduct a wide array of environmental research projects. In the case of the long-termenvironmental monitoring program, the council initially used its own resources to fundthe needed experts and equipment. The council subsequently combined its resourceswith the resources of several other organizations to support a series of environmentalresearch projects. The results of these efforts include a continuing program of long-termenvironmental monitoring, as well as new insights into the threats posed by non-indigenousaquatic species and pollutant discharges in the Sound.

Research on Oil Spill Response

Oil spill contingency plans outline the assets and procedures that will be used to respondto an oil spill. Contingency plans and associated oil spill exercises (drills) are required inthe marine oil trade of Alaska by federal law (OPA 90) and state law (AS 46). Numerousorganizations are involved in the review of these oil spill contingency plans and associateddrills (including the two RCACs, ADEC, the U.S. Coast Guard, and the regional oilindustry). The contingency plans for the Sound include provisions for the use of responseequipment positioned in the region, as well as provisions for the use of response equipmenttransported from other regions. The out-of-region response system would be used in theevent that a catastrophic oil spill overwhelmed the response equipment available in-region.The PWS RCAC reviews oil spill contingency plans for the Sound, and also funds acontractor to monitor oil spill response exercises in the Sound (PWS RCAC, 1992a, 1992b,1999c, 2004a). In 1993 the PWS RCAC completed a study assessing the capacity of dockfacilities in the Sound to manage the flow of response equipment from outside the region(PWS RCAC, 1993a). In 1997 and 2001 the PWS RCAC completed two additional analysesof the capabilities of the out-of-region response system (PWS RCAC, 1997b, 2001a). In1999 the PWS RCAC published a guidebook to aid local communities in dealing withthe socioeconomic effects of technological disasters (such as oil spills) (PWS RCAC,2000d).

Additional oil spill response studies funded by the PWS RCAC examined bioremedi-ation (the use of microorganisms to remediate oil spills), dispersants (chemicals designedto disperse marine oil spills into the water column), and in-situ burning (the removal ofoil by burning it in place). The PWS RCAC participated in the development of numerous

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14

244 G. J. Busenberg

geographic response strategies (oil spill response plans tailored for specific areas andresources), in the development of nearshore oil spill response plans, and in the mapping ofregional shorelines (PWS RCAC, 1991a, 1994c, 1997a, 1999b, 2003b, 2004a). The PWSRCAC collaborated with NOAA in the development of maps designating environmentallysensitive areas along selected coastlines in Alaska, and also collaborated with the Universityof Alaska in studies of currents in the Sound for the purpose of oil spill trajectory modelingand navigational safety. The results of these collaborative projects could be applied to guidethe deployment of response assets in the event of an oil spill in the Sound (PWS RCAC,1996a, 2003b, 2004a).

In sum, the PWS RCAC has applied its financial resources to support a wide array ofresearch projects concerning oil spill response in the Sound. These contributions represent amixture of projects sponsored solely by the council, and projects conducted in collaborationwith other organizations. These efforts have contributed extensive new information to theplanning for oil spill response in the Sound.

Marine Ice Detection System

Icebergs in the Sound pose major navigational hazards to oil tankers, and ice detectiontherefore constitutes an important element of navigational safety in the Sound. Indeed, theseries of events that led to the Exxon Valdez disaster began when the tanker Exxon Valdezmaneuvered to avoid marine ice in the Sound (Alaska Oil Spill Commission, 1990; UnitedStates National Transportation Safety Board, 1990). In 1993, the PWS RCAC conducteda survey of oil tanker officers that indicated a need for better marine ice reporting inthe Sound (PWS RCAC, 1993a, 1994a). In particular, the Columbia Glacier (a tidewaterglacier in the Sound) was generating numerous icebergs that drifted into the adjacent tankerlanes in the Sound. In 1996 the PWS RCAC began funding iceberg monitoring researchon the Columbia Glacier. This 3-year iceberg monitoring project examined the formationand flow of marine ice from the Columbia Glacier, and found that the flow of marine iceinto the tanker lanes of the Sound would likely increase for a period of years to decades.The PWS RCAC collaborated with two regional research organizations in its researchon the Columbia Glacier, and also studied a variety of systems for improved marine icedetection in collaboration with NOAA, the Canadian Coast Guard, the oil industry, andan engineering firm (PWS RCAC, 1996a, 1996c, 1997c, 1998b, 1999a, 1999b, 2001a,2002b).

In 2001 the PWS RCAC embarked on a collaborative project to deploy a new radarsystem for marine ice detection in the Sound, located on a site near the Columbia Glacier.This ice detection radar became operational in 2002 through a multilateral collaborationincluding contributions from the PWS RCAC, U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Army, NOAA,ADEC, the regional oil industry, a regional research organization, and a local communitycollege. In addition to its ice detection function, the radar site would serve as a researchand development platform for new technologies designed to enhance ice detection at sea(PWS RCAC, 1999a, 2000a, 2000b, 2001a, 2001b, 2002a, 2002b, 2003a, 2003b).

The council’s contribution to ice detection at sea began with glacier research supportedby the council, and continued through a multilateral collaboration to test and deploy a newmarine ice detection system. As a result, the vessel traffic system in the Sound was reinforcedby advanced marine ice detection capabilities. In a 2003 report, a Coast Guard commanderin the region noted that the marine ice detection system in the Sound represented “the bestinternationally available ice detection technology in existence” (PWS RCAC, 2003a).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14


Weather Reporting System

Severe weather conditions pose significant hazards to oil tanker navigation in the Sound,and weather reporting therefore constitutes an important element of navigational safety inthe region. In 1993, the PWS RCAC conducted a survey of oil tanker officers that indicateda need for better weather reporting in the Sound. In the same year the PWS RCAC proposedthe deployment of new weather reporting equipment to fill gaps in the weather monitoringsystem in the Sound. The purpose of this new equipment was to reduce the risks posedby severe weather to oil tankers in the region (PWS RCAC, 1993a, 1994a, 1994b, 1995a,1995c). In an interview, an oil industry manager commented on the value of weatherreporting for the marine oil trade in the Sound by noting that “the more information youhave, the safer you can be.” The RCAC proposal was supported by the oil industry, ADEC,and the U.S. Coast Guard. In response, two members of Alaska’s congressional delegationsought out federal funding for the new equipment. With the support of federal fundingadministered through NOAA, new weather reporting equipment was deployed by the U.S.Coast Guard at four sites in the Sound in 1995 (PWS RCAC, 1993b, 1994b, 1994c, 1995a).New weather reporting equipment was added at a fifth site in 1998. In 2002, the PWSRCAC collaborated with a regional research organization to install a network of additionalweather reporting stations throughout the Sound (PWS RCAC, 1999c, 2003b, 2004a).

In sum, the installation of a new network of weather reporting equipment in the Soundresulted from a multilateral collaboration involving the PWS RCAC. This collection of newequipment greatly expanded the scope of weather reporting in the Sound.

Marine and Terminal Firefighting

Oil terminal and oil tanker fires pose major safety threats and can trigger oil spills. The PWSRCAC began examining the topic of firefighting plans for oil transportation operations in1991 (PWS RCAC, 1991b, 1992a). In 1992 the PWS RCAC collaborated with the U.S.Coast Guard, the oil industry, and the city of Valdez to form a fire protection task force. Thework of the task force led to an oil terminal fire protection drill in 1993, followed by anotherterminal fire exercise in 2002 (PWS RCAC, 1993d, 2002b). In 1996 the PWS RCAC fundeda study of marine fire response in the Sound. The study recommended the development of aprogram to train land-based firefighters in marine firefighting (PWS RCAC, 1996a, 1997a).In an interview, a PWS RCAC staff member summarized the implications of the study forthe firefighting teams in the Sound: “They had enough resources and equipment to deal witha major fire incident. The problem was that there was no integrated training going on.” Inparticular, shipboard fires posed unusual challenges for land-based firefighters (includingconfined spaces, hazardous cargo, and the possibility of sinking the vessel with the waterused to fight the fires). These challenges created the need for training that integrated the skillsof land-based and marine firefighting (PWS RCAC, 2003c). The PWS RCAC subsequentlycollaborated with the oil industry, U.S. Coast Guard, state and local governments, anda local community college to sponsor three marine firefighting training symposia in theSound (in 1997, 1999, and 2003). These symposia trained land-based firefighters in thestrategies needed to effectively combat a major fire aboard oil tankers and other marinevessels (PWS RCAC, 1997b, 1997c, 1999a, 2000b, 2003c).

In sum, policy changes concerning marine and terminal firefighting in the Soundevolved through a combination of council-funded research and multilateral collaborativeefforts. The result was a series of training symposia and exercises designed to enhancemarine and terminal firefighting capabilities in the region.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14

246 G. J. Busenberg

Tug Escort Vessel System

In the aftermath of the Exxon Valdez disaster, new state and federal laws required thattwo tug vessels escort single-hull tankers laden with oil throughout their passage in PrinceWilliam Sound (but not in Cook Inlet). Tug escort vessels could assist in the prevention ofoil spills by providing additional propulsion and steering for oil tankers that encounterednavigational or mechanical problems. Some tug vessels were also equipped with marinefirefighting and oil spill response capabilities (PWS RCAC, 1993c, 1994c). In 1994 thePWS RCAC recommended that new tractor tug escort vessels with enhanced maneuveringand propulsion systems be deployed in the Sound. Tractor tug vessels possessed advancedmaneuvering capabilities beyond those of the conventional tug vessels then used to escortladen oil tankers in the Sound. The proposal to deploy tractor tug vessels in the Soundwas initially opposed by the oil industry, on the grounds that tractor tug vessels wouldnot outperform conventional tug vessels in the escort mission (PWS RCAC, 1994c, 1995a,1995b, 1995c).

Between 1992 and 1997 the PWS RCAC collaborated with the oil industry, U.S.Coast Guard, and ADEC in two major studies that informed the tug vessel debate byassessing navigational risks in the Sound (Busenberg, 2001; PWS RCAC, 1994c). The firstcollaborative study on this topic indicated that high winds in narrow passages could cause adisabled tanker to run aground in the Sound. In 1994, a series of operational changes wereinstituted to reduce these risks. The oil industry reduced the speed of laden oil tankers in anarrow passage of the Sound, and tethered tug vessels to laden tankers in that passage toallow for swift assistance. Furthermore, the U.S. Coast Guard reduced the wind speed andwave height limits (past which laden tankers would not be allowed to sail) for the purposeof increasing navigational safety in two sections of the Sound (PWS RCAC, 1991a, 1991b,1994c, 1995c).

The second collaborative study on this topic constituted a comprehensive riskassessment of the marine oil transportation system in the Sound. The study was entitled thePrince William Sound Risk Assessment. When completed in 1997, the Risk Assessmentindicated a need for a powerful rescue tug vessel to assist tankers at the entrance to theGulf of Alaska (where severe weather conditions might require additional towing power).In 1997, the oil industry responded to the Risk Assessment by deploying a rescue tugvessel in the Sound (PWS RCAC, 1997a, 1997b, 1997c). In an interview, a regional oilindustry manager characterized the deployment of the rescue tug vessel as “a direct resultof the Risk Assessment.” In addition, the Risk Assessment identified ice and weather astwo significant hazards for oil transportation in the Sound (thereby informing the efforts ofthe PWS RCAC in weather reporting and ice detection) (PWS RCAC, 1997a).

The results of the Risk Assessment did not determine whether tractor tug vesselswould systematically outperform conventional tug vessels in the escort role. However, thetug vessel debate was further informed by additional collaborative studies that examined(1) different tug vessel technologies, and (2) the best available technology requirement inAlaska state law (which mandated the use of the best available technology for safeguardsagainst marine oil pollution). These additional studies were conducted as collaborativeprojects involving the PWS RCAC, ADEC, and the oil industry. Information gatheredin these additional collaborative studies demonstrated that tractor tug vessels couldoutmaneuver conventional tug vessels (Busenberg, 2001; PWS RCAC, 1995a, 1995b,1996b). With support from the governor of Alaska, ADEC held that the advancedmaneuvering capabilities of tractor tug vessels constituted the best available technology inthe escort mission. Between 1999 and 2001, the regional oil industry responded to the best

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14


available technology decision by deploying five new tractor tug escort vessels in the Sound.All five of these new tractor tug vessels were equipped with oil spill response equipmentand marine firefighting equipment. These new tug vessels served in both the escort andrescue roles in the Sound (Alyeska Pipeline Service Company, 2001; Busenberg, 2001;PWS RCAC, 1997b, 1999b, 1999c, 2000b).

This case demonstrated a prolonged process of collaboration. The initiatives andresources of the PWS RCAC played a central role in launching major studies concerningnavigational risks in the Sound. These studies were conducted as multilateral collaborations,and the results of these studies led to both operational reforms and equipment purchases inthe escort system. The PWS RCAC also collaborated in additional studies that informedthe ADEC decision to designate tractor tug vessels as the best available technology in theescort mission. The ultimate result of this collaborative process was a fleet of new tractortug escort vessels for oil transportation operations in the Sound.

Resources, Collaboration, and the Policy Contributions of the PWS RCAC

The policy contributions of the PWS RCAC demonstrate the joint influence of resourcesand collaboration in shaping the effectiveness of the council. The substantial financialresources of the PWS RCAC have allowed it to pursue a wide array of independentresearch and development projects. Yet several major policy reforms proposed by thePWS RCAC (including the deployment of the ice detection radar, new weather reportingequipment, and new tug escort vessels in the Sound) were made possible only throughcollaborative efforts involving numerous public and private organizations. The PWS RCACalso engaged in collaborative projects in the areas of environmental research, oil spillresponse research, and training for marine and terminal firefighting. In sum, the PWSRCAC has systematically used multilateral collaborations to combine its resources withthe resources of other organizations in a wide array of projects. These collaborative effortshave served to magnify the policy contributions of the council.

The Cook Inlet RCAC

The Cook Inlet RCAC (CIRCAC) is directed by a board of representatives fromcommunities affected by the oil trade in the Cook Inlet region, as well as representativesof local interest groups in the areas of environmental protection, recreation, commercialfishing, and aquaculture. As with the PWS RCAC, OPA 90 requires that the CIRCACreceive annual funding from the regional oil industry. However, the CIRCAC receivessubstantially less funding than the PWS RCAC. In budget statements from the period 1991through 2004, the CIRCAC reported mean annual revenues of $906,308 (in 2004 U.S.dollars). The CIRCAC reported 6 staff members as of 2004 (CIRCAC, 2004). In additionto its staff, the human resources of the CIRCAC include contributions of volunteers (whoparticipate in council committees) and the board. The CIRCAC has also collaborated withmany other organizations in a series of projects examined below. Major projects of theCIRCAC examined in this study are in the areas of environmental research and research onoil spill response. These projects are examined below.

Environmental Research

The CIRCAC established an environmental monitoring program in Cook Inlet in 1993,with an initial focus on council-supported environmental sampling at numerous sites to

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14

248 G. J. Busenberg

detect oil pollution and associated environmental impacts in the Inlet. This environmentalmonitoring program was required by OPA 90, and could aid natural resource damageassessment efforts in the event of a future oil spill in the Inlet (CIRCAC, 1993, 1996, 1998,1999). Over time, the CIRCAC expanded its environmental research projects through aseries of collaborative efforts. Beginning in 2001, the CIRCAC collaborated with ADEC,the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the NOAA National Marine FisheriesService in research vessel expeditions to collect data on environmental conditions in CookInlet and the Gulf of Alaska (CIRCAC, 2002, 2004). In 2003 the CIRCAC sponsored a studyof the role of ballast water exchange in introducing aquatic non-indigenous species intoCook Inlet (CIRCAC, 2003). In the period 2001 through 2004, the CIRCAC collaboratedwith the Kenai Peninsula Borough (a local government), the U.S. National Park Service,NOAA, research organizations, and the Trustee Council to fund aerial surveys of coastalhabitats in Cook Inlet, Kodiak Island, and the northern Gulf of Alaska region (CIRCAC,2001, 2002, 2003, 2004).

In sum, the CIRCAC has applied its financial resources to support a significant series ofenvironmental research projects. Over time, the CIRCAC has expanded the scope of theseenvironmental studies through multilateral collaborations. Together, these projects have es-tablished a large-scale program of environmental studies in Cook Inlet and adjacent regions.

Research on Oil Spill Response

The CIRCAC reviews oil spill contingency plans for the Cook Inlet region, and alsomonitors oil spill response exercises in the Inlet (CIRCAC, 1992). Between 1993 and 1995the CIRCAC funded studies of the structural integrity and safety systems of offshore oilproduction platforms located in the Cook Inlet region (CIRCAC, 1993, 1994, 1995). Thesestudies found the oil production platforms to be safe. In an interview, a former executivedirector of the CIRCAC noted that “the companies have kept up on their maintenance”on the Cook Inlet oil platforms. The CIRCAC also developed an oil spill trajectory modelto simulate the migration of spilled oil with the powerful currents of the Inlet (CIRCAC,1996). In 2002 the CIRCAC collaborated with the University of Alaska in studies of oceanconditions and currents in Cook Inlet, followed by additional studies of ocean conditionsin the Inlet conducted in collaborations between the CIRCAC, the University of Alaska,the U.S. Minerals Management Service, NOAA, a research institute, and the oil industry.These studies could be used to aid oil spill trajectory mapping (as currents structure themigration of spilled oil). The CIRCAC also collaborated with NOAA, the University ofAlaska, and the oil industry in studies of marine ice in Cook Inlet (as marine ice presents apotential impediment to oil spill response operations) (CIRCAC, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2002,2003).

Other projects involving the CIRCAC included mapping and planning efforts for oilspill response. The CIRCAC collaborated with the PWS RCAC, NOAA, Kenai PeninsulaBorough, and the state government to develop sensitive area maps of Cook Inlet and KodiakIsland. These seasonal maps displayed the location of various habitats vulnerable to oilspills in the region (CIRCAC, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1996). The CIRCAC also collaboratedwith the regional oil industry, ADEC, PWS RCAC, and Kenai Peninsula Borough to developgeographic response strategies for a diverse set of ecologically sensitive areas in the Inlet.The oil spill trajectory model, sensitive area maps, and geographic response strategies couldbe used in concert to guide the deployment of response assets in the event of an oil spill inthe Inlet (CIRCAC, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003).

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14


The CIRCAC has collaborated with many other organizations to support studiesand workshops concerning oil spill response. The CIRCAC collaborated with NOAAin studies of navigational safety and intertidal communities in Cook Inlet (CIRCAC,1995, 1996, 1999). The Cook Inlet and Prince William Sound RCACs jointly supporteda study of human factors in maritime accidents, and the CIRCAC collaborated with anumber of public and private organizations in tests of in-situ burning (CIRCAC, 1994).The CIRCAC participated in (and in some cases provided support for) a series ofmulti-organizational workshops concerning issues related to oil spill response (includingworkshops on watershed management, oil spill trajectory modeling, oceanography, marineice, navigational safety, oil pipeline safety, and coastal habitat mapping) (CIRCAC, 1991,1993, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003).

In sum, the CIRCAC research projects on oil spill response reflect the joint use ofcouncil resources and multilateral collaborative efforts. The results of these efforts haveadvanced oil spill response research and generated new tools to guide oil spill responseefforts in the Inlet.

Resources, Collaboration, and the Policy Contributions of the CIRCAC

The resources of the CIRCAC are limited when compared to the resources of the PWSRCAC. In an interview, a U.S. Coast Guard captain in Alaska noted that “you have a CookInlet RCAC that is sparsely funded, and the Prince William Sound RCAC is abundantlyfunded.” However, the CIRCAC has still been able to pursue a wide array of research anddevelopment projects. As with the PWS RCAC, each category of policy contributions madeby the CIRCAC demonstrates the joint influence of resources and collaboration in shapingthe effectiveness of the council. Indeed, the 2004 annual report of the CIRCAC states that“partnerships are the key to Cook Inlet RCAC’s success” (CIRCAC, 2004).

Conclusions

The two Regional Citizens’ Advisory Councils examined in this study have made a seriesof significant contributions to environmental management in the marine oil transportationsystem of coastal Alaska. In many cases, these advisory councils have proven effectivein securing the implementation of the policy changes they seek. In essence, the councilshave operated as institutional learning arrangements (by promoting the application of newideas and information to policy decisions in this system). The councils have thereforeemerged as highly consequential institutional arrangements for the management of thissystem (Busenberg, 2001).

The findings of this study provide partial support for the resources hypothesis, bydemonstrating that funding resources play a direct role in shaping the effectiveness of theadvisory councils. First, funding resources have allowed the councils to pursue a wide rangeof projects requiring staff support, technical expertise, and equipment. Second, the disparityin funding between the councils is directly reflected in the scope of their projects. Duringthe period 1991 through 2004 the budget statements of the PWS RCAC report combinedrevenues of $41.36 million, while the budget statements of the CIRCAC report combinedrevenues of $12.69 million during the same period (with all revenues adjusted to 2004 U.S.dollars). Therefore, the combined revenues of the CIRCAC in the period 1991 through2004 equal approximately 31% of the combined revenues of the PWS RCAC in the sameperiod. The CIRCAC had 6 staff members in 2004, compared to the 16 staff members of

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14

250 G. J. Busenberg

the PWS RCAC in 2004 (CIRCAC, 2004; PWS RCAC, 2004a). The PWS RCAC thereforehas access to greater resources than the CIRCAC, and has pursued a broader scope of majorprojects than the CIRCAC. All of these findings are consistent with the predictions of theresources hypothesis.

However, this study concludes that the resources hypothesis provides a necessary yetinsufficient explanation of council effectiveness. This study reveals that both councilshave greatly magnified their policy contributions by forming a series of multilateralcollaborations with other organizations involved in the management of the Alaskan oil trade(including federal agencies, state agencies, research organizations, and the oil industry).Collaborations have played a role in all of the eight project categories examined in this study.Indeed, the councils were able to secure the implementation of several policy reforms onlythrough political support and funding provided by other organizations. The effectivenessof the councils in securing policy reforms therefore depends not only on their resources,but also on their collaborative capacities. Working within the context of existing legal andregulatory frameworks, the councils have participated in a series of collaborative effortsthat have led to productive policy synergies in the marine oil trade of Alaska.

In sum, the two advisory councils have made significant policy contributions throughthe combined application of council resources and collaborative efforts. The results ofthis study indicate that further research on the effectiveness of citizen participation inenvironmental policy should focus not only on the resources available to the participants,but also on the collaborative capacities of the participants (Koontz et al., 2004). Finally,the results of this study demonstrate the viability and practical significance of citizenparticipation in the management of complex and environmentally hazardous marinetransportation systems.

References

Alaska Oil Spill Commission. 1990. Spill: The wreck of the Exxon Valdez, Juneau, AK: State ofAlaska.

Alyeska Pipeline Service Company. 2001. Trans Alaska Pipeline System facts, Anchorage, AK:Alyeska Pipeline Service Company.

Arnstein, S. R. 1969. A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of the American Institute of Planners35(4):216–224.

Beierle, T. C., and J. Cayford. 2002. Democracy in practice: Public participation in environmentaldecisions, Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future Press.

Birkland, T. A. 1997. After disaster: Agenda setting, public policy, and focusing events, Washington,D.C.: Georgetown University Press.

Busenberg, G. J. 2001. Learning in organizations and public policy. Journal of Public Policy21(2):173–189.

Busenberg, G. J. 2000. Resources, political support, and citizen participation in environmental policy:A reexamination of conventional wisdom. Society & Natural Resources 13:579–587.

Chess, C., and K. Purcell. 1999. Public participation and the environment: Do we know what works?Environmental Science & Technology 33(16):2685–2692.

CIRCAC (Cook Inlet Regional Citizens Advisory Council). 1991. 1991 Annual Report, Kenai, AK:CIRCAC.

CIRCAC (Cook Inlet Regional Citizens Advisory Council). 1992. Annual Report 1992, Kenai, AK:CIRCAC.



Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14












Cohen, N. 1995. Technical assistance for citizen participation: A case study of New York City’senvironmental planning process. American Review of Public Administration 25(2):119–135.

Koontz, T. M., T. A. Steelman, J. Carmin, K. S. Korfmacher, C. Moseley, and C. W. Thomas. 2004.Collaborative environmental management: What roles for government?, Washington, D.C.:Resources for the Future Press.

Krimsky, S. 1984. Beyond technocracy: New routes for citizen involvement in social risk assessment.In Citizen participation in science policy, ed. J. C. Peterson, 43–61. Amherst, MA: Universityof Massachusetts Press.

Lynn, F. M. 1987. Citizen involvement in hazardous waste sites: Two North Carolina success stories.Environmental Impact Assessment Review 7:347–361.

Lynn, F. M., and G. J. Busenberg. 1995. Citizen advisory committees and environmental policy:What we know, what’s left to discover. Risk Analysis 15(2):147–162.

PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 1991a. 1991 AnnualReport, Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.

PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 1991b. The Observer1(2), Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.

PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 1992a. 1992 year inreview, Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.


PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 1993a. 1993 a year inreview, Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.


PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 1993c. Then and now:Changes since the Exxon Valdez oil spill, Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.

PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 1993d. The Observer3(3), Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.

PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 1994a. The Observer4(1), Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14

252 G. J. Busenberg

PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 1994c. The Observer4(4), Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.



PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 1995c. Oil spillprevention: Improvements in tanker safety, Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.

PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 1996a. 1996 a year inreview, Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.







PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 1998b. 1997–1998 inreview, Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.



PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 1999c. Then andnow–changes in oil transportation since the Exxon Valdez spill: 1989–1999, Anchorage, AK:PWS RCAC.




PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 2000d. The Observer10(3), Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.

PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 2001a. 2000–2001 inreview, Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.





PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 2003b. 2002–2003 yearin review, Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14


PWS RCAC (Prince William Sound Regional Citizens’ Advisory Council). 2004a. 2003–2004 yearin review, Anchorage, AK: PWS RCAC.



Rowe, G., and L. J. Frewer. 2000. Public participation methods: A framework for evaluation. Science,Technology, & Human Values 25(1):3–29.

United States National Transportation Safety Board. 1990. Marine accident report–grounding of theU.S. tankship Exxon Valdez on Bligh Reef, Prince William Sound near Valdez, Alaska, March24, 1989, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f C

hica

go L

ibra

ry]

at 0

0:19

20

Nov

embe

r 20

14

Documents

Citizen Participation and Collaborative Environmental Management in the Marine Oil Trade of Coastal Alaska