CIS Human Anatomy Exam Four Study Guide

8/6/2019 CIS Human Anatomy Exam Four Study Guide

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Urinary SystemAnatomy of the Kidneys:

y Lie against the dorsal body wall against the retroperitoneal positionbeneath the parietal peritoneum in the superior lumbar region.

y Ex tend from the T 12 to the L 3 vertebrae. They receive some protection

from the lower part of the rib cagey R ight kidney is slightly lower than the lefty A dult kidneys are about the size of a large bar of soapy H as a medial indentation called the renal hilus where the ureters,

renal blood vessels, and nerves enter/e x it the kidneysy Adrenal gland is on top of each kidneyy The renal capsule encloses each kidney and the adipose capsule holds

the kidney against the trunk wall.

R egions of the Kidney:y R enal Cortex : Thin outer layer of the kidney. Usually light in

color.y R enal Hilus: Medial indentation in the kidneys. The ureters,

renal blood vessels, and nerves enter/e x it the kidney here.y R enal Medulla : Inside the corte x . Is a dark redish color.y Medullary Pyramids: Striped in appearance. Separated by

renal columns.y Calyces : Ex tensions of the renal pelvis that form cup shaped

areas that enclose the tops of the pyramids. Calyces collecturine that drains from the tips of the pyramids.

y R enal Pelvis : Inner collecting tube. Is continuous with theureters leaving the hilus. Urine flows from the pelvis to theureter, which transports urine to the bladder.

y R enal Columns : Separate the renal pyramids made of corte x like tissue.

Nephrons:y N ephrons are the structural and functional units of the

kidneys that are responsible in the formation of urine. Theyare the tiny filtering units.

y There are over 1,000,000 nephrons per kidney.y Entire blood volume is filtered 60 x per day.

Parts of a Nephron:y G lomerulus: Knot of capillaries. Blood pressure is very high

here because it receives and feeds out blood. Ex tremely highBP forces fluid and solutes smaller than proteins out of theblood into the glomerular capsule.- Afferent Arteriole: A rises from the interlobular artery and

is the feeder vessel for the nephron. Larger diameter thanthe efferent arteriole.

- Efferent Arteriole: Receives blood that has passedthrough the glomerulus. Peritubular capillaries arise fromthe efferent arteriole and drains into the glomerulus.These capillaries are low pressure that are adapted for absorption.



y R enal Tubule: Knot of capillaries. Everything BUT the collecting duct.y G lomerular/Bowman s Capsule: The closed end of the renal tubule that is enlarged and cup-shaped and

completely surrounds the glomerulus. Blood gets put out of here. The substance looks like plasma.y Podocytes: The inner/visceral part of the capsule is made of up highly modified cells. H ave long branching

processes called foot processes that interwine with one another and cling to the glomerulus. Filtration slits e x istbetween the e x tensions and form a porous membrane around the glomerulus.

y Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): Covered with microvilli to increase its surface area. Reabsorption beginshere where 80% of the water is absorbed by filtrate.

y Loop of Henle: The hair pin of the nephron. 100% of glucose and amino acids reabsorb and go back to theblood stream.

y D istal Convoluted Tubule ( D CT):Reabsorption of water occurs here to go back into the bloodstream. A nadditional 19% of water is reabsorbed and = 99% total water reabsorbed. 19% of ADH hormone ( A nti-diuretic)is also reabsorbed with the water to recover the water in the blood. A ldosterone is also reabsorbed with thewater which reabsorbs salt with water following.

y Collecting D ucts: Receives urine from many nephrons and runs downward through the medullary pyramids,giving them their striped appearance. They deliver the final urine product into the calyces and renal pelvis.

Urine Formation:y Filtration : A nonselective, passive process. The filtration that is formed is essentially blood plasma without blood

proteins. Glomerulus acts a filter and is where it first occurs. Everything e x cept for RBC s and proteins is forcedfrom glomerulus into the Bowman s capsule.y R eabsorption : Filtrate takes up many useful ions, amino acids, glucose, and some water. These ions must be

reclaimed by the filtrate and this is where reabsorption for the substances to go back to the bloodstream.Tubular reabsorption occurs as soon as the filtrate enters the pro x imal convoluted tubule. N itrogenous wastessuch as urea, uric acid, and creatinine. These ailments are found in high concentrations in the urine. Mostreabsorption occurs in the pro x imal convoluted tubule

y S ecretion : Essentially reabsorption in reverse. A dditional harmful substances are added to the urine(drugs,medications, etc.) and can control blood p H . Occurs in the collecting duct.

Function of the Kidneys:

y The kidneys filter gallons of fluid from the bloodstream. The kidneys remove nitrogenous wastes to be e x cretedout of the body while returning the valuable nutrients to the blood stream. The kidneys also regulate the blood svolume and chemical makeup so that the proper balance between water and salts and between acids and basesin maintained. They also regulate blood pressure. Lastly, they manufacture urine.

D isorders:y Polyuria: e x crete large volumes of uriney Anuria: e x creting less than 100 ml of urine a dayy O liguria: e x creting between 100 and 400 ml of urine a dayy D iuresis: urine production y D iabetes Mellitus: Lack of insulin y D iabetes Insipidus: Lack of ADH

Composition of Normal Uriney V olume is about 1000-1500 mly Steriley Slightly aromaticy pH =6 (slightly acidic)y Specific Gravity of 1.001-1.020y D oes not contain glucose, bile, rbc s , hemoglobin, or wbc sy Clear pale to deep yellow because of urochrome



y H as sodium, potassium, urea, uric acid, creatinine, ammonia, and bicarbonate ions.

Abnormal Urine Components & D isorders:y G lucose : e x cessive intake of sugary foods, diabetes mellitusy Blood proteins : physical e x ertion, pregnancy, glomerulonephritis, hypertensiony R ed blood cells : bleeding in the urinary tract because of trauma, kidney stones, or infectiony Hemoglobin : transfusion reaction, hemolytic anemiay W hite blood cells/pus: urinary tract infectiony Bile: liver disease (hepatitis)y Ketones : product of fat metabolism when in starvation mode or when the body can t digest glucose because of

diabetes.

Functions of Urinary System O rgans:y Ureters : 10-12 inches long, carry urine by peristalsisy Bladder : transitional cells, adipose tissue, renal capsules. Temporary storage sac for urine.y Urethra : males 8 inches long, females 1 inch, carries urine to the outside of the body.

S phincters: y External Urethral S phincter: Superiorly located and is voluntary. Once the internal sphincter is filled and the

person feels the urge to void, we can choose to hold in our urine or release it. The e x ternal sphincter can berela x ed so that the urine is flushed from the body.

y Internal Urethral Sphincter: Inferiorly located and is involuntary. A s the contractions become stronger, storedurine is forced past the internal urethral sphincter. It is then that a person finally feels the urge to void.

- Control the flow of urine from the bladder. The bladder continues to collect urine until about 200 mL. A tthis point, stretching of the bladder wall activates stress receptors. Impulses transmitted to the sacralregion of the spinal cord and then back to the bladder via the pelvic sphincter.

- Bladder can hold 750 mL of urine before voiding involuntarily

AD H R egulation of W ater Balance in Kidneys: y W hen the ADH hormone is released, a final 19% of water is reabsorbed into the paritubular capillaries at the

distal convoluted tubule. It concentrates the urine.

Aldosterone R egulation of W ater Balance in Kidneys: y A ldosterone causes kidney tubule cells to reclaim sodium ions and secrete more potassium ions into the urine

when sodium is reabsorbed, water follows.



N ervous SystemG eneral Functions of the Nervous S ystem:

y To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body (sensory input).y To interpret the changes.y A ffect a response in muscles or glands (motor output).

O rganization of the Nervous S ystem:

Central Nervous S ystem: y brain, spinal cord, integrating and command center.y Interpret incoming sensory information and issue instructions based on

past e x perience and current conditions.

Peripheral Nervous System:y 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nervesy Link all parts of the body by carrying impulses from the sensory

receptors to the C N S and from the C N S to the appropriate glands and muscles.y S omatic Nervous S ystem: A llows us to consciously control our skeletal

muscles.y Autonomic Nervous S ystem: Regulates events that are automatic.

Ex amples include the activity of smooth and cardiac muscles.- Peripheral and sympathetic

y y N eurons in P N S are classified as being visceral or somatic.

- V isceral : Impulse are carried to or from a body organ V isceral Afferent : Organs Brain V isceral Efferent : Brain Organs

- S omatic : Impulses are carried to or from the skin or muscle S omatic Afferent : Skin Brain S omatic Efferent : Brain Skeletal Muscles

Neurons and Neuroglia:y Neurons : nerve cells; transmit messages (cannot divide)y Neuroglial ( G lial) Cells: supporting, insulating,

protective cells (can divide). Glia are not able totransmit nerve impulses and they never lose their abilityto divide.

- A strocytes, Microglia, ependymal,obligodendrocytes.

G ray and W hite Matter:y G ray Matter: unmyelinated and contains cell bodiesy W hite Matter: dense collections of myelinated fibers

Functional Properties of Neurons:y Irritability : ability to respond to stimuliy Conductivity : ability to transmit an impulse

Neuron Classification: y Multipolar : many e x tensions from the cell bodyy Bipolar : one a x on and one dendrite



y Unipolar : have a short single process leaving the body

R eflexes:y R eflexes : Rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli

- S omatic R eflexes : Refle x es that stimulate the skeletal muscles. Ex . Pulling hand away from hot stove- Autonomic R eflexes : Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart, and glands. Regulate digestion,

elimination, blood pressure, and sweating. Ex . Secretion of salivay Once a refle x begins it always goes in the same directiony The more synapses there are in a refle x pathway, the longer the refle x es take to happen.y Many spinal refle x es involve only spinal cord neurons and occur without brain involvement

R eflex Arcs:y A ll refle x arcs have a minimum of five elements :

- S ensory R eceptor : Reacts to a stimulus- Effector O rgan : The muscle or gland eventually

stimulated- S ensory Neurons : Connect the sensory and effector

organs.- Motor Neurons: Connect the sensory and effector

organs- Integration Center (Association Neuron): Thesynapse between the sensory and motor neurons

Nerve Impulse:1. R esting membrane is polarized. There are fewer positive ions

sitting on the inner face of the neuron s plasma membrane thanthere are in the outer face.

2. A stimulus reverses the polarization causing depolarization3. A wave of depolarization is the action potential/nerve impulse4. The action potential continues down the length of the a x on5. The axon repolarizes to restore polarization6. R efractory period- resting period. The initial concentrations of the

sodium and potassium ions inside and outside of the neuron arerestored by activation of the sodium-potassium pump. This pumpuses A TP (cellular energy) to pump e x cess sodium ions out of thecell and to bring potassium ions back into it.

*Occur along unmyelinated fibers . Fibers that have myelin sheaths conductimpulses much faster because the nerve impulses jump from each N ode of Ranvier Saltatory Conduction

Major Brain Areas:y Cerebrum:

- Surface is made from ridges (gyri) and sulci (grooves)- Fissures (deep groves) divide the hemispheres- Connected to each side via corpus callosum- S omatic sensory area receives impulses from the body s sensory receptors. Located in the parietal

lobe posterior to the central sulcus- Primary motor area sends impulses to skeletal muscles. Located in the frontal lobe- Broca s area involved in our ability to speak.- G ray Matter: ¼ inch outer layer, unmyelinated, mostly cell bodies- W hite Matter: Myelinated, fiber tracts (bundles of nerve fibers) that carry impulses to or from the

corte x , and contains the corpus callosum which connects the cerebral hemispheres and allows bothhemispheres to communicate with one another



- Lobes of the Cerebrum: Frontal : thinking and voluntary movement Parietal: interprets sensations Temporal : hearing (auditory corte x ) and smell (olfactory area) O ccipital : visual corte x (vision)

y Brain S tem:- Medulla O blongata: Controls breathing, heartrate, and blood pressure. Is a fiber tract area.- Pons: Relay center made mostly of fiber tracts. Controls breathing

- Midbrain: Controls pupil refle x , refle x es for vision and hearing. H as cerebral peduncles (conveyascending and descending impulses) and corporo quadrigemina

y D iencephalon:- Located on top of the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral hemisphere- Thalamus: Relay center for sensory impulses. Surrounds the third ventricle. Transfers impulses to the

correct part of the corte x for localization and interpretation- Epithalamus : Pineal body and choroid ple x us- Hypothalamus: Controls hunger, thirst, temperature, sleep, emotions, ADH , and o x ytocin- A lso plays an important role in the limbic system- Regulates the pituitary gland

y Cerebellum- Muscle coordination and balance- Outer corte x = gray matter- Inner corte x = white matter- Monitors what the brain s intentions are to what the body is really doing. Sends messages to correct

this if necessary.

Meninges:y Three protective connective tissue membranes that insulate the

central nervous systemy D ura Matter: outermost covering. H as two layers that are fused

together.y Arachnoid Matter: middle covering



y Pia Matter: inner covering

Cerebrospinal Fluid Flow: y W atery broth similar to its makeup to blood plasma, from which it

formsy Continually formed from blood by the choroid ple x uses clusters of

capillaries hanging from the roof of each of the brain s ventriclesy Protects the nervous tissue from traumay Flow : Lateral ventricle Third ventricle Cerebral aqueduct Fourth

ventricle Central canal of spinal cord

Blood Brain Barrier: y Separates neurons from blood borne substances allowing only water, glucose, and essential amino acids to pass

through the walls of these capillaries.y Metabolic wastes are prevented from entering the brain tissue. (urea, to x ins, proteins, drugs)y Useless against fats, respiratory gases, and other fat soluble molecules.

Electroencephalogram ( EEG ): Traces the pattern of electrical activity of neurons. Evaluates brain functioning by placingelectrodes on a patient s scalp. Measures brain waves (alpha, beta, delta, etc.) Taken as evidence for clinical death.

Nervous S ystem Malfunctions/ D isorders:y Cerebrovascular Accident (C V A): Commonly called a stroke. The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a

region of the brain. H alf body paralysis, can t talk, slurred speech, droopy eye.y Ahlzheimer s: Progressive degenerative brain disease. A bnormal protein deposits and twisted neurons. Can t

remember. D imension.y Concussion: slight brain injury, no permanent brain damage. V omiting, sleepy, dizzy, lose conscientiousness

briefly.y Contusion : Coma. N ervous tissue destruction occurs, nervous tissue does not regenerate. Unconscious.y S pina Bifida: when the vertebrae form incompletely. In serious cases, meninges, nerve roots, and parts of the

spinal cord protrude from the skin paralyzing lower limbs.y

Anencephaly: the cerebrum fails to develop resulting in a child who cannot hear, see, or process sensory inputs.y Cerebral Palsy: occurs when there s a temporary lack of o x ygen in the delivery process.

S pinal Cord: y Central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid.y Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from the brainy Major refle x centery Cushioned and protected by meningesy N o possibility of damaging the cord beyond L 3 y 31 pairs of spinal nerves

S pinal Nerves:y D orsal R ami: Serves the skin and muscles whereas they V entral R ami: Serves the muscles between the ribs and the skin and

muscles of the anterior and lateral trunk. Form comple x networks of nerves called ple x uses.

y Plexuses: Serve the motor and sensory needs of the limbs.- Cervical: (Phrenic N erves) Serves the diaphragm and muscles of

the shoulder and neck- Brachial: (A x illary, Radian, Medial, Musculocutaneous, & Ulnar

N erves) Serves the deltoid muscle of shoulder; triceps ande x tensor muscles of the forearm; the fle x or muscles of forearm



and some muscles of the hand; the fle x or muscles of the arm; and the wrist and many hand muscles.- Lumbar : (Femoral & Obturator) Lower abdomen, butt, anterior thighs, skin; the adductor muscles of the

medial thigh and small hip muscles, skin of medial thigh and hip joint.- S acral : (Sciatic, Common Fibular, Tibial, & Superior and Inferior Gluteal) : Lower trunk and posterior

surface of the thigh; lateral aspect of leg and foot; posterior aspect of leg and foot; butt muscles of hip.

Cranial Nerves:y 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head and neck.y N umbered in order, front to back.y Most are mi x ed nerves, but three are sensory only.

Cranial Nerve Classification:I. O lfactory smellII. O ptic visionIII.O culomotor motor fibers to eye musclesIV .. Trochlear motor fiber to eye musclesV . Trigeminal sensory for the face; motor fibers to chewingmusclesV I. Abducens motor fibers to eye musclesV II. Facial taste; motor fibers to the faceV II. V estibulococholear balance and hearingIX.G lossopharyngeal taste; motor fibers to the pharyn x X. V agus pharyn x , laryn x , and visceraXI.Accessory neck and upper backXII.Hypoglossal tongue

Nerve: a bundle of neuron fibers found outside the C N S.y Mixed Nerves - both sensory and motor fibers.y Afferent (sensory) Nerves - carry impulses toward the C N S.y Efferent (motor) Nerves carry impulses away from the C N S.y Endoneurium surrounds each fibery Groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by perineurium y Fascicles are bound together by epineurium

Autonomic Nervous S ystem:y S ympathetic : Mobilizes the body during e x treme situations. Fight-or-Flighty Parasympathetic : Conserves energy. Rest and D igest

Factors that are Harmful to Brain D evelopment: y Teratogens, drugs, low blood pressure, constipation, poor nutrition, depression, smoking, radiation, various

drugs, alcohol

Brain Aging:y Occurs as the aging process is enacted. H owever, it is more serious in individuals who are chronic alcoholics and

professional bo x ers.



The NervousSystem

Central NervousS ystem (CN S )

Part of the nervous system thatcontains the brain and spinal cordthat controls mind and behavior.

Sensory info comes in anddecisions come out .

Brain Spinal Cord

Peripheral NervousS ystem (PN S )

N erves in the body thatex tend outside the C N S.

Autonomic

Fight, flight, feeling, andreproductive behavior.

ParasympatheticRest, energy storage

S ympatheticA ction, energymobilization

S omaticInvoluntary movementsand sensation. Rest and

digest. Refle xes



Special SensesV ision:

y 70% of sensory receptors in the body are located in the eyey Requires the most learning

AccessoryE

yeS

tructures & Functions: y Extrinsic Eye Muscles:

- Muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye- Produce eye movements- Six total muscles

y Eyelids:- Protect the eye anteriorly- Eyelashes : Projected for further protection- Tarsal G lands : Produce oily secretion that lubricates the eye- Ciliary G lands : Modified sweat glands that lie between the eyelashes

y Conjuctiva: - Lines the eyelids and covers part of the outer surface of

the eyeball- Secretes mucus to lubricate the eyeball

y Lacriminal Apparatus:- Lacriminal G land: Release tears onto the anterior source

of the eyeball through several small ducts. Flush into- Lacriminal Canals Lacriminal Sac N asocriminal D uct

N asal Cavity- Lacriminal secretion contains antibodies and lysozyme,

enzyme that destroys bacteria, to clean and protect theeye surface

Layers of the Eye:y O utermost Tunic:

- S clera (Fibrous Tunic): Outermost protective tunic Thick, white, connective tissue W hite of the eye

- Cornea: Clear, outer covering (o x ygenated by

aqueous humor and air) Most e x posed part Light enters the eye

Contains many nerve endings mostlypain fibers Only tissue in the body that can be

transplanted to anyoney Middle ( V ascular Tunic):

- Choroid: Blood rich nutritive tunic that contains a dark pigment prevents light from scattering inside the

eye Ciliary body is where the lens is attached by a suspensory ligament called the ciliary zonule .

- Iris: Muscle which controls the size of the pupil



- Pupil: A llows light to enter

- Fovea: Focal point Creates a clear, color picture H ighest concentration of cones

y Innermost ( S ensory) Tunic:- R etina:

Contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones)y Lens: Changes shape to focus light

- Aqueous Humor: W ater fluid which provides nutrients and o x ygen to the cornea Lasts forever H elps maintain intraocular pressure Reabsorbed into the venous blood through the canal of Schlemm

- V itreous Humor: Thick fluid which maintains the shape of the eyeball Continually produced

y O ptic D isc (Nerve):- Carries the real image to the brain- N o photoreceptors

R od & Cone Functioning:y R ods : A llow us to see in gray tones in dim light and provide our peripheral visiony Cones : (D iscriminatory Receptor) A llows us to see the details in color under bright light conditions

- Three types : Blue, green, and red wavelength types

How Images Form on the R etina:y The rays of light are refracted by the lens. The greater the bulge or conve x ity of the

lens the more the light is bent. If the lens is flatter, it bends less. A t 20 feet away, thelens does not bend very much. For a close object, the lens bulges more by the ciliarybody contracting. This process is called accommodation. The image lands on the retinawhere photoreceptors process it. The image that lands is a real image which means it isreversed from left to right, upside down, and smaller than the object on the retina.

Pathway of Light:

1. Cornea2. A queous H umor3 . Through the Iris by way of the Pupil 4. Lens 5. V itreous H umor

V isual Pathway: (RN CTTO)y Photoreceptors of the retina O ptic Nerve Optic N erve crosses at the O ptic Chiasma O ptic Tracts

Thalamus V isual corte x of the O ccipital Lobe

V ision Abnormalities:y Accommodation: A bility to focus for close vision under 20 feety Astigmatism: Blurred vision, resulting from unequal curvatures of the lens or cornea y Blind S pot: A rea in your eye that lacks photoreceptors y Cataract: Clouding in the lens resulting in loss of sighty Emmetropia: N ormal 20/20 vision



y G laucoma: Condition of increasing pressure inside the eye, resulting from blocked drainage to the aqueoushumor.

y Hyperopia: Farsighted. Treat with a conve x lensy Myopia: N earsighted. Treat with a concave lensy R efraction: Light bending

Eye R eflexes:y Internal Muscles : Controlled by the autonomic nervous systemy External Muscles : Controlled by the rectus and oblique muscles (Somatic Fibers of Cranial N erves III, I V , & V I).

Control eye movements and make it possible to follow moving objects.- Convergence : Refle x ive movement of the eyes medially when we view close objects- Both eyes aim toward the object being viewed

y Photopupillary R eflex: Eyes are e x posed to bright light and pupils immediately constrict. Prevents e x cessivelybright light from damaging photoreceptors

y Accommodation Pupillary R eflex : W hen pupils constrict refle x ively when we view close objects.

Audition:y Mechanoreceptors: H earing receptors

Ear S tructures & Functions:y External Ear:

- Pinna: Collects sound waves- External Auditory Canal: Lined with

wa x /ceruminous glands to collect foreign objectsy Middle Ear:

- Tympanic Membrane : V ibrates in response tosound waves.

O ssicles : Malleus, incus, and stapes Passvibrations to cochlea

- Auditory Tube : Connects the middle ear with thethroat. A llows for equalizing pressure duringyawning or swallowing.

y Inner Ear:- Includes sense organs for hearing and balance- Filled with perilymph (plasma-like fluid)- Cochlea : 32,000 hair like receptors and perilymph- S emicircular Canals : Involved in balance,

endolymph (thicker fluid in labyrinth)- V estibule : Between semicircular canal and cochlea.

Equilibrium O rgans:y S tatic Equilibrium:

- Moves head forward and backward.- Found in vestibule- Maculae : Receptors in the vestibule that report on the position of the head and help keep head erect.

H air cells are embedded in the otolithic membrane . Otoliths float in the gel around the hair cells andmovements cause otoliths to bend the hair cells.

y D ynamic Equilibrium:- A ction of angular head movements- Found in semicircular canals- Crista Ampullaris: Receptors in the semicircular canals that \have a tuft of hair

surrounding it and a gelatinous cap called the cupula covering the hair cells.- The cupula stimulates the hair cells



- Impulse is sent via the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum

O rgan of Corti: y Located within the cochlea. Sound waves reach the cochlea through vibrations of the eardrum, ossicles, and oval

window set the cochlear fluids into motion.y Receptors : hair cells on the basilar membraney Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of bending hair cellsy Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells transmits nerve impulses to auditory corte x on temporal lobe.

Hearing Complications:y S ensorineural D eafness: Results from damage to any of the nervous system components of the ear (Organ of

Corti, Basilar Membrane, etc.) Is more permanent.- Possible Causes: D amage to cochlear nerve, blood clot in auditory corte x of brain, etc.

y Conduction Hearing Loss: Results in anything which disrupts the passage of sound waves from the outer ear tothe inner ear. Easier to correct with hearing aids.

- Possible Causes: Buildup of earwa x , ,fusion of ossicles, ruptured eardrum, otis media

How O ne is Able to Localize the S ource of S ound y Since sound typically reaches one ear before the other, it can tell what ear the sound is closest to. The

stimulation of nerves occurs later in the ear that is farther away and closer in the ear that it closest.

O lfactory:y Receptors are found in a postage stamp sized area in the superior nasal

conchaey Chemicals must be volatile in order to be detected.y Seven different smells : Peppermint, musky, camphorous, floral,

ethereal, putrid, and pungenty O lfactory Pathway : Olfactory hairs Olfactory Receptors Olfactory

N erve Olfactory Bulb Temporal Lobe of Brain

Taste:y 10,000 taste buds. Found in soft palate, tongue, and inner surface of cheeksy Tongue is covered with projections called papillae :

- Filiform Papillae: Sharp with no taste buds- Fungiform Papillae: Rounded with taste buds- Circumvallate Papillae: Large papillae with taste buds.

y G ustatory Cells: Receptors of the tongue- H ave gustatory hairs (long microvillli)- H airs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved in

salivay Impulses are carried to the gustatory complex by:

- Facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nervesy Taste S ensations:

- S weet R eceptors : Sugars, saccharine, aminoacids

- S our R eceptors : A cids- Bitter R eceptors : A lkaloids H elp detect bad

elements of body- S alty R eceptors : Metal Ions

y Factors Affecting Taste:- D epends on stimulation of olfactory receptors of aromas- Temperature- Te x ture



D evelopmental Aspects of Special S enses: y At Birth:

- Formed early in embryonic development- Eyes are outgrowths of brain- A ll special senses are functional at birth- V ision is only special sense that is not fully functional at birth

Eyes enlarge until age 8 or 9 Babies are hyperopic at birth

Baby sees only in gray tones Baby is tearless for about five months Color vision is developed at age 5

y Aging (Elderly):- Presbyopia (old vision) sets in around 40. N eed reading glasses- Susceptible to glaucoma, cataracts- Presbycusis : A trophy of the organ of Corti and an inability to hear high tones and speech sounds- A bility to taste and smell diminishes



E ndocrine SystemHormones:

y Chemical substances that are secreted by cells into the e x tracellular fluids that regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the body.

- A re produced by specialized cells-

Cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluid- Blood transfers hormones to target sights, specific tissue cells or organs that a given hormone affects

- H ormones regulate the activity of other cells

Effects Caused by Hormones:y Changes in plasma membrane permeability or electrical statey Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymesy A ctivation or inactivation of enzymesy Stimulation of mitosis

Amino-Acid Based Hormones:y Mode of Action:

- H ormone binds to a membrane receptor- Sets off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme- Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second messenger molecule

y Include : Proteins, peptides, and amines

S teroids:y Cholesterol basedy Mode of Action:

- D iffuse through the plasma membrane of target cells- Enter the nucleus- Bind to a specific protein within the nucleus

- Bind to specific sites on the cell s DNA - A ctivate genes that result in synthesis of new proteins

y Include : Sex hormones made by the gonads (ovaries and testes) andhormones made by the adrenal corte x

How Endocrine G lands S timulatedy Many hormones can be secreted in response to environmental stimuli like a change in heat or light for e x ample,

when melatonin is released by the pineal gland which regulates the sleep/wake cycle by the amount of light inthe environment

y Changes in concentration of e x tracellular ions or nutrients for e x ample, If glucose concentration in the blood ishigh, insulin is secreted

y N erve impulse can also release endocrine chemicals for e x ample muscle contraction stimulates the release of acetylcholine

y Other hormones can also simulate the release of chemicals. For e x ample, secretion of human gonadotropinreleasing hormone (hGnR H ) by the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete follicle stimulatinghormone (FS H ) and luteinizing hormone (L H )

Negative Feedback Mechanisms: y The chief means of regulating blood levels of nearly all hormones. H ormone secretion is triggered by some

internal or e x ternal stimulus



y Rising hormone levels inhibit further hormone release (even whilepromoting responses in their target organs)

y Blood levels of many hormones vary only within a narrow range because of this. N eed to maintain homeostasis

Endocrine G lands:y Formed from epithelial tissuey D uctless Glands : Produce hormones that they might release into the

blood or lymph.y V ery rich blood supplyy Pituitary:

- Size of a grape- H angs by a stalk from the hypothalamus- Protected by the sphenoid bone- H as two functional lobes- Anterior pituitary glandular tissue

G rowth Hormone: General metabolic hormone; Majoreffects are directed to growth of skeletal muscles andlong bones; Causes amino acids to be built into proteins;Causes fats to be broken down for a source of energy

Prolactin (P

RL): Stimulates and maintains milk production following childbirth, and unction inmales is unknown

Thyroid S timulating Hormone (T S H): Influences growth and activity of the thyroid Adrencorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal corte x G onadotropic Hormones: Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads

y Follicle-S timulating Hormone (F S H)- Stimulates follicle development in ovaries- Stimulates sperm development in testes

y Luteinizing hormone ( LH)- Triggers ovulation- Causes ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum- Stimulates testosterone production in males- Referred to as interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICS H )

- Posterior pituitary nervous tissue Is N OT an endocrine gland because it does not make the peptide hormones it releases. It simply

acts as a storage area for hormones made by hypothalamic neurons. O xytocin: Stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor; Causes milk ejection Antidiuretic Hormone (A D H): Can inhibit urine production; In large amounts, causes

vasoconstriction leading to increased blood pressure (vasopressin)y Thyroid:

- Located at the base of the throat- Consists of two lobes joined by an isthmus- Composed of hollow structures called follicles which store sticky colloidal material.

- Thyroid Hormone: Contains thyro x ine and triiodothyronine. Controls the rate at which glucose isox idized and converted to body heat and chemical energy. A lso important for normal tissue growth anddevelopment in the reproductive and nervous systems.

Thyroxine: Secreted by thyroid follicles. H as four bound iodine atoms. Triiodothyronine: Formed at target tissues by conversion of thyro x ine to triiodothyronine. H as

three bound iodine atoms.- Calcitonin : D ecreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium to be deposited in the bones. Is made by C

cells found in connective tissue between the follicles. IT is releases directly to the blood in response toincreasing levels of blood calcium.

y Parathyroid:- Located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland.



- Usually 2 glands on each thyroid lobe (Total of 4)- Secrete Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Most important regulator of calcium ion homeostasis of the blood.- W hen blood calcium levels are low, the parathyroid release PT H to stimulate bone destruction cells to

break down bone matri x and release calcium into the bloody Adrenal:

- Curve over the top of the kidneys. Is structurally and functionally two endocrine organs in one- Contains glandular (corte x ) and neural (medulla) tissues/parts.- Adrenal Cortex: Produces three major groups of steroid hormones called corticosteroids.

Mineralocorticoids: Produced by the outermost adrenal corte x cell layery Important for regulating the mineral (salt) content of the blood. Especially

concentrations of sodium and potassium ionsy Regulate electrolyte and water balances in the bodyy Ex . A ldosterone

G lucocorticoids: Promote normal cell metabolism and help the body resist long-term stressorsy D ecrease edema, reduce pain by inhibiting molecules called prostaglandinsy Released from the adrenal corte x in response to rising blood levels of ACTH y Ex . Cortisone and cortisol

S ex Hormonesy Ex . A ndrogens and estrogens

- Adrenal Medulla: D evelops from a knot of nervous tissue. Release catecholamines. Epinephrine ( A drenaline) N orepinephrine ( N oradrenalin) Increase heart rate, blood pressure, and blood-glucose levels More o x ygen and glucose in the

blood and faster circulation of blood to the body organs Cause alarm stage W ork with glucocorticoids for fight-flight and burn-out response

Pituitary-Hypothalamus R elationship:y Release of hormones is controlled by releasing and inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamusy H ypothalamus produces two hormones that are transported to neurosecretory cells of the posterior pituitaryy The posterior pituitary is not strictly an endocrine gland, but does release hormones

Exocrine G lands:y Release products at the body s surface/body cavities via ductsy Pineal:

- Found in the roof of the third ventricle of the brain- Melatonin : Sleep trigger that play an important role in establishing day-night cycle. A lso helps

regulate the reproductive system and growth.y Thymus G lands:

- Located in the upper thora x posterior to the sternum- D ecreases in size as we age- Thymosin : D uring childhood the thymus acts as an incubator for the maturation of a special group of

white blood cells that are important in the immune response. Role is immunity!y Pancreas:

- Contains many small islets- Insulin:

H igh levels of glucose in the blood stimulate the release of insulin from the beta cells Insulin is necessary for the use of glucose y the body cells. W ithout it, no glucose can get into

the cells to be used.- G lucagon:

A cts as an antagonist of insulin and helps to regulate blood glucose levels. Release from alphacells that are stimulated by low blood levels of glucose



y G onads (Testes & O varies):- O varies : A lmond sized organs located In the pelvis (females)- D o not begin to function until puberty

Estrogens : stimulate the development of the secondary se x characteristics in females. W orkwith progesterone to prepare the uterus to receive a fertilized egg. A lso help maintainpregnancy and prepare the breasts to produce milk.

Progesterone : A cts with estrogen to maintain the menstrual cycle. Controls the muscles duringa pregnancy so the baby develops safely as well as preparing the breasts for lactation.

- Testes : Located in the scrotum Testosterone: Causes development of the male se x characteristics. Promotes the growth andmaturation of the reproductive system organs and prepares them to reproduce A lso physicalgrowth developments (hair, etc.). Is necessary to continue production of sperm. Testosteroneproduction is stimulated by L H

y Hypothalamus : A nother e x ocrine gland.- The hypothalamus is the master control center of the endocrine system.- The brain (hypothalamus) receives information from the internal and e x ternal environment and

responds to these conditions with appropriate nervous system or endocrine signals.- It sends signals that directly control the pituitary gland, with in turn secretes hormones.- Release of hormones is controlled by releasing and inhibiting hormones produced in the hypothalamus.- The hypothalamus produces two hormones that are transported to neurosecretory cells of the posterior

pituitary.

How Hormones Promote Body Homeostasis:y Maintaining homeostasis is vital to life.y One of the ways that homeostasis is maintained is through the regulation of the endocrine system.

- Ex . The thyroid regulates energy consumption, protein production and calcium in the blood. A nothere x ample is maintaining glucose and insulin levels. If glucose concentration in the blood is high, insulin issecreted.

Pathological Consequences of Hypersecretion and Hyposecretion:y Addison s disease: a generalized hyposecretion of all the adrenal corte x hormones. Muscles weaken,

hypoglycemia, burnout, immune system suppressiony Masculinization: hypersecretion of se x hormones in males or females resulting in more manly hair patterns, and

other things.y Hypersecretion of catecholamines leads to rapid heartbeat, high blood pressure, tendency to perspire and be

very irritable.y Pituitary D warfism: hyposecretion of G H . Little people.y G igantism: hypersecretion of G H . Big people.y Hyposecretion of FSH or LH leads to sterility.y D iabetes Insipidus: hyposecretion of ADH . Ex cessive urine output.

Effects of Aging & Body Homeostasis on the Endocrine S ystem:y The ovaries begin to decline causing menopause. Estrogen deficiency problems commonly arise, like

arteriosclerosis and osteoporosis. Fatigue, nervousness, mood changes, etc.y Men don t have a dramatic change. Endocrine system efficiency declines.



Hormones of the Endocrine System G land &

HormonesLocation Functions Hyposecretion (-) Hypersecretion (+)

Anterior Pituitary G landG rowth

Hormone

H angs fromhypothalamus

- Targets skeletalmuscles

D warfism Gigantism

Prolactin- Stimulates breast milk

formationN o milk

productionEx cessive milk production when

not pregnantLuteinizingHormone

- Triggers ovulation andtestosterone

SterilityFrequent ovulations with multiple

eggsFollicle

S timulatingHormone (F S H)

- W omen : Eggs- Men : Sperm

Sterility N one

ThyroidS timulating

Hormone (T S H)

- Growth/activity of thethyroid gland

Underactivethyroid = lowmetabolism

Overactive thyroid = highmetabolism

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone

(ACTH)

- Regulates the adrenalgland

D iseases of theadrenal gland

D iseases of the adrenal gland

Posterior Pituitary G land

O xytoxin

H angs fromhypothalamus

- Uterine contractionsreleased during labor

Prevents milkejection and

causes abnormallabor

Prostate problems in men

AD H - Conserves body water

D iabetesInsipidus: Frequenthypotonicurination

H igh water pressure fromabsorbing too much water

Thyroid

Thyroxine Base of throat- Controls the rate of

metabolism

- W eight gain- Fatigue- Mental

retardation

- H igh metabolic rate- G rave s D isease: Ex tremely thin

and very nervous

Parathyroid

ParathormoneOn top of the

thyroid

- Increases bloodcalcium levels

Low blood calciumlevels muscle

crampingMassive bone destruction

Calcitonin- D ecreases blood

calcium levelsH igh blood

calcium levelsD ecrease in blood calcium

Muscle crampingAdrenal Cortex

MineralCorticoids

Located on topof the kidneys

- D etermines whatminerals are

ex creted/kept

Addison sD isease: Muscles

weaken,hypoglycemia,

burnout, immunesystem

suppression

H igh blood pressure

G lucocorticoids - Long term stressors H ypoglycemiaMoon Face Buffalo Hump:

Ex cessive water and sodium areretained in the blood



Adrenal MedullaEpinephrine

Located on topof the kidneys

- Increase bloodpressure, blood glucose

levels, etc.- Fight-or-Flight

- Low heart rate,no rapid responseto fight-or-flight

stimuli

Ex cessively rapid beating heart,high blood pressure, over-

perspiration, irritabilityNorpepinephrine

Pancreas

Insulin Close to thestomach

- Reduces blood sugarlevels

D iabetes Mellitus: N ot enough

insulin releaseand/or the body

doesn t react

InsulinS

hock: D

izzy, loseconsciousness, coma

G lugacon - Raises blood sugarLow blood sugar

levelsToo much sugar in the blood

Pineal

MelatoninRoot of the

third ventricle

- Biological rhythms- Sleep cycle

- FertilityInsomnia Sleepy/ D rowsy

Thymus

Thymosin Located in themediastinum

-H

elps T-cellmaturation- Programs lymphocytes

A ffects the

immune systemby making it less

effective

N one

O varies

Estrogen

Located in thepelvis

- D evelopment of secondary se x characteristics

- Stimulates uterinelining growth

- D ifficultyconceiving- Unfertile

- Frequent menstrual cycles

Progesterone

- Maintains menstrualcycle

- Promotes growth of uterine lining

Testes

TestosteroneLocated in the

scrotum

- D evelopment of malesecondary se x characteristics

- Sterility - Enhanced male growth



R eproductive System

Male R eproductive S ystem:y Testes : Fibrous connective tissue that has 2 coverings :

- Tunica Albuginea : Capsule that surrounds each testis- S epta: Ex tensions of the capsule that e x tend into the testis and

divide into lobules. Each lobule contains 1-4 seminiferous tubules. They are :

tightly coiled structures, function as sperm forming factories,and empty sperm into the rete testis.

Sperm travels through the rete testis epididymis. Interstitial cells produce androgens such as testosterone.

y D uct S ystem:- Epididymis : Comma-shaped, tightly coiled tube. Is found on the superior part of the testis along theposterior lateral side.

Functions to mature and store sperm cells for at least 20 days Ex pels sperm with the contraction of muscles in the epididymis walls of the vas deferens.

- D uctus D eferens: Carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct. Passes through the inguinalcanal and over the bladder.

Moves sperm through peristalsis. Spermatic cord ductus deferens, blood

vessels, and nerves in a connective tissuesheath.

- Urethra: Ex tends from the base of the urinarybladder to the tip of the penis. Carries BOT H spermand urine. Sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct

Regions of the Urethra : y Prostate Urethra: Surround the

prostatey Membranous Urethra: From prostate

urethra to penisy S pongy (Penile) Urethra: Runs the

length of the penisy Accessory O rgans:



- S eminal V esicle: Located in the base of the bladder. It produces a thick, yellowish secretion (60% of semen)

Sperm Contains : Fructose (sugar), vitamin C, prostaglandins, other substances that nourish andactivate sperm

- Prostate G land: Encircles the upper part of the urethra. Secretes a milky fluid. H elps to activate sperm Enters the urethra through several small ducts

- Bulbourethral G land: Pea-sized gland inferior to the prostate.Produces a thick, clear mucus.

Cleanses the urethra of acidic urine Serves as a lubricant during se x Secreted into the penile urethra

y External G enitalia:- Penis : D elivers sperm into the female reproductive tract. Regions

of the penis include : Shaft, glans penis (enlarged tip), prepuce (foreskin)

Often removed for circumcisions- S crotum : D ivided sac of skin outside the abdomen. Maintains

testes at 3° C lower than normal body temp to protect spermviability

Pathway of Sperm:Seminiferous Tubules Rete Testis Epididymus D uctus D eferens E jaculatory D uct Urethra

Meiosis:y A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each with half

the chromosome number of the parent cell

S permatogenesis: y The production or development of mature spermatozoa

S tructure and Function of S perm:y The sperm cell has three basic parts.y The head contains the DNA to be injected into the ovum and also has

chemotatic receptors for navigation towards the ovum.y The Tail is at the other end and is a single flagella in healthy cells. This

structure flips and twists in such a way as to propel the cell along.y Finally between the two is the body of the cell which contains si x

mitochonria to power the movement of the flagella. It is the joint

between the body and the head that is broken during fertilization sothat none of the mitochondria are from the father.

y The other structure in the mature sperm that plays a critical role infertilization is the acrosome.

y A crosome releases enzymes that helps the sperm enter the egg

FS H & LH on the Testes:y FSH enhances the production of androgen-binding protein by

the Sertoli cells of the testes and is critical for spermatogenesis.y LH stimulates Lydig's cells to produce testosterone hormone



Female R eproductive S ystem:y O varies: Composed of ovarian follicles (sac-like structures). Supported by suspensory, ovarian, and broad

ligaments. Contains : - Oocyte : - Follicular Cells: Stages include :

Primary Follicle: Contains an immature oocyte G raafian ( V esicular Follicle): Growing follicle with a

maturing oocyte O vulation: W hen the egg is mature the follicle

ruptures. Occurs about every 28 days. The rupturedfollicle is transformed into corpus luteum

y D uct S ystem:- Uterine Tubes (Fallopian Tubes): Receives the ovulated

oocyte and is a site for fertilization. Fimbriae : Finger like projections at the distal end that

receive the oocyte. Cilia inside the uterine tube slowlymove the oocyte towards the uterus.

A ttaches to the uterus D oes not physically attach to the uterus Supported by the broad ligament

- Uterus : Located between the urinary bladder and rectum. It is ahollow organ that functions to :

Receive, retain, and nourish a fertilized egg. R egions : Body (Main portion); Fundus ( A rea where uterine tube enters); Cervi x (N arrow outlet

that protrudes the vagina) W alls : Endometrium (Inner layer that allows for implantation of the fertilized egg. Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs); Myometrium (Middle layer of smooth muscle); Serous Layer (Outervisceral peritoneum)

- V agina : Ex tends from the cervi x to the e x terior of body. Is behind the bladder and in front of the rectum. Serves as the birth canal Receives the penis during se x Hymen : Partially closes the vagina until it is ruptured, usually through se x .

y External G enitalia:- Mons Pubis: Fatty area overlying the pubis symphysis. Is covered with pubic hair after puberty



- Labia: Skin folds that include the majora (outside) and minora(inside)

- V estibule: Enclosed by the labia majora and contains theopening of the urethra and the greater vestibular glands(produce mucus)

- Clitoris: Contains erectile tissue that corresponds to the penis.

Female R eproductive S ystem:y Female reproduction begins during puberty and ends in their fifties or

beforey Total supply of eggs is present at birthy Reproductive ability ends around menopausey Oocytes are matured in developing ovarian follicles

Functions:Follicle: Contain immature eggs called oocytes surrounded by layers of follicle cells.

y A s the developing egg within a follicle begins to ripen or mature, the follicle enlarges and develops the antrum .y A fter it develops the antrum it becomes a vesicular ( G raafian) follicle where the developing egg is ready to be

ejected into the ovary ovulation y

A fter ovulation, the ruptured follicle is transformed into the corpus luteum , which eventually degenerates.y The function of the corpus luteum is to produce progesterone in the presence of L H . Stops producing hormones

10-14 days after ovulation

W alls of the Uterus:y Endometrium: Inner layer of the mucosa. If fertilization occurs, the fertilized egg implants into the Endometrium

and resides there for the rest of its development.y Myometrium: Middle layer of the uterus. Composed of smooth muscles and plays an active role in delivering

babies by contracting rhythmically to force the baby out of the mother s body.y Perimetrium: Outer most layer.

Phases of the Menstrual Cycle:y Cyclic changes of the Endometrium because of hormone shifts in the bodyy Regulated by cyclic production of estrogens and progesteroney S tages:

- Menses: D ays 1-5.Functional layer of the Endometrium is sloughedand period occurs

- Proliferative S tage: D ays 6-14. Regeneration of functional layer.Rising levels of estrogen

- S ecretory S tage: D ays 15-28. Endometrium increases in size andreadies for implantation. Rising levels of progesterone by corpusluteum. If the woman is not pregnant, the cycle restarts at menses.

O ogenesis:y O ogenesis : Cell division that occurs in the ovaries to produce female

gametes (se x cells)y O ogonia (female stem cells) multiply to increase their number by undergoing

mitosis to producey Primary O ocytes : Push into the ovary connective tissue where they become

surrounded by cells that form primary follicles in the ovary. The oognia nolonger e x ists by the time of birth.

y First meiotic division produces 2 cells that are dissimilar in size. Larger one isthe secondary oocyte and the smaller cell is the polar body



y S econd meiotic division occurs if the secondary oocyte is penetrated by a sperm to produce another polar bodyand an ovum. Result = 1 functional ovum and three tiny polar bodies that deteriorate quickly

Hormones in the O varian Cycle:y Follicle S timulating Hormone (F S H): Stimulates a small

number of primary follicles to grow and mature each month.H elp maintain the ovarian cycle. A lso helps the primaryoocyte replicate its hormones and begin meiosis.

y Luteinizing Hormone ( LH): H elps trigger ovulation to begin.A lso triggers the ruptured follicle to change into the corpusluteum (glandular structure)

Fertilization:y Fertilization: the fusion of the nuclear material of an egg and

spermy Zygote: the fertilized ovum. Produced by the union of two

gametes.

Implantation:y

The blastocyst attaches itself to the endometrium and starts to erode it so it can be embedded in the mucosa.y A s this is happening, the three germ layers are being formed in the cell.y The uterine mucosa grows over the cell after about 14 days.y Chorionic villi grow from the trophoblast to cooperate with the uterine tissues to form the placenta.

Embryo vs. Fetus:y Embryo: the first 9 weeks of pregnancy.

- The building blocks are set. A lot of cell division occurs. D evelopmental stage from the start of cleavageuntil the ninth week

- The embryo first undergoes division without growth- The embryo enters the uterus at the

16-cell state- The embryo floats free in the uterus temporarily- Uterine secretions are used for nourishment

y Fetus: after 9 weeks.- Unborn baby. Growth and organ specialization are key to this stage.- A ll organ systems are formed by the end of the eighth week- A ctivities of the fetus are growth and organ specialization- A stage of tremendous growth and change in appearance

Functions of the Placenta:y The placenta forms a barrier between the baby and the mother that blood cannot transfer through.y It delivers nutrients and o x ygen.y It removes waste from the blood of the embryo.y It takes over for the corpus luteum and produces the hormones necessary for the baby including estrogen,

progesterone, and others.

How Pregnancy Affects the Body:y uterus enlarges y the lumbar curvature widen y Rela x in production creates rela x ment of the pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis y morning sickness due to progesterone, heartburn because of organ crowding



y constipation because the digestive tract declines in motility y kidneys produce more urine because it is filtering more y uterus compresses bladder y nasal mucosa becomes swollen and congested y vital capacity and respiratory rate increase y body water rises y blood volume increasesy blood pressure and pulse increase y varicose veins common

y .

How Labor is Initiated:y Estrogen levels risey uterine contractions beginy The placenta releases prostaglandinsy Ox ytocin is released by the pituitary gland

Three S tages of Labor:y D ilation - cervi x becomes dilated, uterine contractions begin and increase, the amion breaks (water broke)y Expulsion - infant passes through the cervi x and vaginay Placental S tage: delivery of the placenta

Agents that Interfere with Normal Fetal D evelopment:y D rugs, smoking, poor nutrition, alcohol

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CIS Human Anatomy Exam Four Study Guide