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al 176 (2008) 200–208

Forensic Science Internation

Cigarette burns in forensic medicine

Maria Faller-Marquardt, Stefan Pollak *, Ulrike Schmidt

Institute of Legal Medicine, University Hospital of Freiburg, Albertstrasse 9, 79104 Freiburg, Germany

Received 5 June 2007; received in revised form 30 July 2007; accepted 11 September 2007

Available online 31 October 2007

Dedicated to Prof. P. Saukko on the occasion of his 60th birthday.

Abstract

Skin lesions suspected to have been caused by a burning cigarette require thorough diagnostic evaluation as to the mode of infliction. Accidental

cigarette burns must be differentiated from injuries due to self-infliction or maltreatment. The typical categories are presented on the basis of the

literature and exemplary cases from the authors’ own study material. An intentional infliction must be taken into consideration when a body region

is involved which does not normally come into contact with a cigarette by chance. Full thickness burns from glowing cigarettes require an exposure

time of more than 1 s. One should also keep in mind the possibility of confusion with local skin infections or thermal effects by traditional medical

practices (e.g. moxibustion). In unclear cases, repeated inspection of the lesion is recommended in order to facilitate its classification as to

causation and age. The courses of healing in first- to third-degree cigarette burns are demonstrated by means of continuous photographic

documentation. The discussion deals with different kinds of accidental and intentional cigarette burns, e.g. in drug addicts, psychiatric patients,

victims of child abuse, maltreatment and torture, but also in persons feigning a criminal offence.

# 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cigarette burn; Child abuse; Self-inflicted injury; Torture; Maltreatment; Clinical forensic medicine

1. Introduction

In forensic practice, cigarette burns are seen in many

contexts and with different relevance. It is particularly

important to identify those cases in which the lesions were

either inflicted as a special form of maltreatment or with the

intention to simulate a criminal assault. When the persons

involved are not able or not willing to give a plausible

explanation as to the origin and time of the injury, the diagnosis

has to be established on the basis of the morphological criteria.

Pounder [1] gives a brief overview of the fundamental

aspects of cigarette burns: ‘‘Burns from cigarettes are of the

expected size, round and punched out. To produce cigarette

burns requires firm contact for some seconds and cannot occur

simply as the result of an accidental dropping of a cigarette, or

brushing against one. A cigarette burn implies deliberate

infliction, more obviously so when multiple burns are present.

* Corresponding author at: Institute of Legal Medicine, Albertstrasse 9,

D-79104 Freiburg, Germany. Tel.: +49 761 203 6854; fax: +49 761 203 6858.

E-mail address: legalmed@uniklinik-freiburg.de (S. Pollak).

0379-0738/$ – see front matter # 2007 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.09.006

They may be seen in victims of child abuse, torture in custody,

inter-prisoner violence, self-harm in individuals with low self-

esteem and personality disorders. Whether fresh injuries or

old scars, cigarette burns seen at autopsy always raise serious

concerns which demand further investigation.’’ It goes

without saying that this applies to clinical forensic medicine

as well.

2. Fundamentals

2.1. Physical and pathophysiological requirements of

burns

For a better understanding of cigarette burns it seems

reasonable to outline the basics of thermal damage to the skin

first.

The degree of a local heat damage depends on the contact

temperature, the duration of exposure [2] and the affected skin

region [3]. In contact burns, further parameters of burn severity

are whether they are caused by a metallic or non-metallic hot

object and moist or dry heat, which is apparent from the

coefficient of thermal conductivity. Dry heat requires an

M. Faller-Marquardt et al. / Forensic Science International 176 (2008) 200–208 201

essentially longer exposure time than moist heat to cause a burn

of comparable intensity at the same temperature [4].

Experimental animal studies conducted by Price et al. [5]

already demonstrated that skin and subcutaneous tissue are

extraordinarily effective heat insulators. Even the hot jet

flame in a gasoline-oxygen explosion (temperature about

3000 8C) brings about only a moderate increase in skin

temperature due to the very short exposure time of

approximately 0.5 s (47.5 8C at a depth of 1 mm and 42 8Cat a depth of 1.5 mm). In such flash burns, the surface of the

corneal layer may be charred without any major temperature

increase in the basal layer of the epidermis. An effect of

100 8C for 0.1 s does not yet cause an increase in temperature

at the dermis/fat interface [6]. The critical temperature for

clinically relevant tissue damage ranges between 50 and

55 8C [4,7]. The epidermis of an adult on the palms and soles

is about 1 mm thick compared with an average thickness of

50 mm and a maximum thickness of 200 mm in the other body

regions [8]. The thickness of the dermis varies between

400 mm and more than 2000 mm [9].

Depending on the body region and the ambient temperature,

the skin temperature ranges between 16 and 38 8C. In the

superficial layers of the epidermis, heat is mainly transferred by

conduction, whereas in the deeper tissue layers convective

transport with the blood stream predominates. The heat

capacity of the epidermis is greater than that of the dermis

and the subcutaneous fat. The thermal conductivity is lower in

the epidermis than in the corium and subcutaneous tissue. As a

consequence, heat saturation in the epidermal layer precedes

the slightly delayed heat transfer to the dermis [10].

2.2. Reflex time

The warm receptors of the skin have a maximal rate of

discharge around 40 8C [11]. With temperatures above 45 8C,

the sensation of heat in the skin is mediated jointly by both pain

and paradoxical cold impulses [12]. Heat pain causes two kinds

of sensation: a fast pricking pain and a slow burning pain. The

difference in quality between these will be known to anyone

who has inadvertently stepped into an excessively hot bath. The

initial response is to withdraw the affected foot quickly, but an

intense pain slowly develops which is also slow to subside. The

A-delta nerve fibres of the cold receptors and the fast pricking

pain nerves have a conduction velocity of 5–30 ms�1, the slow

burning pain is relayed by C-fibres with a conduction velocity

of 0.5–2.0 ms�1. The fast pricking pain triggers the reflex

withdrawal of the affected body region from the source of

injury. In the efferent alpha-motoneurons of the protective

reflexes the conduction velocity amounts to 70–120 ms�1 [11].

Provided that mobility is not impaired, the intense pain stimulus

caused by heat thus results in powerful withdrawal of the

exposed body part in a fraction of a second.

2.3. Burn severity

Cigarette burns show the same characteristics as larger burns

on a smaller scale. The nomenclature used in the following is

therefore based on the common classification of burns into three

degrees [3,4,13]:

1. F

irst degree: Superficial burn similar to a sunburn. The skin

is erythematous due to vasodilation, painful for 2–3–4 days

and may show local oedema. It heals in 5–10 days without

scarring. Sometimes hyperpigmentation is seen, which fades

within months.

2. S

econd degree: Partial thickness burn (of the epidermis and

the outer layer of the dermis). Very painful erythema with

blister formation. If the blister bursts, the wound may

become infected. The injury heals slowly within 2–3 weeks

with pigmentation, but no scarring.

3. T

hird degree: Full thickness burn (of the epidermis and the

dermis). Lesions show either blister formation or a dry, pale

or brownish leathery appearance without blisters due to heat

coagulation of the tissue. The fresh injury is anaesthetic.

Painful, itching sensations occur only as the wound heals.

The initial formation of a brown eschar is followed by

progressive scarring. Healing of the lesion takes 6–8 weeks

or sometimes even months, if the wound becomes infected

[1].

3. Clinical course of healing

When evaluating lesions in living persons, repeated

inspection may be advisable if the circumstances are unclear.

For a better understanding of the healing process in cigarette

burns the findings in the three cases described below have been

observed continuously over a long period of time.

3.1. Case 1

A 72-year-old, right-handed, alcohol- and nicotine-depen-

dent male with episodes of paranoia had inflicted a total of 31

cigarette burns on the extensor sides of his own forearms falsely

claiming to have suffered them during an assault. The first

forensic examination was performed 16 h after the incident and

the healing process could be documented over 4 months

(Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: L

eft forearm with 17 s- to third-degree

burns 10–13 mm in diameter.

16 h, Fig. 1(a): F

luid-filled burn blisters with 2 mm wide

hyperaemic rim; where a blister burst, its

base is moist, shining and honey-coloured.

36 h, Fig. 1(b): I

ntact blisters unchanged, exposed dermis

parched yellowish-brown, no inflamma-

tory reaction.

1 week, Fig. 1(c): L

oss of the blister surface, shallow wound

craters with brownish scab and intense

inflammatory reaction at the periphery.

The injured person had treated the burns

with salt water and spirits for disinfection.

2 weeks, Fig. 1(d): I

ncipient granulation tissue with radial

tension wrinkles. Brownish dermis. Whit-

ish residues of medical treatment with an

Fig. 1. Self-inflicted cigarette burns (second and third degree) on the extensor side of the left forearm (cf. Case 1): (a) 16 h; (b) 36 h; (c) 1 week; (d) 2 weeks; (e) 3

weeks; (f) 8 weeks.

M. Faller-Marquardt et al. / Forensic Science International 176 (2008) 200–208202

ointment. Inflammatory marginal zone.

Meanwhile fever and chills had occurred.

3 weeks, Fig. 1(e): P

rogressive granulation from the wound

periphery inward, marked radial structure

of the newly formed epidermis, yellowish

dried secretion in the wound centres,

strong inflammatory peripheral redness.

4 weeks: L

esions almost completely covered by

reddish granulation tissue growing from

the periphery towards the centre with a

residual ulcer.

6 weeks: C

ompletely epithelialized burns with

silvery surface surrounded by a brownish

rim. Inflammatory reaction has subsided.

8 weeks, Fig. 1(f): B

rownish foci with a silvery sheen on the

surface. This finding remained constant

until the end of the observation period

(week 16).

3.2. Case 2

A 50-year-old woman intentionally inflicted three cigarette

burns on her left arm in order to attract attention. The healing

process was documented from 1 h to 4 months after the

incident. The injuries were not treated with any therapeutic

substances (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: F

lexor side of the left forearm with three

lesions after contact with a burning

cigarette (brushing against it or slight

contact for several seconds). Retro-

spectively, the changes could be classi-

Fig. 2. Self-inflicted cigarette burns (first-, second-, and third-degree) on the flexor side of the left forearm (cf. Case 2): (a) 1 h; (b) 19 h; (c) 3 days; (d) 4 days; (e) 7

days; (f) 15 days; (g) 22 days; (h) 4 weeks; (i) 5 weeks; (j) 6 weeks; (k) 4 months.

M. Faller-Marquardt et al. / Forensic Science International 176 (2008) 200–208 203

fied as first-, second- and third-degree

burns.

1 h, Fig. 2(a): W

here the cigarette brushed against the

skin, a reddish, comma-like stripe a few

millimetres in length is discernible. The

two other lesions demonstrate a whitish,

dry centre with a reddish margin. No

blister formation yet. The centre of the

third-degree burn is anaesthetic.

19 h, Fig. 2(b): T

he brushing lesion shows minor con-

comitant reddening. The second-degree

burn shows significant and the third-

degree burn minor formation of blisters,

each with a narrow red rim.

3 days, Fig. 2(c): T

he blister formation is equally intense

in the second- and third-degree burn.

4 days, Fig. 2(d): T

he blister cover of the second-degree

burn begins to parch. From the third-

degree burn the blister surface was

removed; a crater-like, honey-coloured,

dry base is discernible with the red rim

being more pronounced than with the

second-degree burn.

5–7 days, Fig. 2(e): P

rogressive drying of the blister cover

and formation of brownish-yellow

eschar on the blister base.

13–15 days, Fig. 2(f): T

he blister cover is completely adhering

to the lesion’s base. It has a radial

structure and shows punctiform eschar

formation at the centre. In the third-

degree burn, a dark-brown, hard, firmly

adhering eschar has formed. Both skin

lesions are surrounded by a narrow

scurfy rim. The first-degree burn has

healed apart from a minor brownish

residue.

22 days, Fig. 2(g): T

he crust of the third-degree burn has

come off. At the centre of the second-

degree burn, punctiform eschar is still

discernible encircled by a light brown

rim.

4 weeks, Fig. 2(h): B

oth burn lesions show central puncti-

form residual scabs.

5 weeks, Fig. 2(i): O

n the second-degree burn, where the

blister surface had not been removed,

there is still a crust in the centre,

whereas on the third-degree burn it has

already come off.

6 weeks, Fig. 2(j): T

he first-degree burn from the brushing

contact is no longer discernible. The

second- and the third-degree burns are

covered by a thin, radially structured

layer of skin with a silvery sheen

surrounded by a brownish rim.

4 months, Fig. 2(k): T

he second-degree burn has healed into

a round patch with brownish pigmenta-

tion and inconspicuous skin structure.

Of the third-degree burn a round,

Fig. 3. Cigarette burn (second degree) induced by accidentally brushing against the left side of the neck (cf. Case 3): (a) 2 days; (b) 3 days; (c) 4 days; (d) 16 days.

M. Faller-Marquardt et al. / Forensic Science International 176 (2008) 200–208204

brownish-white scar with a diameter of

7 mm remained, which turned comple-

tely white after a few months.

3.3. Case 3

An 18-year-old adolescent suffered a second-degree burn on

the left side of the neck when accidentally brushing against a

burning cigarette in a crowded discotheque. The injury healed

without scarring (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: L

eft side of the neck with burn lesion.

2 days, Fig. 3(a): R

oughly triangular, irregular injury,

7 mm � 11 mm in size. The residual blister

cover is still discernible (on the right). The

base shows honey-coloured dried secre-

tion; the wound surroundings are slightly

reddened due to inflammation.

3 days, Fig. 3(b): T

he lesion shows minor parching at the

edges surrounded by a red rim.

4 days, Fig. 3(c): T

he size of the skin lesion has decreased to

4 mm � 9 mm.

16 days, Fig. 3(d): L

argely healed injury with recently

removed residual eschar.

4. Discussion

4.1. Categories of infliction

In deceased or living individuals assigned for forensic

examination the question has to be answered whether injuries

were self-inflicted or caused by another person and if the

infliction was accidental or intentional. Specifically for

cigarette burns, the following categories can be distinguished:

4.1.1. Accidentally caused by another person

Case 3, in which a lighted cigarette was accidentally touched

in a crowd, is an example for this injury mode. This type of

infliction is more often seen in children when they stay near a

smoking adult and are inadvertently touched with the burning

tip of a cigarette. If this happens, the injury will be located in a

body region, which was not covered by clothing (e.g. face,

neck, hands). Burns of this type are superficial, irregular in

shape as from a brushing contact with redness, swelling and

possibly blister formation. As the exposure to the hot object is

very short and the affected limb is quickly withdrawn because

of the immediate pain reflex, no third-degree burn occurs

[13,14].

4.1.2. Accidental self-infliction

Smokers may accidentally cause up to third-degree cigarette

burns on themselves when they are in a reduced state of

consciousness or pain sensation due to intoxication. For

example drug addicts, who are usually also tobacco consumers,

often show burns on their fingers (Fig. 4) [15,16] or on other

parts of their body and the respective clothing, if they rest their

hand holding the glowing cigarette in contact with the skin.

Grose [17] reported on a patient who suffered a cigarette burn

after intravenous sedation and tumescent anaesthesia for

liposuction, when he fell asleep while smoking and the

cigarette dropped onto the still anaesthetized thigh causing a

third-degree burn.

4.1.3. Caused by another person with the intention of

maltreatment or torture

Of special importance are offences against the freedom from

bodily harm in which cigarette burns are inflicted with the

intention of maltreatment, e.g. in child abuse [2,13,18], rape

(e.g. [19]), torture [2,20,21] and inter-prisoner violence [1].

Fig. 4. Fresh cigarette burns on the middle and index fingers of a young drug

addict who died from heroin intoxication.

M. Faller-Marquardt et al. / Forensic Science International 176 (2008) 200–208 205

Such burns are mostly located in body regions typical of abuse,

e.g. on the back and the palms of the hands [18,20,22], the soles

[23], the genitals [22,24], the neck, shoulders, back and

buttocks [13,18,25], but also the forehead [26] or the chest [22].

Burns located in body regions usually clothed, protected or

inaccessible are especially suggestive of abuse (e.g. [27]).

Typical deliberately inflicted cigarette burns are sharply

defined, as is known from the contact with other hot objects

(e.g. [13,26,28–30]). A multitude of cigarette burns [13] and an

arrangement in a geometric pattern, e.g. a line or rosette

[24,26], are particularly suspect.

4.1.4. Intentional self-infliction in the context of obvious

self-injurious behaviour

Deliberately self-inflicted cigarette burns, just as multiple

shallow cuts, are often seen in cases of self-injurious behaviour

(e.g. [31]). They were reported in borderline patients [32],

individuals with low self-esteem, emotional problems (Fig. 5)

and personality disorders [1], anorexia nervosa [33] and

schizophrenia [34]. The lesions are located in easily accessible

body regions, and their distribution often depends on whether

the person is right- or left-handed. The forearms are sites of

predilection (Case 2).

Fig. 5. Scarring on the extensor side of the left forearm of a man who stubbed

out cigarettes on different occasions to cope with lovesickness.

4.1.5. Intentional self-infliction for the purpose of

simulating a criminal offence

Intentionally self-inflicted cigarette burns are sometimes

difficult to diagnose, if they were induced to simulate a criminal

offence; they may resemble abusive injuries (Case 1) [35,36].

The psychosocial personality features and the current living

situation as well as inconsistencies between the reported story

and the actual findings may help to clarify what really

happened.

4.1.6. Infliction by another person based on mutual

consent

Finally, one also has to bear in mind that cigarette burns may

be inflicted by another person by mutual agreement, for

example in so-called tests of courage and in gang initiation rites

[37].

4.2. Temperature and duration of exposure

While dragging on a cigarette, the burning tip can reach a

temperature of 600–900 8C. In the stationary burning zone

insulated by the ash, the temperature is about 400 8C and

rapidly drops below 100 8C further away from the tip [38].

Consequently, when touching the glowing cigarette contact

temperatures of 400 8C or less have to be expected. If the tip is

covered by an insulating ash coat upon contact, the temperature

is accordingly lower. This explains why in a short brushing

contact, in which the amount of heat transferred is relatively

small and the heat is rapidly dissipated, no third-degree burn

with subsequent scarring will occur.

The duration of exposure necessary to produce a third-

degree cigarette burn is significantly longer than the reflex time

for removing the limb after accidentally brushing against the

glowing tip. It can therefore be assumed that a cigarette burn

with subsequent scar formation in a person who was not

unconscious or otherwise impaired at the time of sustaining the

injury indicates deliberate infliction with an exposure time of

more than 1 s [39].

4.3. Morphology of cigarette burns

Contact with the glowing tip of a cigarette may occur by

brushing against it (Case 2 and Case 3), holding it tightly

against the skin (Case 1 and Case 2) or stubbing it out

(Fig. 5). A brushing contact causes an inhomogenous, oval or

wedge-shaped and poorly defined lesion [18,24]. Firm

contact produces a third-degree burn lesion 5–10 mm across

[22] resulting in a small circular or oval, depigmented scar

with a pigmented rim [40]. A burn injury or a scar with an

irregular rim is found when the cigarette was stubbed out on

the skin (Fig. 5) and/or when inflammatory reactions and

wound manipulations changed the lesion’s initial shape

(Case 1).

Characteristic pathognomonic details are observed in the

healing process, if the burn was caused by a contact lasting

more than 1 s and if it was allowed to heal without intervention

(Case 2). These are:

M. Faller-Marquardt et al. / Forensic Science International 176 (2008) 200–208206

- A

F

d

round or oval lesion about 5–10 mm across with a moist or

dryly coagulated base sometimes covered by a blister (Fig. 2).

- I

n a third-degree burn, blister formation occurs later than in

the second-degree burn (Fig. 2(b)).

- A

fter the blister has burst, a firm brown eschar forms (cf. Fig.

2(f)), which is displaced by granulation tissue growing from

the periphery towards the centre explaining a prolonged

presence of punctiform eschar in the centre (cf. Fig. 2(g)).

- A

fter healing, a silvery scar resembling tissue paper with

radial wrinkling remains (Fig. 2(j)).

- T

he scar is initially surrounded by a brownish rim (Fig. 2(j

and k)).

- T

he healing process is lengthy and takes several weeks.

4.4. Differential diagnosis

It goes without saying that in cases in which a cigarette burn

is suspected it is important to exclude other possible causes in

order to avoid a wrong diagnosis which may lead to an

unjustified accusation for abuse [27].

Singular lesions in blister-forming pyoderma, especially in

children (impetigo contagiosa sive bullosa, bullous impetigo),

show typical flaccid vesicles on a reddened skin filled with

initially clear, later purulent fluid. The subcorneal impetigo

vesicles rupture easily evolving into honey-coloured crusts.

Healing occurs without scar formation and may be associated

with hyperpigmentation. As this is a contagious skin infection,

it may be useful to ask for the possible infection source among

the child’s contacts [13,25,41]. Impetigo lesions heal promptly

after administration of antibiotics and can thus be distinguished

from cigarette burns.

Other singular lesions of focal pyoderma (furunculosis,

small abscesses [40], acne vulgaris, prurigo chronica, ecthyma

and insect bites) may occasionally resemble cigarette burns

(Fig. 6) (e.g. [20]) just as sharply punched-out erosions

accompanying ‘‘ammoniacal’’ diaper rash [13] and inflamed

injection marks healing with scar formation in drug consumers

using non-sterile needles.

ig. 6. Several roundish hypopigmented scars on the forearm of a 27-year old

rug addict as sequelae of localised pyoderma.

Chicken pox heal without scars or, after secondary bacterial

infection, with small, hypopigmented or hyperpigmented,

depressed or hypertrophic foci, which are mostly located on the

trunk and in the face [42]. Chicken pox should always be

included in differential diagnostic considerations [27]; the same

applies to lesions due to urticaria or acute dermatitis [14].

Scars from cigarette burns may resemble the scars produced

by small pox vaccination. Vaccination scars are typically located

on the outside of the upper arm, the forearm, thigh or buttock

[20]. The normal vaccination reaction begins on day 3–4 with the

formation of a slowly increasing papule. After about 5–6 days, a

grey vesicle develops in the centre, which changes to a pea-sized,

flat, yellow pustule with a central depression. Simultaneously, the

initially narrow red areola becomes wide and elevated. The peak

is reached between day 8 and 11. The pustule dries up from the

depression forming a brown scab, which falls off 3–4 weeks after

vaccination leaving a vague, whitish scar. Between day 6 and 11

fever usually occurs with moderate impairment of the general

well being and swelling of the axillary lymph nodes [43].

Apart from skin infections, round electric marks may also

resemble cigarette burns [20,44]. In unclear cases, it is therefore

particularly important to include the general circumstances of

the person’s life into one’s considerations.

Moreover, cigarette burns must be differentiated from burns

produced in connection with folk remedies or alternative

healing practices such as moxibustion in traditional Chinese

medicine (Fig. 7) [20,45]. It should also be taken into account

that in Japan moxibustion was used as punishment for children

in the past [46] and that branding of children with a hot metal

object was common in India as a remedy [47]. In most of these

cases, multiple singular lesions are arranged in a conspicuously

regular geometric pattern on the back. Peltier et al. [13] rightly

pointed out that even if the cause of injury is determined to be a

folk remedy, investigators should exercise caution and carefully

evaluate all circumstances surrounding the incident.

In post-mortem examinations, roundish abrasions may be

misinterpreted as cigarette burns by an inexperienced physician,

if the lesions assumed a brownish leathery appearance due to

local drying of the unprotected dermis [15]. This is especially

true for skin areas overlying bony prominences such as the

spinous processes of the vertebral column.

4.5. Medicolegal evaluation and forensic implications

Persons accused of having physically abused dependents

often give a false account of the injury’s origin or they deny that

it has been inflicted deliberately by claiming that the contact

with the cigarette was accidental or was brought about by hot

ash dropping from the tip. If the victims are unable or too

frightened to give a plausible report of the incident (e.g.

children, mentally handicapped persons, individuals in need of

care, foreigners with language problems), the origin and time of

the incident have to be determined on the basis of the

morphological findings [26].

An accidental dropping of a cigarette on to a child or a child

brushing against a lighted cigarette will cause only a very slight

superficial burn because of the short duration of exposure and the

Fig. 7. Scars on the back of a 34-year old woman resulting from moxibustion as

applied in traditional Chinese medicine.

M. Faller-Marquardt et al. / Forensic Science International 176 (2008) 200–208 207

minor intensity of the contact [13,39]. Consequently, an only

glancing contact with a lighted cigarette is not sufficient to

produce a third-degree burn, as the glowing tip is insulated by a

coat of ash [38] and its temperature decreases on firm contact

with the skin due to smothering and cooling. Moreover, the

penetration of heat is drastically reduced in the deeper skin layers

[4,5]. Last but not least, the pain reflex in a victim capable to act

would induce a powerful immediate withdrawal of the affected

body region before a full thickness burn occurs [13,14].

For comparison, measurements obtained from running over

charcoal embers, which have a temperature of 120–450 8C,

showed that even short-term peak temperatures of 200 8C at the

stratum corneum of the plantar surface do not cause burns if

exposure lasted between 0.25 and 0.8 s. Only if the heat effect

continued for more than a second, did a burning pain and in

some cases burn blisters occur, provided that the arch of the

foot, which is not covered by a thick layer of calloused skin,

came into contact with the coal or if there were hot metal parts

in it. At a lower skin temperature (cold feet) a longer exposure

time was possible [48].

The intensity and depth of the skin burn correlates with the

duration of exposure. Causing a cigarette burn with consecutive

scar formation is an act, which requires the glowing end of the

cigarette being held in firm contact with the skin for 2–3 s

[39,49] or several seconds [50]. Scars from cigarette burns can

thus be of important evidence, if victims of torture consistently

describe their infliction [50]. If maltreatment of dependents,

especially of children, is suspected, then full thickness cigarette

burns prove an intentional infliction and indicate physical abuse

[49]. They should give rise to further investigations looking for

other traces of (previous or present) bodily harm [13,51]. On the

other hand, one has to be aware of the possibility that cigarette

burns may also have been self-inflicted for different reasons.

With regard to the sequelae of the injury, it has to be taken

into account that first- and second-degree burns with reddening

and blister formation are primarily and persistently painful,

whereas in third-degree burns the nerve endings in the corium

are destroyed, which makes the hurt area insensitive to touch

and pain at first. In diagnosing and dating the age of a cigarette

burn, one has to be aware that the distinction between a second-

degree burn possibly caused accidentally and a third-degree

burn (with subsequent scar formation) can only be made on the

basis of the healing process. This means that the first

examination performed soon after the incident should be

followed by one or more further inspections until the injury has

healed. Observation over a period of 2–3 weeks will also permit

a differentiation between burn injuries and local infections [13].

References

[1] D.J. Pounder, Burns and scalds, in: J.A. Siegel, P.J. Saukko, G.C. Knupfer

(Eds.), Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, vol. 1, Academic Press,

London, 2000, pp. 326–330.

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