Chronological Table

1883 July 18g6 I March IB99

1909 1910 December 1911 September

October 1912 May

June July

October December

1913 Autumn

19I4 March

June

July-August 2 August

Birth ofMussolini. Battle of Adowa. Foundation of Fiat in Turin - most important date in Italy's industrial history.

D'Annunzio's dramatic poem about the foundation of Venice, La

Nave. Marinetti's Futurist Manifesto. Nationalist Party founded. War declared on Turkey by Giolitti's

government. Libya invaded. Occupation ofDodecanese. Suffrage greatly extended by Giolitti. Socialist Party Congress at Reggio

Emilia. Left extremists carry the day: among them Mussolini becomes prominent.

!tala-Turkish peace at Ouchy. Mussolini editor of Avanti!, the chief

Socialist Party newspaper. Election according to new voting system. Increase of Catholic, Radi­cal and Socialist representation. Six Nationalists elected.

Giolitti succeeded by· Salandra as Prime Minister.

'Red Week' in central Italy - climax of crisis between peasants and land­owners.

Outbreak of First World War. Italy declares neutrality.

1914 November

1915 April

May

1917 April 24 October­

November 30 October

1918 April

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 123

Mussolini expelled from Socialist Party: founds the Po polo d'Italia newspaper. Fasci di a;:;ione rivolu­z;ionaria formed by him and other syndicalist interventionists.

Secret Treaty of London with the Entente Powers.

D' Annunzio returns from France to be the orator of the intervention­ists.

Italy enters the war against Austria­Hungary.

U.S. enters the war.

Italian defeat at Caporetto. Orlando becomes Premier. Congress of oppressed nationalities and Pact of Rome signed by their representatives.

Late October Victory of Vittorio Veneto over Austria-Hungary.

4 November

1919 I I January

23 March

24 April

sMay 3 June

28 June 10 September

12 September

Armistice of Villa Giusti between Italy and Austria-Hungary.

Mussolini and Marinetti break up Bissolati's meeting in Milan, be­cause Bissolati wishes to be just to the Yugoslavs.

Foundation of Fasci di combattimento at Piazza San Sepolcro, Milan.

Orlando leaves the Peace Conference in Paris.

Orlando returns to Paris. Draft of Peace Treaty with Austria. Nitti succeeds Orlando as Prime

Minister. Treaty of Versailles signed. Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria signed.

D' Annunzio seizes Fiume.

II&.(. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLB

1919 November

IgaG June

July

August August~

September

September November 7 November

21 November

December

1921 January

21 April May

27 June

November

19u January

February

20 September

General Election (universal male suffrage and proportional represen· tation introduced beforehand).

Big gains for Socialists and POPO­lati.

Giolitti succeeds Nitti as Prime Minister.

Fascist squadristi bum down Slovene headquarters in Trieste.

Italians evacuate Valona in Albania.

Occupation of the factories in north. Italy.

Carta tiel CarntJrO in Fiume. Local Elections in Italy. Treaty ofRapallo with Yugoslavia. Clash at Bologna between Socialists and Fascists.

D'Annunzio expelled by Giolitti's government from Fiume.

Socialist Congress at I.,ivomo. Gramsci breaks away to found Italian Communist Party.

'Natale di Roma'. General Election. 35 Fascists elec­

ted. Giolitti resigns. Bonomi succeeds as

Prime Minister. Fascist Movement becomes Fascist

Party. Fascist Militia created to absorb

squadri[ti. ConftdertU;Wne tiel" Corporadoni Sin­

dacali created by Michele Bianchi. Pius XI elected Pope. Facta succeeds Bonomi as Prime

Minister. Mussolini in speech at Udine accepCI

the Monarchy.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 125

1922 October Socialist Unitary Party formed by moderate Socialists including Matteotti.

24~6 October Fascist Party Congress at Naples. 28 October Mussolini Prime Minister. December Foundation of Fascist Grand

Council. 1923 February Nationalists fused with Fascists.

Gentile's Educational Law. Acerbo's electoral reform.

IoJuly Sturzo resigns leadership of the Popolari.

g [ August Corfu bombarded and occupied by Italians.

27 September Italians evacuate Corfu. 1924 January Treaty of Rome with Yugoslavia

finally brings Fiume to Italy. April General Election according to

go May

IoJune I 3 June

1925 3January

November

December

u

Acerbo law. Great Fascist intimida­tion.

Matteotti's speech condemning this.

Murder ofMatteotti. Aventine Secession. Mussolini's speech assuming full responsibility.

Farinacci becomes Secretary of the Fascist Party.

Assistance for maternity and dopa­lavoro introduced.

'Battle of the grain' opened. Zaniboni's attempt on Mussolini's life.

Ministers made primarily responsible to the Duce rather than to the King.

Resignation of Contarini. Clash with Stresemann over South Tirol.

126 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

1926 April

September 31 October

November

1927 April

September

1928 January

March

1929 February March

June December

1930 November

193~

March June

September

All strikes and lock-outs forbidden. Balilla founded. Fascist calendar adopted. Bocchini Chief of Police. Zamboni's attempt on Mussolini's life.

Special Tribunal set up. Treaty with Albania. Carta di LavoTo. Treaty with Hungary. Trial of Rosselli and Parri opens at

Savona. Catholic Scouts suppressed. Gramsci condemned to twenty years' imprisonment by the Special Tri­bunal.

New electoral law abolishes normal voting.

Lateran Agreements signed. Plebiscitary 'election'. State takes over banks. Serpieri put in charge of land re­clamation till 1935.

Lateran Agreements ratified. National Council of Corporations constituted.

Mussolini subsidises Austrian Heim­wehr in Austrian elections.

Oath of loyalty demanded from all officials.

Fascist Press attacks Catholic Action. Papal Encyclical Non abbiamo bisogno attacks Fascism.

Compromise over Catholic Youth Associations.

I.M.I. founded. Starace appointed Fascist Party Secretary.

Littoria founded.

1932 June October November

1933 January

1934 February

March

June July

1935 January April October

1936 May

1937

June July

November

March June

September 1938 March

May September

November

1939 February

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 127

FascismodefinedinEndclopttlialtaliana. Decennale. Last Statute of Fascist Party. Founding ofI.R.I. Hitler German Chancellor. Civil War in Austria, Socialists suppressed.

Second plebiscitary vote. Galeazzo Ciano Under-Secretary at Press and Propaganda Office.

MussoIini's first meeting with Hitler. Murder ofDolIfuss. Laval visits Rome. Conference at Stresa. Italy attacks Abyssinia. Victor Emmanuel Emperor of Abys-sinia.

Bottai Minister of Education. Ciano Foreign Minister. Austro-German Agreement. Outbreak of Spanish Civil War. MussoIini's Axis speech in Milan. Balilla turns into GioventU Italiana del

Littorio. Battle of Guadalajara in Spain. Ministero della Cultura Popolare founded

( ='Minculpop'). Murder of Carlo Rosselli. Mussolini visits Germany. The Anschluss. Hitler visits Italy. Czechoslovak crisis and Munich Conference.

Anti-Semitic legislation introduced into Italy.

Assembly of Corporations replaces Chamber of Deputies.

Death of Pius XI. Carta della Scuola.

128 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLB

1939 March April May September

1940 June

October 1941 April

June December

194!1 April

November

1943 February

March April

May loJuly 19July 2441SJuly 26July

a September

9 September

12 September

14-15 September 23 September November

Pius XII elected Pope. Italy seizes Albania. Steel Pact. Hitler attacks Poland. Second World War. Italy declares its non-bel­ligerency.

Mussolini declares war on France and Britain.

Mussolini attacks Greece. Attack on, and partition of, Yugo­slavia.

Hitler attacks Russia. Pearl Harbor brings war with the United States.

Mussolini meets Hitler at Klessheim for first time.

Allies land in North Africa. Italians occupy Corsica.

Last 'changing of the guard'. Ciano Ambassador to Holy See.

Strikes at Turin and Milan. Mussolini again meets Hitler at Klessheim.

Allies conquer Tunisia. Allies land in Sicily. Hitler and Mussolini meet at Feltre. Grand Council meeting. Victor Emmanuel dismisses Musso­

lini. The Forty-five Days. Italy's Armistice with the Allies. Made public 8 September.

Nco-Fascist Republic declared by Hitler.

Mussolini rescued by the German S.S.

Mussolini sees Hitler at Rastenburg. Mussolini returns to Italy. Congress o{Verona.

1944 January April June 20 July

16 December 1945 28 April

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 129

Execution of Ciano and others. Third Klessheim meeting. Allies take Rome. Mussolini's last meeting with Hitler

(Rastenburg) • Mussolini's last speech at Milan. Mussolini shot.

Bibliography

Very important as original material are: I Documenti Diplomatid Italiani (D.D.I.), now covering

much of the period. Documents Diplomatiques Fratlfais (D.D.F.), published since

1964, series u. This series begins with]anuary 1935 and documc:nts Laval's visit to Rome in]anuary 1935.

Documents on British Foreign Policy, 191!)-1939 (D.B.F.P.) (H.M.S.O.).

Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918-1945 (D.G.F.P.) (H.M.S.O.).

Also: B. Mussolini, O/JeTa Omnia, ed. E. and D. Susmel (36 voIs.,

1951-63). Ciano's Diary, ed. with an introduction by M. Muggeridge

(1947)· Ciano's Diplomatic Pa/JeTs, ed. M. Muggeridge (1948). Ciano's Diary, 1937-8, trans. A. Mayor and with an intro­

duction by M. Muggeridge (1952). Covering the whole topic:

Denis Mack SInith, Italy (1959). As an introduction to Fascism in Italy:

B. Croce, A HistoryoJltaly, 1871-1915 (1929). C.]. S. Sprigge, TlzeDevelopmentoJ Modem Italy (1943). A. Rossi, The Rise oJItalianFascism (1938). Carlo Sforza, Contemporary Italy (1946). Christopher Seton-Watson, ltalyfrom Liberalism to Fascism

(1967). (This is particularly valuable.) On 1919:

R. Albrecht-Carrie, Iu.iy at the Paris Peace Conference (1938). On Fascist government and institutions:

H. Finer, Mussolini's Italy (1935). G. Salvemini, Under the Axe of Fascism (1936). S. W. Halperin, Mussolini and Italian Fascism (1964). F. Chabod, History oj Italian Fascism (1963)' S.]. Woolf (ed.), European Fascism (1968).

BIBLIOGRAPHY 131

On Church and State: D. A. Binchy, Church and State in Fascist Italy (1941). Richard Webster, Christian Democracy in Italy, 1860-1960

(1961). A. C.Jemolo, Church and State in Itary, 1850-1960 (1960).

On foreign policy: M. H. H. McCartney and P. Cremona, Italy's Foreign and

Colonial Policy 1914-37 (1938). On the German and Slav minorities:

l)ennison Rusinow, Italy's Austrian Heritage 1919-46 (196g)·

On relations with Hitler: Elizabeth Wiskemann, The Rome-Berlin Axis, 2nd ed.

(1966).

On the Ethiopian question: George Baer, The Coming rifthe Italian-Ethiopian War (1g67).

(This is not irreproachable).

First-rate on the decline and fall of Fascism but also on its earlier history: F. W. Deakin, The Brutal Friendsliip (1962). This book is a

mine of first-hand information, as Mr Deakin went through all the available Italian and German official papers and has quoted them at great length. (He also studied all the relevant diaries and memoirs.) When I refer to this book I am mostly referring to the original Italian - or German - statements.

Biographies of Mussolini - none very good in English: Sir I vone Kirkpatrick, Mussolini: Study of a Demagogue

(1964). (Not always accurate.) Laura Fermi, Mussolini (1961). (A perceptive study but

'stronger on Mussolini's personality than on his politics'. )

G. Megaro, Mussolini in the Making (1938). P. Monelli, Mussolini: an Intimate Life (1953).

On anti-Fascism: C. Delzell, Mussolini's Enemies (1g61).

132 BIBLIOGRAPHY

On opposition from within: R. Zangrandi, Illungo viaggio attraverso ilfascismo (1962).

On Fascism as a general term applied to developments differing from Fascism in Italy but originally put under this heading, in order to damn them, by the Communists: Alan Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny (1964). E. Nolte, Three Faces of Fascism (1965). (This is good

typically Germanic theorising, but shows little feeling for the Italian atmosphere.)

E. Nolte, Diefaschistischen Bewegungen (1966). (Not trans­lated and not always accurate.)

Journo.l of Contemporary History (1g66); vol. 1, no. I i's devoted to this whole theme.

H. Krausnick et al., Anatomy of the S.S. State (1968). D. Germino, The Italian Fascist Party in Power (1959). (Not

very good.) K. D. Bracher, Die t!eutsche Diktatur (1g6g). K. von Schuschnigg, 1m Kampf gegen Hitler (1g6g).

'For Spain: Raymond Carr, Spain 1808-1939 (1g66). Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War (1g61).

Important books in Italian, not translated: L. Salvatore1li and G. Mira, Storia d'It41ia nel periodo

fascista (1g64). Renzo De Felice, Mussolini il rivoludonario (1g65). - Mussolini - il conquista del potere (1g66). ·-Mussolini-ilfascista (1968). -Storia degli ebreisotto ilfascismo (1g61). A. C. Jemolo, Chiesa e Stato in It41ia negli ultimi een'" anni

(1948). (The translation is abridged.) A. Tamara, Vent'anni di Storia, 19f1!r1943 (1954). (A

Fascist on the inside and of some honesty.) G. Bottai, Vent'anni e un Giorno (1949). Italo Balbo, Diario 19!1!l (1932). G. Carocci, La Politica Estera deU'It41ia Fascista (1g69). Roberto Vivarelli, 11 Dopogu.erra in ltalia e I' Avvento del

Fascismo I918-I9flfl (1g67). L. VaIiani, La dissoludone dell' AustriIJ-UngMria (1g66).

Index

Abyssinia, 63, 78: Wal Wal incident (1934), 58; war against (1935-6), 58, 60-1, 64,69,76

Accademia d' [lalia, 44, 65, 73-4 Accademia dei Liniei, 73 Acerbo, Giacomo, 15 Action Squads, 12. See also

Squadristi, 10, II Adriatic, the, Italian claims in,

2-5, 10 Albania: pact of Tirana (1926),

51; seized by Italy (1939), 74,76

Alexander, King of Yugoslavia, 50-I

Alfieri, Dino (later Italian Ambassador in Berlin), head of ' Min cui pop', 64-5, 88

AJpenliindische Heimatwehr, 105 Ambrosio, General Vittorio, 79-

84,87 Amendola, Giovanni, 16 Ansaldo, shipbuilding firm,

subsidises Mussolini, 7, 13 Anschluss, the, 68, 103, 108 Anti-Comintern Pact, 74 Anti-Fascist influences, 47, B!r

go: within movement, 47; Party of Action, 89

Anti-Semitism, 57, 68-72, 99-100, I II-I 2, II7: change in Mussolini's attitude, 69-70; legislation against Jews, 70, 71; in eastern Europe, log­IIO

Antonescu, Marshal Ion, 113-II4

Arditi, 5, 7, 8, .3, g6 Austria: Italian relations with,

52, 56--g; Fascism and, 103-108; Heimatschutz, 103; Heim­wehr,56, 103-7; FrO'lltkiimpjer Association, clashes with Socialists (1927), 103;Catho­lie Church and anti-clerical­ism, 104; ideology of the Right, 104; Heimwehr ap­proval of corporate state, 105; Korneuburg oath (1930), 105; Heimwehr undermined by Nazis, 106; Hirtenberg affair, 106; Dollfuss sup­presses Socialists, 106; Patrio­tic Front, 106-7; civil war (1934), 57-8; murder of Dollfuss, 59; Anschluss (1938),68

Avanguardisti, 38 Avanti I, Socialist newspaper, 7 Aventine Secession, 16

Balbo, ltalo, II, 12, 14> 25: Governor of Libya, 46; death (1940 ),85

BaliUa (Fascist Youth organisa­tion),26,28,29,38,42

Bastianini, Giuseppe, 85: Under-Secretary at Foreign Office,64,7g-81

Bauer,Riccardo,46 Bethlen, Count Stephen, Prime MinisterofHung.uy,52:~ trigues with Mussolini against Austrian Socialists, 105

Bianchi, Michele, Secretary of Fascist Party, 14> 17. 22: death (1931),46

Biggini, Carlo Alberto, 86 Binchy, D. A., 28, 30

INDEX

Bi!<Solati, Leonida, 7, 8 Blum,Uon, 118 Bocchini, Arturo, Chief of

Police, 19-20, 31, 51, 64; death (1940),81,98

Boccioni, Umberto, 2 Bonomi, Ivanoe, 84: Italian

Prime Minister (1921),13 Bottai, Giuseppe, 23, 24, 45,

85, 86, go, 116: Governor of Rome (1935), 41: Minister of Education (1936), 41, 64, 65,72; and Carta della Scuola, 42; dismissed (1943), 79

Brenner frontier, Mussolini and, 55,91,97

Bucco, Mayor of Bologna, I I Buffarini-Guidi, Guido, 64, 79,

86: arrested, 87

Cagoulards (Comi/4 Secret d'Action Rlvolutionnaire), I 14

Caporetto, battle of, 3-4, 7 Carol, King of Romania, 113 Carta del Camaro (D' Annunzio),

9,21 Carta del Lavorll (Charter of

Labour), 23-'1. 36, 41, 52, 1I6, II7

Carta della Scuola, 42, 47, 73 Catholic Action (AzioM Catto­

lua ltaliana, 28-30: Fascist attack on, 29-30, 34

Catholics and Catholic Church, 121: Popolari party, 6, I I, 13, J6; Mussolini's overtures to, J2, 17-18; Catholic Scouts abolished (1928), 26, 28: F.U.C.I., 26; Lateran Agree­ments (1929), 27-30; Youth Associations condemned and reinstated (1931), 30

Cavallero, General Ugo,79 Caviglia, Marshal Enrico, 84 Chamber, 14, 15, 16,45,73 Chamberlain, Sir Austen,

friendliness towards Musso­lini,53-4

Chamberlain,Joseph, 117 Chamberlain, Neville, 72, 118 Chesterton, G. K., 115 Chierici, Renzo, Chief of Police,

81 Churchill, Winston, 81 Cianetti, Tullio, 90 Ciano,Costanzo,46,64,68,90 Ciano, Galeazzo (son of Cos-

tanzo), 70, 72, 100: marries Edda Mussolini (1930), 46; in charge of Duce's Press Office (1933), 46; Under Secretary at Press and Pro­paganda Office (1934), 46; appointed Foreign Minister (1936),63-4,99; signs Octo­ber Protocols, 65; and murder of Carlo Rosselli (1937), 67; aggressive policy, 67; speech on Italian aspirations (1938), 73; and seizure of Albania, 74; and Steel Pact, 74-5; Ambassador to the Vatican (1943), 79; executed (1944), go

Cini, Count, 24,84,100 Codreanu, Comeliu Zelea, 113 Communist Party in Italy

(P.C.I.), 1I, 20, 89, 120: formed (1921), 10; and Fiat strikes (1943), 80

Contarini, Salvatore, admini­strative head of Foreign Office, 50, 51, 99: forced out of office (1926), 54

Corfu, Italian occupation of (1923),50 ,53

Corporations and Corporative State, 23-5: development of, 24; National Council of, 24, 73; General Assembly, 24, 45,47

Corradini, Enrico, 2 Critica, La, Croce's review, 44-CriticaF ascirta, Bottai's review, 4 I Croce, Benedetto, 46, 65, 67:

criticism of Fascism, 44

INDEX 135

Cullura, La, literary review, 47 Curzon, Lord, 53 Czechoslovakia: Italian rela·

tions with, 52, 72: and Fascism, log

Dahrendorf, Ralf, 10HZ Dalmatia, Italian claims to, 3-

5,7--8,49 D' Annunzio, Gabriele, 2-6, 9,

12, 43, 50, 95, 120: and claims to Istria and Dal­matia, 3; occupation of Fiume, 5-6, 9-10, 21-2; President of Ac.ademy of Italy, 65; death (1938), 65

Deakin,F. W.,g,83 De Ambris, Alceste, 8, !U, 22 Deat, Marcel, 114 De Bono, General Emilio, 14:

sentenced to death (1944), 90 De Bosis, Lauro, 8g de la Rocque, Colonel, 118 De Sanctis, Gaetano, 43 De Vecchi, Conte Cesare

Maria, 14,64 Diciannovismo, 8 Doctrine of Fascism, 34-.n:

Fundamental Ideas, 34-5; political and social doctrine, 34-6; relationship to religion, 36

Dollfuss, Engelbert, 57, 104t loB, log: suppresses Social· ists, 106; launches Patriotic Front, 106-7; assassinated, 59, 104

Dopolavoro, 22 Doriot,Jacques, II{-

East Africa: Italy's claims in, 49; Jubaland acquired (1924), 53;,Abyasinian War (1935-6), 58, 60-1, 64, Gg, 76

Economist, The, 47 Eden, Anthony (Lord Avon),

60

Education, Fascism and, 37-43: school textbooks, 38-40; Carta della Scuola, 42, 47, 73; youth organisations, 42; E.N.I.M.S.,42; universities, 43-4·

Eichmann, Adolf, 1[2 Einaudi, Giulio, 47 Einaudi, Luigi, 47, 65 Electoral Law of 1928,26 Enciclopedia Italiana, 34, 44 Ente Nazionale per l'istruziorre

media e superiore (E.N.I.M.S.), 42

'Exceptional Decrees' ([926), 19

Facta, Luigi, Italian Premier, [3, 14

Farinacci, Roberto, 83, 85, 86, go: Secretary of Fascist Party, 17, 'll. 45; anti~ Semitism. 70; Minister of State ([938), 70

Fasd di azione rivoluzionaria, 7 Fasd· ltaliani di combattimentl),

8-g: programme of 1919, 8-g Fascism: origins of, 1·18; forma·

tion of Party, 12; doctrine, 34-47; Decennale (1932), 37

Fascist calendar, 45 Fascist demonstrations, 45 Fascist Grand Council, IS, 23,

26, 37. 41, 73: functions defined, 25; meeting of 2{­July 1943,85-7

Fascist Militia, [2, IS, 19, 25, 51,83

Fascist National Council, 73 Fascist Special Tribunal, 19,

20,51 Fascist University Youth

(GruPP! Universitari Fascisti) (G.U.F.), 26, 30, 42, 43, 71, 89

Fascisti and FascisTM, meaning of words, 8-g

136 INDEX

F,Jeraz;i0n8 Universitaria CaJWlica ItaliaruJ (F.U.C.I.), 26

Federzoni, Luigi, B4 FIAT (Fabbrica Italiana AutrJ­

mobili Torino),motorwcirks, 80 Figli riella lupa, 38 F.I.O.M. (Ferierazione ItaliaruJ

Operai M,tallurgici) (metal­workers' union), 23

Fiume: Italian claims to, 4-7; occupied by D'Annunzio, 5--6, 9-10, 21-2; becomes Italian (1924),50

Foreign policy, see chap. 4 Forges-Davanzati, Roberto, 39 Four-Power Pact (1933), ,57 France: Italian propaganda

against (1938), 72-3; right­wing thought, 114; cagoulards, 114; Popular Front, 118

Franco, General Francisco, 61-62,78, 116

Franc;:ois-Poncet, Andre, 73 Frank, Hans, 70 .Frank, Ivo, 52 Freemasonry, suppression of, 19 Freikorps, 96, 103, 106 Frick, Wilhelm, 95 . Futurist movement, 2, 3, 12, log

Galbiati, General Bnzo, 86 Garibaldi, Anita, 37 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 9, 37 Gentile, Giovanni, philosopher

and Minister of Education, 15, 38, 43, 94: and religious instruction, 27, 38; law of 1923, 38, 43; Manifesto of the Fascist Intellectuals (192 5); 44-

Ginzburg, Natalia, 71 Giolitti, Giovanni, 1, 3, 6, 7,

15, 16, 23, 26, 31, 32, 120: Prime Minister for last time (1920-1), 10; collaboration with Mussolini (May 1921), J1; .resignation (June 1921). J3; death (1928), 26

Giordani, Giulio, II Giovani F ascisti, 42 GioVlTltu Italiana riel Littorio

(G.I.L.),42 Giovinezza (Fascist song), 43 Giuriati, Giovanni, Secretary,

of Fascist Party, 37 Gobetti, Piero, 20 Gobineau, Count Joseph, 114 Goebbels,josef, 64, 95 Goering, lierr.nann, 95 GOmbOs, Arthur, Premier of

liungary, 106, 111 Gottardi, Luciano, go Gramsci, Antonio, 10: trial and

imprisonment, 20, 53, g8 Gran Consiglio, see Fascist Grand

Council Grandi, Count Dino, 11, 12:

Ambassador in London, 46; opposition to Mussolini (July 1943), 84-7, go

Graziani, Marshal Rodolfo, 8g Great Britain: Italian relations

with, 53-4; Mussolini's re­sentment of British naval power, 54; Stresa conference (1935),60

Greece: .ltalian relations with, 50; Italian campaign in (1940-41),77

Gruppj Universitari Fascisti (G.U.F.), 42, 43

Guadalajara, battle of (1937), 61-2

Hegel, Friedrich, 94 lienlein, Konrad, log lIimmler, Heinrich, 81, g6-g7 Hirtenberg affair, 57, J06 Hitler, Adolf, 52, 55, 61, 65, 75,

76, 84, 87, log, 118, 120: Mitteleuropa policy, 56; and Mussolini, 56-9: anti-Semi­tism, 57, 69, 72, 110, 1 I I; meets Mussolini (1934),. 59, 65; reintroduction of con­scription (1935), 59; remi1i-

INnEX 137

tarisation of Rhineland, 58; and Spanish Civil War, 61; and Mussolini's visit to Ger­many (1937), 66; visit to Italy (1938), 68, 70; dislike of Victor Emmanuel, 68; seizure of Prague (1939), 74; attacks Poland (1939), 76; in Second World War, 77-81; meets Mussolini at Feltre (July 1943), 85; orders kid­napping of Mussolini; 88--g; and Neo-Fascist Republic, go-2; influence on Hungary, 111-12; influence on Roma­nia, 112-14; influence on Netherlands and Belgium, 114; and Switzerland, 119

Horthy, Admiral Nicholas, III, 112

Hungary: Italy sends arms to (1927), 52, 105; slight in­fluence of Fascism, 110-11; Hitler's influence, II I - I 2

Industry, Fascism and, 31, 101 Institute of Fascist Culture, 71 Intellectuals, Fascist regime

and,44,65 Istituto di Rieostruzione Industriale

(I.R.I.),31 Istituto Mobiliare Italiano

(I.M.I.), 31 I talianisation, policy of, 54-5

jubaland ceded to Italy (1924), 53

Keynes, j. M. (Lord Keynes), 117

Korneuburg oath (1930), 105 Kun, Bela, II I

Labour question, Fascism and, 21-3: prohibition of strikes, 23; Carta del Lavoro, 23-4, 36, 41,52,116,117

Lagardelle, Hubert, 35 Land reclamation, 31-2, 40

Lateran Agreements, 27-30,44, 99: recognition of Catholic Action, 28

Laterza, publisher, 44 Laval, Pierre, agreement with

Italy (1935), 59 Ledesma, 115,116 Leese, Spencer, 100 Leo XIII, Pope, Rerum NOrJarum

Encyclical (I 8g I ), 104 Leva Fascista, 43 Levi family, of Turin, 71 Lewis, Wyndham, log Leyers, General, 88 Libra e moselletto, student journal,

43 Libro unico, 38-40 Littoria, foundation of, 32 Locarno Agreements, 50, 55 Losana, General, 84

M Division, 83-4, 98 MacDonald,]. Ramsay, 60 Magistratura del Lavoro, 24 Manifesto of the Fascist Intel-

lectuals, 44 Mann, Golo, 101 Marinelli, Giovanni, go Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso,

2,7,8, 12,44 Maritain, jacques, 115 Marxism and Marxists, 2, 6, 13,

100, 105, 107, 108, 120 Matteotti, Giacomo, 25, 54:

murder of, 15-17,59,95 Maura, Miguel Garnazo, I IS Maurras, Charles, 114, 118 'maximalism', 10-11 Mazzini, Giuseppe, and Maz­

zinian Republicans, 3, 4> 7, 121

Ministero della CuttUTa Popolare ('Minculpop'), 64-5, 88, 95

Montale, Eugenio, 47 Montecatini chemical firm, 31 Moravia, Alberto, 47 Mosley, Sir Oswald, 117 Motta, Giuseppe, 1I8

INDEX

Munich Conference (1938), 72-3

Miinzenberg, Willi, 2 Mussolini, Benito: tempera­

ment and aims, 6; expelled from Socialist Party, 7; formed Fasci Italiani di Com­battimento, 8-g; collaboration with Giolitti (1921), II ; over­tures to Catholic Church, 12, 17-18; opportunism, 12, Monarchism and Republic­anism, 13-14; foreign policy (1922), 49; occupation of Corfu (1923),50; and murder ofMatteotti, 16-17; attempts on his life (1925-26), 19; and corporative state, 24; creates crisis over South Tirol (1926), 54-5; craving for personal power, 25; and Lateran Agreements (1929), 27-30; 'battle of the grain', 32; political and social doctrine, 34-6; and religion, 36; in­ability to delegate, 44-5; and Austria, 56-61; and Hitler, 56--9; and anti-Semitism, 57, 68-72; Four Power Pact, 57; Abyssinian War (1935-36), 58,60-1; Spanish Civil War, 61-2;appoints Ciano Foreign Minister, 63-4; declining health, 63; and Petacci family, 63-4; impressed by German strength, 66-7; rapprochement with Germany, 67-8; stirs up anti-French feeling, 72-3; and Munich Conference (1938), 72-3; and Second World War, 77-81; confers with Hitler at Klessheim (April 1943), 80-81, g6, g8; last attempt to restore Fascist purpose, 81-2; attempt at creation of M. Division, 82-4; at last meet· ing of Council of Ministers

(June 19), 84; meeting with Hitler at Feltre (July 19),85; and meeting of Fascist Grand Council (July 24), 85-7; internment and kidnapping by Germans, 87; and Neo­Fascist Republic, 88-g2; exe­cution of Ciano and others (1944), go; meetings with Hitler (1944), gl-2; shot (April 1945),92

Mussolini, Edda, 46 Muti, Ettore, Secretary of

Fascist Party, 81

Nationalism, Italhn, 2-3: and Futurist movement, 2

Nationalist Party, 3, 5, 6, 9, II, 12, 14: Arditi, 5; fused with Fascist Party, 15

Nave, La (d'Annunzio), 2 Nenni, Pietro, 61 Neo-Fascist Republic (1943-5),

88-g2: Verona Congress, 88-g; execution of Ciano and others, 90

Neurath, Baron von, 95 Nicole, Leon, Il8 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 94 Nolte, Ernst, 100 Non abbiamo bisogno, Papal

Encyclical (1931), 30

October Protocols (1936),65 Olivetti, 35 Orano, Alfredo, 35 Origins of Fascism, 1-18:

Italian nationalism, 2-3; claims for Italian expansion, 2-5; First World War, 3-4; d'Annunzio and Fiume, 5-6, 9-10; Fasci Italiani di Com­battimmto, 8-9; programme of 1919, 8-9, 13; regional origins, 9; affray at Bologna (NovI 1920), II; stand­point of Party (1921), Il­lS; movement transformed

INDEX 139

into Party, 12; Monarchism and Republicanism, 13-14: coalition Government under Mussolini, 14-15; new elec­torallaw,15

Orlando, Vittorio Emmanuele, I talian Premier, 4, 53

Ortega y Gasset, Jose, I 15 O.V.R.A., 19

Papen, Franz von, 95 Papini, Giovanni, 65 Pareschi, Giuseppe, 90 Parri, Ferruccio, 46: trial of

(1927),20,89 Party of Action (anti-Fascist),

89 Pavelic, Ante, 42, 77, 114 Pavese, Cesare, 47 Pavolini, Alessandro, Party

Secretary in Neo-Fascist Republic, 88

Peace Conference (1919), 4-5, 53 • d Peasant co-operatives an leagues, 5, 22

Peguy, Charles, 35, 115 Perrone brothers, 7 Petacci, Clara, 63, 64 Petaeei, Marcello, 64-Petacci family, 64 Petain, Marshal, 78, 114-Pilsudski,Josef, 109 Pirandello, Luigi, 44-Pius X, Pope, 3 Pius XI, Pope, 15, 28, 46, 71:

expresses approval of Fascist regime, 16; and Lateran Agreements, 27, 29; Encycli­cal Non abbiamo bisogno, 30; Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno, 104-

Poincare, Raymond, 53 Pontine marshes drained, 31-2,

120 Popolari (Catholic party), 6, II,

13,16

Popolo d'Italia, Mussolini's news­paper, 6

Portugal and Fascism, 116-17: National Labour statute, 117

Pound, Ezra, 109 Preziosi, Giovanni, 70 Prezzolini, Giuseppe, 7, 65 Primo de Rivera, General, 52,

Il5,116 Primo de Rivera, Jose Antonio,

115-16: and Mussolini, 116; executed (1936), 116

Quadragesimo Anno, Encyclical of Pius XI, 104-

Quisling, Vidkun, 114

Rauschning, Hermann, 98 Regime Fascista, Farinacci's

newspaper, 70 Religious instruction, 27, 38 Rerum Novarum, Encyclical of

Leo XIII (1891), 104 Ribbentrop, Joachim von, 70,

74, 99: visit to Italy (1943), 7g-80

Riforma Socials, review, <4,7 Rivista di Storia Economi&a, re-

view,47 Rocco, Alfredo, 23 Rahm, Ernst, 59 Romania, 112-14: Fasclat and

Nazi influence, 113-14.; Iron Guard, 112-14; 'Front of National Rebirth', 113

Rosselli, Carlo, 69, 89: trial of (1927), 20, 8g; murdered in France (1937), 67, 114,

Rossi, Cesare, 16 Rossi, Ernesto, 46 Rossoni, Edmondo, 22 Ruffini, Francesco, 43 Russia: Italian relations with,

52-3; commercial treaty (1923),53; in Second World War, 78-9

INDBX

Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira. 116-17

SaJb, Republic or, ,. Nco­Faaciat Republic

Salvatorelli,Luigi, 37,46, 47, 67 Sc:hleicher, General Kurt von,

59,95 Schuschnigg, Kurt von, 107-9 Scorza, carlo, 84. 87: ap­

pointed Secretary of Fascist Party (April 1943), SI-Q; report on situation to MUISO­lini Oune (943), S3; supports Mussolini Ouly (943),86

Secretaryship of Fascist Party. 37,SI-Q

Seipel. Ignaz, lOS Senate, 17, ~6, 99 Senise, Carmine. Chief of

Police,SI Serpicri, Arrigo, 31 Sforza, Carlo, 50, 51: Foreign

Minister (1920), 5 Shaw, Bernard, log Simon, Sir John, 60 Socialists and Socialist Party,

5-'1, II: and First World War, 3; and peasant c0-operatives, 5; congress at Reggio Emilia (1912), 7; and occupation of Milan fac­tories (1920), lOj losses in 1920 local elections, 10; 'mavirnalism',lo-lI

Sonnino, Sidney. Italian Foreign Minister, 4

Sorel.~,6,2I,22,35 South Tirol, 104. 106: MUISO­

lini creates crisis over (1926), 504-5j ItaliaJUsation of, 504j Hitler and, 97-8

Spain: and Fascist influence, 115-16; Falang" 115-16; Catalan feeling, 115

Spanish Civil War, 61-Q, 76: battle of Guadalajara, 61-Q

Spann, ProfCSSOl' Othmar, 104. 100

SquaJristi, g6: burning or Slovene headquarters in Trieste (1920), 10; rural leaders, II, Ill; incorporated as Party Militia, 12j Bolzano overrun (1921l), 54- See aU. Action Squads

Stalin, Joseph Vissarionovich. 77,87

Starace, Achille: Secretary of Fascist Party, 37. 68; anti­Semitism,71-Q

Starhcmberg, Prince, 56. 57. 106-8

Steel Pact, Nazi-Fascist (1939). 74--6,84

Steidle, Richard, 103, 104. Stoyadinovic, Milan, 114 Strcsaconference (1935),60 Sturzo, Don Luigi, leader or

Popolt:zri, 13, 16, 115 Suvich: Under-Secretary at

Foreign Office, 45; Ambas­sador in Washington (1936). 94

SWitzerland and Fascism, 117-119: Mussolini's grievances against Swiss authorities, 118; Italian claims to Tieino, 118; Right-wing feeling, 118; and Nazism, 119

Syndicalists and syndicalism, 3, 7, 1l1-Q, 36,94

Szalasi, Major Ferenc, imposed by Hitler on Hungary, 111-1111

Tamaro, A •• 110, 114, 37, 45, 56. 611

Tellini, General, assassinated (1923),50

T -,, R, anti-Semitic paper, 6g

Textbooks, school, 38-40: libro rmico,38-40

Ticino, Italian claims to, 118 Tito, Marshal, 78 Togliatti, Palmiro, 53

INDEX 141

Tolomei, Senator Ettore, 54. 55, 115

Trade unions in Italy (sindacali), 10,21,22

Treaty of London (1915), 3, 4, 53

Treaty of Rapallo between Italy and Yugoslavia (19~:U), 49 n·,50

Treaty of Rapallo between Germany and Russia (1922), 49

Treaty of Saint-Germain, 5, 103

Treves, Claudio, 7 Tringali-Casanova, Antonino,

86 Tripartite Pact between Ger·

many, Italy and Japan (1940),17

Turati, Augusto, Secretary of Fascist Party, 23-5, 37: resignation (1930), 25, 31

Turati, Filippo (Socialist leader), 20

Umberto, King, 6 Unione 1taliana tkllA'IXIrO, 8, 22 Universities and Fascism, 43-

44: oath imposed OIl state officials, 43

Vansittart, Sir Robert, 60 Venturi, Professor Lione1lo, 45 Veterans' Association (0",,5

ltaZionale &ombaltenti), 31 Victor Emmanuel I, I Victor Emmanuel II, 140 16,

57-9, 51, 68, 76, 84, 86, 88, 95, g8-g: and murder of Matteotti, 16; position undermined, 25; Emperor of Abyssinia, 60; dislikes rfJpjJrodument with Nazis, 68; dislike of Hitler, 68; Musso­!ini'. intolerance towards, 72;

King of Albania (J939), 74; plan to dismiss and arrest Mussolini (july 1943),87

Vidussoni, Alda, Secretary or Fascist Party, 70

Vita 1taliana, anti-Semitic J'Oo

view, 81 Vittorio Veneto, Italian vic:­

tory at (1918),4,39 Voce, La, 7, 65

Wahre Staat, Der (Spann), 104 Wal Wal incident (1934),58 Wilson, President Woodrow, 4-Winter, Ernst Karl, 107 Wolff, General Karl, 91, 92 World War, Second, 77-81:

Italian campaign in Greece, 77; part of Dalmatia ac­quired, 77; Tripartite Pact (1940), 77; loss of Italian Empire, 78; quarrels with Germany, 78; Italian labour exported to Germany, 78; Italy and U.S.S.R., 78-9; breakdown of morale, 79; food shortage, 79; strikes in Turin and Milan, 80; faIl of Pantelleria, 83; formation of M Division, 83-4> g8; in· vasion of Sicily, 84

Youth: glorification of, 4!Z; training of, 42

Yugoslavia, Italy and, 4-5, 7-8, 50-I, log, 114

Zamboni, makes attempt on Mussolini'sIiCe (J926), 19

Zangrandi, Ruggero,47 Zaniboni, Tito, makes attempt

on Mussolini's life (J925), 19 Zogu, Albanian chief (later

king),51