Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy

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Chronic traumatic encephalopathyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is aform of encephalopathy that is a progressivedegenerative disease, which can currently only bedefinitively diagnosed postmortem, in individualswith a history of multiple concussions and otherforms of head injury. In March 2014, researchersannounced the discovery of an exosome particlecreated by the brain which has been shown to contain trace proteins indicating the presence of thedisease,[1] however, a test is not yet available. The disease was previously called dementia pugilistica (DP),as it was initially found in those with a history of boxing. CTE has been most commonly found inprofessional athletes participating in American football, ice hockey, professional wrestling and othercontact sports who have experienced repetitive brain trauma. It has also been found in soldiers exposed to ablast or a concussive injury,[2] in both cases resulting in characteristic degeneration of brain tissue and theaccumulation of tau protein. Individuals with CTE may show symptoms of dementia, such as memory loss,aggression, confusion and depression, which generally appear years or many decades after the trauma.

Repeated concussions and injuries less serious than concussions ("sub-concussions") incurred during theplay of contact sports over a long period have not yet been found to result in CTE. In the case of blastinjury, a single exposure to a blast and the subsequent violent movement of the head in the blast wind cancause the condition.[2]

Contents

1 Epidemiology2 Pathology3 Signs and symptoms4 Prevention5 Diagnosis6 History

6.1 American football6.2 Ice hockey6.3 Professional wrestling6.4 Soccer6.5 Rugby6.6 Major League Baseball

7 Research8 Research critique



9 Other athletes diagnosed with CTE9.1 American football9.2 Association football9.3 Canadian football9.4 Professional wrestling9.5 Baseball9.6 Hockey9.7 Rugby

10 See also11 References12 External links

Epidemiology

CTE is a neurological degenerative disease found in individuals who have been subjected to repetitivetraumatic brain injuries[3] by way of the acceleration of the head on impact and the subsequent damage toaxons. While repetitive brain trauma is thought to be necessary to cause CTE, it is not sufficient, meaningthat not everyone exposed to repetitive brain trauma will get the disease. Other risk factors are possible buthave not yet been reported, due to the donated brains in the brain bank at the Boston University School ofMedicine and elsewhere, which consists mostly of the brains of athletes with a history of professionalparticipation in contact sports.[4] Professional level athletes are the largest demographic to suffer from CTEdue to frequent concussions from play in contact-sport. These contact-sports include American football, icehockey, rugby, boxing, and wrestling.[5] Other individuals that have been diagnosed with CTE wereinvolved in military service, had a previous history of chronic seizures, victims of domestic abuse, and orwere involved in activities resulting in repetitive head collisions.[6] Reports of CTE have steadily increasedin younger athletes, most likely due to increased awareness of the issue and perhaps due in part to athletesbecoming bigger and stronger producing greater magnitudes of force in collision.[5]

Pathology

The primary physical manifestations of CTE include a reduction in brain weight, associated with atrophy ofthe frontal and temporal cortices and medial temporal lobe. The lateral ventricles and the third ventricle areoften enlarged, with rare instances of dilation of the fourth ventricle.[7] Other physical manifestations ofCTE include anterior cavum septi pellucidi and posterior fenestrations, pallor of the substantia nigra andlocus ceruleus, and atrophy of the olfactory bulbs, thalamus, mammillary bodies, brainstem andcerebellum.[8] As CTE progresses, there may be marked atrophy of the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, andamygdala.[3]



On a microscopic scale the pathology includes neuronal loss, tau deposition, TAR DNA-binding Protein 43(TDP 43)[9] beta-amyloid deposition, white matter changes, and other abnormalities. The tau depositionoccurs as dense neurofibrillary tangles (NFT), neurites, and glial tangles, which are made up of astrocytesand other glial cells[7] Beta-amyloid deposition is relatively uncommon feature of CTE.

A small group of individuals with CTE have chronic traumatic encephalomyopathy (CTEM), characterizedby motor neuron disease symptoms and mimics Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) (known in the UnitedStates as Lou Gehrigs disease). Progressive muscle weakness and balance and gait problems seem to beearly signs of CTEM.[7]

Signs and symptoms

Other than repeated brain trauma, the risk factors for CTE remain unknown.[7] So far, CTE can only bediagnosed posthumously. Research studies are looking into possible genetic, exposure level, and other riskfactors.

Researchers who conducted a CTE pilot study at UCLA described the findings as a significant step towardbeing able to diagnose CTE, in living patients.[10]

Research performed at the Cleveland Clinic and at the University of Rochester[11] has shown that inaddition to concussions, sub-concussive head hits also produce measurable changes in athletes' MRI.Bazarian (University of Rochester) demonstrated persistent changes in white matter properties in athleteswho did not experience a concussion during a season but had several blows to the head. This finding isconsistent with the hypothesis that a number of sub-concussive events may be as damaging as a frankconcussion. The MRI changes reported in this study were causally related to the presence in serum ofplayers of auto-antibodies against the brain protein S100B. The sequence of events proposed by Janigro atthe Cleveland Clinic links sub-concussion to leakage of the blood-brain barrier, extravasation of brainS100B in blood,[12] activation of an immune response due to antigen unmasking and production of auto-antiboides. These auto-antibodies maybe pathogenic as shown for example in epileptic human brain.[13]The link between S100B auto-antibodies and CTE needs experimental confirmation; however, antibodiesagainst S100B or other brain protein have been found in patients affected by Alzheimer's disease.

Clinical symptoms of CTE are only beginning to be understood. They are thought to include changes inmood (i.e. depression, suicidality, apathy, anxiety), cognition (i.e. memory loss, executive dysfunction),behavior (short fuse, aggression), and in some cases motor disturbance (i.e. difficulty with balance andgait). While the pathology of CTE has been broken up into stages,[9] the clinical symptoms and clinicalprogression of CTE are not yet fully understood.

Prevention

No agreement has been reached about how much or little head trauma is needed for CTE to develop, or theoverarching mechanism of injury.[4] Recently, investigators demonstrated that immobilizing the headduring a blast exposure prevented the learning and memory deficits associated with CTE that occurredwhen the head was not immobilized. This research, represents the first case series of postmortem brainsfrom U.S. military personnel who were exposed to a blast and/or a concussive injury. [2] However, the



protein tau which binds microtubules of brain axons, was found to have an elastic limit which is speeddependent; when breached, the microtubles become undone and cause brain swellings due to backups ofinformation transport.[14]

Diagnosis

The lack of in-vivo techniques to show distinct biomarkers for CTE is the reason CTE cannot be diagnosedduring lifetime. The only known diagnosis for CTE occurs by studying the brain tissue after death.Concussions are non-structural injuries and do not result in brain bleeding, which is why most concussionscannot be seen on routine neuroimaging tests such as CT or MRI.[15] Acute concussion symptoms (thosethat occur shortly after an injury) should not be confused with CTE. Differentiating between prolongedpost-concussion syndrome (PCS, where symptoms begin shortly after a concussion and last for weeks,months, and sometimes even years) and CTE symptoms can be difficult. Research studies are currentlyexamining whether neuroimaging can detect subtle changes in axonal integrity and structural lesions thatcan occur in CTE.[3] Recently, more progress in in-vivo diagnostic techniques for CTE has been made,using DTI, fMRI, MRI, and MRS imaging; however, more research needs to be done before any suchtechniques can be validated.[7]

Positron Emission Tomography(PET) using a newly developed radiopharmaceutical [18F]FDDNP is beinginvestigated as a tool to allow in-vivo diagnosis of CTE.[16] In late 2013, breaking research was completedby the University of California Los Angeles in which for the first time ever, Chronic TraumaticEncephalopathy was found in living-retired National Football League players. Prior to this breakthroughstudy conducted by UCLA, Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy could only be found posthumously throughautopsies of diseased athletes, however, this study found the brain disease in numerous living athletes. Thescan lit up for tau in all five former players, according to the study. The protein was concentrated in areasthat control memory, emotions and other functionsa pattern consistent with the distribution of tau in CTEbrains that have been studied following autopsy, according to the researchers. A small study of 5 patientshas been reported to show accumulation of tau protein in the brains of suspected CTE patients seen on PETscan.[17] This finding is also noted in a number of other dementing disorders such as Alzheimer's disease,Pick's disease, progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasal degeneration and familial frontotemporaldementia and Parkinsonism linked to chromosome abnormality.[18] At the current time PET scanning is notwidely used in screening because of the high cost of the study (estimated to be $5000 USD).[19]

A putative biomarker for CTE is the presence in serum of auto-antibodies against the brain. These mayenter the brain by means of a disrupted blood-brain barrier, and attack neuronal cells which are normallyprotected from an immune onslaught.[20] Given the large numbers of neurons present in the brain, andconsidering the poor penetration of antibodies across a normal blood-brain barrier, there is an extendedperiod of time between the initial events (head hits) and the development of any signs or symptoms.Nevertheless, autoimmune changes in blood of players may consist the earliest measurable event predictingCTE.

History



CTE was first noticed as a peculiar condition casually referred to as a punch-drunk syndrome in boxersand prizefighters before the 1930s. It was recognized as affecting individuals who took considerable blowsto the head, but was believed to be confined to boxers and not other athletes.[21] In 2008, the Sports LegacyInstitute joined with the Boston University School of Medicine (BUSM) to form the Center for the Study ofTraumatic Encephalopathy (CSTE).[22] Brain Injury Research Institute (BIRI) also studies the impact ofconcussions.[23][24]

American football

Between 2008 and 2010, the bodies of twelve former professional American football players underwentpostmortem evaluations for CTE, and all of them showed evidence of the disease, indicating aconservatively estimated prevalence rate of 3.7% among professional football players if no other playerswho died during this period had CTE.[25]

Bennet Omalu, a forensic pathologist and neuropathologist in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania found CTE in thebrains of Mike Webster, Terry Long, Andre Waters, Justin Strzelczyk and Tom McHale.[24] Omalu, in2012 a medical examiner and associate adjunct professor in California, was a co-founder of BIRI[24] andreportedly in 2012 participated in the autopsy of Junior Seau.[23] Omalu's participation was halted duringthe autopsy after Junior Seau's son revoked previously provided oral permission after he received telephonecalls from NFL management denouncing Omalu's professional ethics, qualifications, and motivation.

As of December 2012, thirty-three former National Football League (NFL) players have been diagnosedpost-mortem with CTE. Former Detroit Lions lineman and eight-time Pro Bowler Lou Creekmur,[26]

former Houston Oilers and Miami Dolphins linebacker John Grimsley,[27] former Tampa Bay Buccaneersguard Tom McHale,[28] former Cincinnati Bengals wide receiver Chris Henry,[29] and former ChicagoBears safety Dave Duerson,[30] have all been diagnosed post-mortem with CTE. Other football playersdiagnosed with CTE include former Buffalo Bills star running back Cookie Gilchrist[31] and WallyHilgenberg.,[32] among others.

An autopsy conducted in 2010 on the brain of Owen Thomas, a 21-year-old junior lineman at theUniversity of Pennsylvania who committed suicide, showed early stages of CTE, making him the secondyoungest person to be diagnosed with the condition. Thomas was the second amateur football playerdiagnosed with CTE, after Mike Borich, who died at 42.[33] The doctors who performed the autopsyindicated that they found no causal connection between the nascent CTE and Thomas's suicide. There wereno records of Thomas missing any playing time due to concussion, but as a player who played hard and"loved to hit people," Thomas may have played through concussions and received thousands ofsubconcussive impacts on the brain.[34]

In October 2010, 17-year-old Nathan Stiles died hours after his high school homecoming football game,where he took a hit that would be the final straw in a series of subconcussive and concussive blows to thehead for the highschooler. The CSTE diagnosed him with CTE, making him the youngest reported CTEcase to date.[35]



In July, 2011, Colt tight end John Mackey died after several years of deepening symptoms offrontotemporal dementia. BUSM was reported to be planning to examine his brain for signs of CTE.[36]

The CSTE found CTE in his brain post-mortem.[37]

In 2012, retired NFL player Junior Seau committed suicide with a gunshot wound to the chest.[38] Therewas speculation that he suffered brain damage due to CTE.[23][39][40][41][42] Seau's family donated his braintissue to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.[43] On January 10, 2013, the brainpathology report was revealed and Seau did have evidence of CTE.[44]

On July 27, 2012, an autopsy report concluded that the former Atlanta Falcons safety Ray Easterling, whocommitted suicide in April 2012, had CTE.[45][46]

The NFL has taken measures to help prevent CTE. As of July 2011, the NFL has changed its return-to-playrules. The number of contact practices has been reduced, based on the recent collective bargainingagreement.[47]

In 2012, some four thousand former NFL players "joined civil lawsuits against the League, seekingdamages over the Leagues failure to protect players from concussions, according to Judy Battista of the[New York] Times".[48]

On August 30, 2013, the NFL reached a $765 million settlement with the former NFL players over the headinjuries.[49] The settlement created a $675 million compensation fund from which former NFL players cancollect from depending on the extent of their conditions. Severe conditions such as Lou Gehrig's diseaseand postmortem diagnosed chronic traumatic encephalopathy would be entitled to payouts as high as $5million.[49] From the remainder of the settlement, $75 million will be used for medical exams, and $10million will be used for research and education.[49] However, in January, 2014, U.S. District Judge Anita B.Brody refused to accept the agreed settlement because "the money wouldn't adequately compensate thenearly 20,000 men not named in the suit".[50]

Bernie Kosar, who sustained several concussions during his twelve-year NFL career and has shownsymptoms of CTE, has submitted himself to an experimental treatment program led by Rick Sponaugle ofFlorida that has alleviated many of his symptoms. The program, the details of which are proprietary,involves increasing blood flow to damaged portions of the brain. He has spoken out in public about hissuccesses with the treatment in the hopes that others who suffer from the disease can find relief and avoidthe fates of Duerson and Seau, both of whom were personal friends of Kosar's.[51] The efficacy ofSponaugle's treatment has not been validated through any published clinical trials or other validatedscientific process, nor has this treatment been supported by any reputable medical group conductingresearch into CTE.

Ice hockey

Athletes from other sports have also been identified as having CTE, such as hockey player Bob Probert.[52]Neuropathologists at Boston University diagnosed Reg Fleming as the first hockey player known to havethe disease. This discovery was announced in December 2009, six months after Fleming's death.[53]



Rick Martin, best known for being part of the Buffalo Sabres' French Connection, was diagnosed with CTEafter his brain was posthumously analyzed.[54] Martin was the first documented case of an ice hockeyplayer not known as an enforcer to have developed CTE; Martin was believed to have developed thedisease primarily as a result of a severe concussion he suffered in 1977 while not wearing a helmet. Thedisease was low-grade and asymptomatic in his case, not affecting his cognitive functions. He died of aheart attack in March 2011 at the age of 59.[55]

Also within a few months in 2011, the deaths of three hockey "enforcers"Derek Boogaard from acombination of too many painkillers and alcohol, Rick Rypien, an apparent suicide, and Wade Belak, who,like Rypien, had reportedly suffered from depression; and all with a record of fighting, blows to the headand concussionsled to more concerns about CTE. Boogaard's brain was examined by BUSM, which inOctober 2011 determined the presence of CTE.[56] One National Hockey League player known in part forleading "the thump parade", Shawn Thornton of the Boston Bruins, mulled over the "tragic coincidence" ofthe three recent league deaths and agreed that their deaths were due to the same cause, yet still defended therole of fighting on the rink.[57]

Professional wrestling

In 2007, neuropathologists from the Sports Legacy Institute (an organization co-founded by ChristopherNowinski, himself a former professional wrestler) examined the brain of Chris Benoit, a professionalwrestler with the WWE, who had apparently killed his wife and son before committing suicide. The suicideand double murder were originally attributed to anabolic steroid abuse, but a brain biopsy confirmedpathognomonic CTE tissue changes: large aggregations of tau protein as manifested by neurofibrillarytangles and neuropil threads, which cause neurodegeneration.[58][59]

In 2009, Bennet Omalu discovered CTE in recently retired wrestler Andrew "Test" Martin, who died at age33 from an accidental medicine overdose.[60]

Soccer

In 2012, Patrick Grange a semi-pro soccer player, was diagnosed in an autopsy with Stage 2 CTE withmotor neuron disease. "The fact that Patrick Grange was a prolific header is important," ChristopherNowinski, co-founder of the Sports Legacy Institute, said in an e-mail. "We need a larger discussion aroundat what age we introduce headers, and how we set limits to exposure once it is introduced."[61] Grangeplayed soccer at high school; college at Illinois-Chicago and New Mexico; in the Premier DevelopmentLeague; for Albuquerque Asylum and Chicago Fire Premier. He died of ALS at age 29 in 2012 with aposthumous diagnosis of CTE.[62]

Rugby

Researchers found Australian rugby union player Barry "Tizza" Taylor died in 2013 of complications ofsevere CTE with dementia at age 77. Taylor played for 19 years in amateur and senior leagues beforebecoming a coach.[61]



In 2013, Dr Willie Stewart, Consultant Neuropathologist at the Institute of Neurological Sciences at theSouthern General Hospital in Glasgow, identified CTE in the brain of a former amateur rugby player in his50s which is believed to be the first confirmed case of early onset dementia caused by CTE in a rugbyplayer.[63]

Major League Baseball

In 2012, Ryan Freel testing of his brain tissue after his death found that he had Stage 2 CTE, Freel has thedistinction of being the first Major League Baseball player to be diagnosed with chronic traumaticencephalopathy.[64]

Research

In 2008, the CSTE at Boston University at the BU School of Medicine started the CSTE brain bank at theBedford VA Hospital to analyze the effects of CTE and other neurodegenerative diseases on the brain andspinal cord of athletes, military veterans, and civilians[9] To date the CSTE Brain Bank is the largest CTEtissue repository in the world.[7] On December 21, 2009, the National Football League Players Associationannounced that it would collaborate with the CSTE at the Boston University School of Medicine to supportthe Center's study of repetitive brain trauma in athletes.[65] Additionally, in 2010 the National FootballLeague gave the CSTE a $1 million gift with no strings attached.[66][67] In 2008, twelve living athletes(active and retired), including hockey players Pat LaFontaine and Noah Welch as well as former NFL starTed Johnson, committed to donate their brains to CSTE after their deaths.[22][68] In 2009, NFL Pro BowlersMatt Birk, Lofa Tatupu, and Sean Morey pledged to donate their brains to the CSTE.[69] In 2010, 20 moreNFL players and former players pledged to join the CSTE Brain Donation Registry, including ChicagoBears linebacker Hunter Hillenmeyer, Hall of Famer Mike Haynes, Pro Bowlers Zach Thomas, KyleTurley, and Conrad Dobler, Super Bowl Champion Don Hasselbeck and former pro players Lew Carpenter,and Todd Hendricks . In 2010, Professional Wrestlers Mick Foley and Matt Morgan also agreed to donatetheir brains upon their deaths. Also in 2010, MLS soccer player Taylor Twellman, who had to retire fromthe New England Revolution because of post-concussion symptoms, agreed to donate his brain upon hisdeath. As of 2010, the CSTE Brain Donation Registry consists of over 250 current and former athletes.[70]In 2011, former North Queensland Cowboys player Shaun Valentine became the first rugby player to agreeto donate his brain upon his death, in response to recent concerns about the effects of concussions on RugbyLeague players, who do not use helmets. Also in 2011, boxer Micky Ward, whose career inspired the filmThe Fighter, agreed to donate his brain upon his death.

In related research, the Center for the Study of Retired Athletes, which is part of the Department ofExercise and Sport Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, is conducting researchfunded by National Football League Charities to "study former football players, a population with a highprevalence of exposure to prior Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (MTBI) and sub-concussive impacts, in orderto investigate the association between increased football exposure and recurrent MTBI andneurodegenerative disorders such as cognitive impairment and Alzheimers disease (AD)".[71]

In February 2011, Dave Duerson committed suicide,[42] leaving text messages to loved ones asking that hisbrain be donated to research for CTE.[72] The family got in touch with representatives of the BostonUniversity center studying the condition, said Robert Stern, a co-director of the research group. Stern said



Duerson's was the first time he was aware of that such a request had been left by a suicide potentially linkedto CTE.[73] Stern and his colleagues found high levels of the protein tau in Duerson's brain. These elevatedlevels, which were abnormally clumped and pooled along the brain sulci,[9] are indicative of CTE.[30]

In July 2010, NHL enforcer Bob Probert died of heart failure. Before his death, he asked his wife to donatehis brain to CTE research because it was noticed that Probert experienced a mental decline in his 40s. InMarch 2011, researchers at Boston University concluded that Probert had CTE upon analysis of the braintissue he donated. He is the second NHL player from the program at the Center for the Study of TraumaticEncephalopathy to be diagnosed with CTE postmortem.[74]

BUSM has also found indications of links between Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and CTE inathletes who have participated in contact sports. Tissue for the study was donated by twelve athletes andtheir families to the CSTE Brain Bank at the Bedford, Massachusetts VA Medical Center.[75]

Researchers at the Cleveland Clinic have shown auto-antibodies directed against the brain of players whoexperience a large number of head hits but no concussions, suggesting that even sub-concussive episodesmay be damaging to the brain.[11]

In 2013, President Barack Obama announced the creation of the Chronic Effects of NeurotraumaConsortium or CENC, a federally funded research project devised to address the long-term effects of mildtraumatic brain injury in military service personnel (SMs) and Veterans.[76][77][78] After a competitiveapplication process, a consortium led by Virginia Commonwealth University prevailed and was announcedas the recipient of the award by President Obama on August 20, 2013.[79][80][81][82][83][84] At the time ofthe award, this was the single largest grant ever awarded to Virginia Commonwealth University.[81] Nearly20% of the more than 2.5 million U.S. Service Members (SMs) deployed since 2003 to Operation EnduringFreedom (OEF) and Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) have sustained at least one traumatic brain injury(TBI), predominantly mild TBI (mTBI),[85][86] and almost 8% of all OEF/OIF Veterans demonstratepersistent post-TBI symptoms more than six months post-injury.[87][88] Unlike those head injuries incurredin most sporting events, recent military head injuries are most often the result of blast wave exposure.Explosive munitions, predominantly improvised explosive device (IEDs), have caused the overwhelmingmajority of these identified cases. The incidence is likely even significantly higher than reported, as manymTBIs may go unrecognized during and even after deployment because of more visible concomitantinjuries capturing greater attention, clinicians limited awareness of the often subtle initial findings, andpatients reduced subjective awareness related to cognitive deficits in the acute period.[89] The mission ofthe CENC is to fill the gaps in knowledge about the basic science of mild TBI (also termed concussion), todetermine its effects on late-life outcomes and neurodegeneration, to identify service members mostsusceptible to these effects, and to identify the most effective treatment strategies.[79][80][81][90] The CENCis a multi-center collaboration linking premiere basic science, translational, and clinical neuroscienceresearchers from the DoD, VA, academic universities, and private research institutes to effectively addressthe scientific, diagnostic, and therapeutic ramifications of mild TBI and its long-termeffects.[81][82][83][84][91] The CENC serves as the comprehensive research network for DoD and VA thatfocuses on the long-term effects of combat-related and military-relevant TBI.[84] The CENC is designed toconduct research that provides clinically relevant answers and interventions for current service membersand Veterans and to develop the long-term solutions to the chronic effects of TBI. The CENC is identifyingand characterizing the anatomic, molecular, and physiological mechanisms of chronic injury from TBI and



potential neurodegeneration, investigating the relationship of comorbidities (psychological, neurological,sensory, motor, pain, cognitive, neuroendocrine) of trauma and combat-exposure to TBI withneurodegeneration, and assessing the efficacy of existing and novel treatment and rehabilitation strategiesfor chronic effects and neurodegeneration following TBI.[90] The project principal investigator for theCENC is David Cifu, Chairman and Herman J. Flax professor[92] of the Department of Physical Medicineand Rehabilitation (PM&R) at Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) in Richmond, Virginia, StaffPhysiatrist at the Hunter Holmes McGuire Veterans Administration Medical Center (HHM-VAMC),[93]

Founding Director of the VCU-Center for Rehabilitation Science and Engineering[94] and National Directorof PM&R Services in the Department of Veterans Affairs' Veterans Health Administration.[80][81][82][95][96]Project co-principal investigators are Ramon Diaz-Arrastia, Professor of Neurology, Uniformed ServicesUniversity of the Health Sciences, and Director of Clinical Research at the Center for Neuroscience andRegenerative Medicine (CNRM),[84] and Rick L. Williams, statistician at RTI International and a Fellow ofthe American Statistical Association.[91]

Research critique

Some researchers advise caution when interpreting currently available data. There are no publishedepidemiological, cross-sectional or prospective studies relating to chronic traumatic encephalopathy. Thecurrent studies are primarily case reports and pathological case series. These types of studies may lackcontrols for observer bias, causality, or other risk factors. The existing literature is unable to account forchanges caused by other factors such as aging, psychiatric or mental health illness, alcohol/drug use orcoexisting dementia of other causes.

The hypothesis that repeated concussion or subconcussive impacts cause CTE remains unproven.Confirmation is needed by prospective longitudinal studies utilizing standard scientific method. [97]

Other athletes diagnosed with CTE

American football

Association football

Jeff Astle[98]

Canadian football

Bobby KuntzJay Roberts

Cookie Gilchrist[99]

Professional wrestling



Chris BenoitAndrew "Test" Martin

Baseball

Ryan Freel[100]

Hockey

Reg FlemingRick MartinBob ProbertDerek Boogaard

Rugby

Barry Taylor

See also

League of DenialList of NFL players with chronic traumatic encephalopathy

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External links

Boston University Center for the Study of Traumatic Encephalopathy (http://www.bu.edu/cste)Brain Injury Research Institute (http://www.protectthebrain.org/)McGrath, Ben, "The N.F.L. and the concussion crisis"(http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/01/31/110131fa_fact_mcgrath#ixzz1XfthMDMA), TheNew Yorker, January 31, 2011. Includes an account of The New York Times' and Alan Schwarz'seditorial focus on CTE.Jahnke, Art, "Looking For Trouble" (http://www.bu.edu/bostonia/campaign12/head-trauma/),Bostonia, Fall 2012.[www.cbsnews.com/8301-204_162-57573070 Interview with Dr. Janigro on S100B in footballplayers][www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/03/130307145742.htm sciencedaily.com], 2013/03.[www.sportsinjuryhandbook.com/features.../concussion_blood_test.html "Concussion blood test"],sportsinjuryhandbook.com.[www.livescience.com/40494-retired-nfl-players-lose-brain-function.html "Retired NFL players losebrain function"], livescience.com.PBS Frontline, "League of Denial" (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/league-of-denial/),

2 May 2014.92. ^ http://www.pmr.vcu.edu/welcome/history/default.aspx93. ^ Hunter Holmes McGuire VA Medical Center - Richmond, VA Home (http://www.richmond.va.gov/)94. ^ Vcu-Cerse (http://www.cerse.vcu.edu)95. ^ http://www.pmr.vcu.edu/directory/faculty/dcifu/dcifu.aspx96. ^ For troops with brain trauma, a long journey back - USATODAY.com

(http://www.usatoday.com/news/military/2010-07-29-1Aawakening29_CV_N.htm)97. ^ McCrory, P.; Meeuwisse, W. H.; Kutcher, J. S.; Jordan, B. D.; Gardner, A. (11 March 2013). "What is the

evidence for chronic concussion-related changes in retired athletes: behavioural, pathological and clinicaloutcomes?". British Journal of Sports Medicine 47 (5): 327330. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-092248(http://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbjsports-2013-092248).

98. ^ "Jeff Astle's family unhappy with authorities following research over his death"(http://www1.skysports.com/football/news/11698/9333913/jeff-astles-family-unhappy-with-authorities-following-research-over-his-death). Sky Sports. Retrieved 20 July 2014.

99. ^ Gola, Hank. "Ex-cop pens Cookie Gilchrist bio" (http://articles.nydailynews.com/2011-11-16/news/30407756_1_cookie-gilchrist-bad-luck-social-media-website). New York Daily News. Retrieved 8September 2012.

100. ^ Snyder, Matt. "Report: Ryan Freel was suffering from CTE at time of death"(http://www.cbssports.com/mlb/eye-on-baseball/24376239/report-ryan-freel-was-suffering-from-cte-at-time-of-death). CBSSports.com. Retrieved 15 December 2013.



October 9, 2013.

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