Cameran WallPeriod 3 AP US History January 5, 2011Christmas Project

Ch. 16

Multiple Choice

1. E2. E3. C4. E5. D/E6. D7. B8. C9. D10. A

Essays

1. Summarize and explain the shifts in the federal government’s policy toward Native Americans from the 1830s to the 1930s

The initial policy used by the federal government towards Native Americans was one of removal. In the early 1830s there were still 125, 000 Native Americans living east of the Mississippi River. The United States had two conflicting policies toward this population: assimilation and removal. Assimilation encouraged Native Americans to conform to European/American ways to survive. The federal government even funded missionaries to Christianize and educate native people. The Cherokees, who occupied land in the Southeast, had successfully assimilated by the 1830s. They had created written alphabet, ratified a republican constitution with a bicameral legislature, learned to farm, and built one of the better public school systems in the South. But the government’s second policy, removal, dismissed the possibility of assimilating Native Americans. It sought to make Indians leave whatever land they had in the East and relocate west of the Mississippi River. Some proponents of removal believed that separation was the only way to protect Indians from white abuse; others were simply interested in opening more land to white settlement. Andrew Jackson initially supported both policies, promising small plots to individuals who took up farming and granting land in the West to those tribes who relocated; however, Jackson increasingly came to favor removal as a “just, humane, liberal policy toward Indians.” In 1830 Congress passed the Indian Removal Act and appropriated $500, 000 to remove Indians to the West. Jackson’s administration negotiated ninety-four removal treaties, and all the Indians in the East were removed by 1840.

However, between the 1830 and the 1930s the westward movement by white Americans would collide with the Indians resulting once again in removal over assimilation. In 1851, in councils at Fort Laramie and Fort Atkinson, the federal government began to assign the plains tribes large tracts of land or “reservations” with definite borders. Most Plains tribes, on the other hand, refused to restrict their movements to the reservations and continued to follow the migrating buffalo wherever they roamed. As the Indian Wars broke out due large in part to stubborn gold minors and the lack of trust in federal treaties, assimilation was again perceived but then put out of question once more. Ultimately the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 was passed. The concept of the bill was to break up tribal organizations, which many felt kept Native Americans from becoming “civilized” and law-abiding citizens. The act divided tribal lands into plots of 160 acres or less depending on family size. This policy failed as the better of the land was sold eventually by the government and speculators. Lastly in the saga of the Plain Indians came the Ghost Dance movement; this last effort of Native Americans to resist US domination and drive whites from their ancestral lands came through a religious movement knows as the Ghost Dance. Then, in December 1890, over 200 Native American people were gunned down by the US Army thus marking the end of the Indian Wars. In 1924, the US granted citizenship to all Indians as it realized the failure of its legislature. Under President Franklin Roosevelt the Indian reorganization Act of 1934 was incorporated which promoted reestablishment of tribal organization and culture.

2. Explain how three of the following influenced the development of the last West from the 1850s to 1900.

Miners: Most of the miners that came to California for the gold rush never got rich. Instead they scraped a living by working for mining companies who began buying up claims and opening mines. As these mines opened, the area was usually isolated and mining companies usually provided housing for the men. Some times they grew big enough to from towns and even cities. As soon as the ore body was exhausted, the mine would close and the supporting businesses surrounding would fail as well, people moved out and the town would fail.

Immigrants: As a class they were quiet, peaceable, patient, industrious and economical—ready and apt to learn all the different kinds of work required in railroad building, they soon become as efficient as white laborers. More prudent and economical, they were contented with less wages. They were found to be organized into societies for mutual aid and assistance. These societies, that count their numbers by thousands, are conducted by shrewd, intelligent business men, who promptly advise their subordinates where employment can be found on the most favorable terms.

Cities: Between 1850 and 1900, almost 40 percent of the townships in the United States lost population because of migration. Industrial expansion and population growth radically changed the face of the nation's cities. Noise, traffic jams, slums, air pollution, and sanitation and health problems became commonplace. Mass transit, in the form of trolleys, cable cars, and subways, was built, and skyscrapers began to dominate city skylines. New communities, known as

suburbs, began to be built just beyond the city. Commuters, those who lived in the suburbs and traveled in and out of the city for work, began to increase in number. Many of those who resided in the city lived in rental apartments or tenement housing. Neighborhoods, especially for immigrant populations, were often the center of community life.

3. “Although the economic development of the west is associated with self-reliance and individualism, in fact it was largely dependent on policies of the federal government.” Assess the validity of this statement.

This statement is somewhat true and somewhat invalid; the West did depend on eastern executive legislature for policies such as with Indian removal, but much of the West was untamed and made up of independent economies. Early in the 19th century, while the rapidly-growing United States expanded into the lower South, white settlers faced what they considered an obstacle. This area was home to the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chicasaw and Seminole nations. These Indian nations, in the view of the settlers and many other white Americans, were standing in the way of progress. Eager for land to raise cotton, the settlers pressured the federal government to acquire Indian territory. On the other hand, much of the West remained “wild” in a sense with claim jumping, boom towns, and an anarchical, self-interest mentality which many western-goers held to. Most migrators went west in search of economic prosperity and many would steal if necessary as in the case of claim jumpers.

4. To what extent were the problems of American farmers in the period 1865 to 1900 caused (a) by big business and government policy and (b) by farmers’ own decisions?

Big business, especially in the category of railroad expansion, played a vital role for the demise of American farmers in the Late nineteenth century; moreover, government policy favored big business over agrarian industry for some time; however, a major component in the farming depression was the person decision making of many farmers. The growth of the railroad was one of the most significant elements in American economic growth. However, in many ways, the railroads hurt small shippers and farmers. Extreme competition between rail companies necessitated some way to win business. To do this, many railroads offered rebates and drawbacks to larger shippers who used their rails. However, this practice hurt smaller shippers, including farmers, for often times railroad companies would charge more to ship products short distances than they would for long trips. The rail companies justified this practice by asserting that if they did not rebate, they would not make enough profit to stay in business. Near the end of the nineteenth century, business began to centralize, leading to the rise of monopolies and trusts. Falling prices, along with the need for better efficiency in industry, led to the rise of such companies as Carnegie Steel and Standard Oil, which controlled a majority of the nation's supply of raw steel and oil respectively. The rise of these monopolies and trusts concerned many farmers, for they felt that the disappearance of competition would lead to erratic and unreasonable price rises that would hurt consumers. The farmers of the late 1800's had many reasons for being dissatisfied with their situation. Unfair railroad practices, such asrebates and

drawbacks, hurt them severely. However, in some cases, these farmers' complaints were not justified. Many of the fears that farmers had about monopolies, such as the idea of unfair and unreasonable price increases, happened in very few occasions; in fact, prices went down in the latter part of the nineteenth century. Finally, history has proven that their view of silver as a way to end deflation and the decrease in crop values was inaccurate. The farmers of the period, though, used these issues to change the shape of American politics and bring it face to face with the problems the country was facing.

5. To what extend did changes in the South from 1877 to 1900 reflect (a) the vision of the New South, and (b) traditional attitudes and policies?

After the Civil War, it took over 100 years for blacks to have the same equal rights as whites. Three amendments to the U.S. Constitution helped blacks have the same opportunities as whites and have the same right to vote. The Reconstruction Acts were also part of this fight. These made the South give blacks their political rights. Thus, it is unreasonable to believe that the South had achieved the standards described the New South; moreover, they were still majorly dependent on cotton and many freed blacks still worked in farm labor. Black rights, despite government initiative, fell to the back burners and left many blacks on the way side. In the 1870s, Southerners recognized the need to present a new image of themselves to the world and to stimulate economic development. Henry Grady, editor of the Atlanta Constitution, was a strong proponent of this "New South." In 1886 he spoke before the New England Society on the "New South." He stated the erasing of the Mason-Dixon line as a means of how the United States was one again; however, this was invariably false in a sense as every president until Nixon in 1972 never held a vote from the south. Grady went on and stated that industrial life had replaced agriculture which as I stated before is too untrue as many farmers were still dependent on cotton and the industrial conditions for workers was much worse in the south than the north. He lastly stated that blacks were now equal in the New South which is the most untrue of all as hundreds of thousands of blacks were murdered during the late nineteenth century and their rights were stripped away my such policies as the grandfather clause.

Terms

The Great American Desert: The Great American desert, the land between the western great plains and the Rocky Mountains, was one of the final “final frontiers” in the United States in the late 19th century. Because it was not considered desirable, the area became one of the last strongholds of independent American Indians. Railroad interests seeking rights-of-way through the region also benefited from the popular belief that the land was commercially valueless. By the mid-19th century, people had begun settling in the region despite its poor reputation. The local inhabitants came to realize the area was at the time well suited for farming, due in part to the fact that large portions of the region sit atop one of the world's largest underground reservoirs, the Ogallala Aquifer. Experts of the era proposed theories that maintained the earlier

reports had been accurate and the climate had changed. Some even credited the settlers themselves as having caused the change by planting crops and trees. The slogan "rain follows the plow" was created to describe this belief. Today these theories are discredited.

The Comstock Lode: In 1851, a gold strike in Australia fueled a migration to the other side of the globe by thousands of Californians; the Australian who discovered the gold had prospected in California. In 1858, prospectors surged to the Canadian northwest and to Colorado; furthermore, only miles from the Carson Valley trail used by so many Forty-niners a decade earlier, came the fabled Comstock Lode. The rush to the Comstock in 1859 virtually shut down the mines of California. A new era dawned, scientifically, economically, and socially.

By the late 1850s, thousands of gold seekers were doubling back from California, through the Western territories. Many were professional prospectors by now, roving from one small strike to the next. Others belonged to a new wave of novices, fleeing a severe financial depression back East.

Chinese Exclusion Act: In the spring of 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed by Congress and signed by President Chester A. Arthur. This act provided an absolute 10-year moratorium on Chinese labor immigration. For the first time, Federal law proscribed entry of an ethnic working group on the premise that it endangered the good order of certain localities. The Chinese Exclusion Act required the few nonworking laborers who sought entry to obtain certification from the Chinese government that they were qualified to immigrate. But this group found it increasingly difficult to prove that they were not laborers because the 1882 act defined ‘excludables’ as “skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in mining.” Thus very few Chinese could enter the country under the 1882 law. The 1882 exclusion act also placed new requirements on Chinese who had already entered the country. If they left the United States, they had to obtain certifications to re-enter. Congress, moreover, refused State and Federal courts the right to grant citizenship to Chinese resident aliens, although these courts could still deport them.

Frederick jackson Turner; frontier thesis: The Frontier Thesis is the argument advanced by historian Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893 that the origin of the distinctive equalitarian, democratic, aggressive, and innovative features of the American character has been the American frontier experience. He stressed the process—the moving frontier line—and the impact it had on pioneers going through the process. In the thesis, the frontier created freedom, by "breaking the bonds of custom, offering new experiences, calling out new institutions and activities." Turner first announced his thesis in a paper entitled "The Significance of the Frontier in American History". Turner is also know forr his theories of geographical sectionalism. In recent years western history has seen pitched arguments over his Frontier Thesis, with the only point of agreement being his enormous impact on historical scholarship and the American mind.

George Custer; Little Big Horn: In late 1875, Sioux and Cheyenne Indians defiantly left their reservations, outraged over the continued intrusions of whites into their sacred lands in the Black Hills. They gathered in Montana with the great warrior Sitting Bull to fight for their lands. The following spring, two victories over the US Cavalry emboldened them to fight on in the summer of 1876. George Armstrong Custer in an effort to force the large Indian army back to the reservations, dispatched three columns to attack in coordinated fashion, one of which contained Lt. Colonel George Custer and the Seventh Cavalry. Spotting the Sioux village about fifteen miles away along the Rosebud River on June 25, Custer also found a nearby group of about forty warriors. Ignoring orders to wait, he decided to attack before they could alert the main party. He did not realize that the number of warriors in the village numbered three times his strength. Dividing his forces in three, Custer sent troops under Captain Frederick Benteen to prevent their escape through the upper valley of the Little Bighorn River. Major Marcus Reno was to pursue the group, cross the river, and charge the Indian village in a coordinated effort with the remaining troops under his command. He hoped to strike the Indian encampment at the northern and southern ends simultaneously, but made this decision without knowing what kind of terrain he would have to cross before making his assault. He would lose the battle and has his entire battalion dead except for one.

Chief Joseph: was the chief of the Wallowa band of Nez Perce during General Oliver O. Howard's attempt to forcibly remove his band and the other "non-treaty" Nez Perce to a reservation in Idaho. For his principled resistance to the removal, he became renowned as a humanitarian and peacemaker. Chief Joseph commented "I clasped my father's hand and promised to do as he asked. A man who would not defend his father's grave is worse than a wild animal." The non-treaty Nez Perce suffered many injustices at the hands of settlers and prospectors, but out of fear of reprisal from the militarily superior Americans, Joseph never allowed any violence against them, instead making many concessions to them in hopes of securing peace.

Helen Hunt Jackson, A Century of Dishonor: was an American writer who became an activist to improve United States government treatment of Native Americans. She wrote newspaper articles and directly to government officials. In 1881, she published A Century of Dishonor, about the adverse effects of government actions, and sent a copy to each member of the US Congress. She gained the widest publicity with her novel Ramona, dramatizing the ill treatment by the United States government of Native Americans in Southern California. It was generally received more as a romance than political novel. In her novel, A Century of Dishonor, Jackson attempted to change government ideas/policy toward Native Americans at a time when effects of the 1871 Indian Appropriations Act had begun to draw the attention of the public.

Dawes Severalty Act: The Dawes Act was enacted on 8th February, 1887, by President Grover Cleveland and enforced distribution of land holdings among Native Americans, in Oklahoma. Though well-meaning, the Dawes Act worked against the Native Americans. It undermined their way of life and could not assimilate them in the American culture. The Natives lost vast stretches

of their land holdings, resulting in massive land losses and widespread displacement, poverty and despair. The unallocated remaining tribal lands was declared surplus and were opened for sale to the whites. The Act underwent two amendments in 1891 and again in 1906 by the Burke Act. The Dawes Severalty Act was revoked in 1934.

Indian Reorganization Act: When Congress adopted the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 (P.L. 73-383), in many respects it intended to allow Native Americans to resurrect their culture and traditions lost to government expansion and encroachment years earlier. The act replaced the Dawes Act, which broke up tribal lands and allotted them to individual members of tribes; traditionally the tribes held the land on reservations in a communal capacity. The Dawes Act also opened up surplus lands to non-American Indians. As a result of the Dawes Act, Native American lands totaling 138 million acres in 1887 had fallen to 48 million acres by 1934.These losses virtually destroyed traditional tribal government on the reservations. In essence, the federal government replaced tribal councils and courts that had once given the tribes autonomy with its own legal structures.

The Tuskagee Institute: During Reconstruction, the period following the American Civil War, the South was impoverished. Many blacks were illiterate and had few employable job skills. Many were concerned that, without an education, the recently freed former slaves would not be able to support themselves. Campbell, a merchant and a banker had little experience with educational institutions, but he was willing to contribute all of his resources and efforts to make the school a success. W.F. Foster, a white candidate for the Alabama Senate, came to Adams with a question. What would Adams want in return for securing the votes of African Americans in Macon County for Foster and another white candidate? In response, Adams asked for a normal school for the free men, freed slaves and their children to be established in the area. Inevitably after Foster’s election came the Tuskagee Institute after a 2,000 dollar grant from the state.

Civil Rights Case of 1883: Between 1866 and 1875, Congress passed several civil rights acts to implement the 13th and 14th amendments. One was the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which imposed various criminal penalties against private businesses that practiced racial discrimination. Penalties were imposed on any owner of a public establishment or conveyance who practiced racial discrimination in the conduct of his or her business. Many Northerners and Southerners opposed to Reconstruction saw the law as an infringement of personal freedom of choice. By the 1870s, various white supremacist groups, including the Ku Klux Klan, were using both nonviolent and violent means throughout the South to influence politics and intimidate African Americans. In 1877, when withdrawal of federal troops brought the Reconstruction period to a close, Southern legislatures began to pass laws and establish practices which created separate societies for whites and African Americans. A number of cases involving application of the federal law were collected in this case and presented to the Supreme Court during the term 1882-1883. African-American citizens protested their exclusion from a hotel dining room in Topeka, Kansas; from the opera in New York City; from the better seats of a San Francisco theater; and from a car set aside for ladies on a train.

Plessy V. Ferguson: In Plessy v. Ferguson, the U.S. Supreme Court decided that a Louisiana law mandating separate but equal accommodations for blacks and whites on intrastate railroads was constitutional. This decision provided the legal foundation to justify many other actions by state and local governments to socially separate blacks and whites. Plessy v. Ferguson was overturned in 1954 by Brown v. Board of Education. The arrest of Homer Plessy in June 1892 was part of a planned challenge to the 1890 Louisiana Separate Car Act by the Citizens' Committee to Test the Constitutionality of the Separate Car Law, a small group of black professionals in New Orleans. Soon after its organization in 1891, the committee appointed Albion Tourgée its legal representative. After successfully leading a test case in which the Louisiana district court declared forced segregation in railroad cars traveling between states to be unconstitutional, the committee was anxious to test the constitutionality of segregation on railroad cars operating solely within a single state. The committees strategy was to have someone with mixed blood violate the law, which would allow Tourgée to question the law's arbitrariness. Homer Plessy, a native of south Louisiana who could "pass" as white, agreed to be the test case. The committee arranged with the railroad conductor and with a private detective to detain Plessy until he was arrested. When Plessy appeared before the Louisiana district court, the court ruled that a state had the constitutional power to regulate railroad companies operating solely within its borders and concluded that the Louisiana Separate Car Act was constitutional. The decision was appealed to the state supreme court in 1893 and was appealed again to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1896. By the time Plessy v. Ferguson arrived at the Supreme Court, Tourgée and his colleagues had solidified their strategy. Tourgée argued that Plessy was denied his equal protection rights under the Fourteenth Amendment and violated the Thirteenth Amendment by perpetuating the essential features of slavery.

The Jim Crowe Laws: Jim Crow was the name of the racial caste system which operated primarily, but not exclusively in southern and border states, between 1877 and the mid-1960s. Jim Crow was more than a series of rigid anti-Black laws. It was a way of life. Under Jim Crow, African Americans were relegated to the status of second class citizens. Jim Crow represented the legitimization of anti-Black racism. Many Christian ministers and theologians taught that Whites were the Chosen people, Blacks were cursed to be servants, and God supported racial segregation.

Grandfather Clause; poll tax; literacy test: Since the imposition of those requirements also could impact the number of poor whites voting, Southern legislatures introduced the “grandfather clause," which exempted voters from the restrictions if their grandfathers had voted. This clearly eliminated the blacks. It was not until 1915 that the grandfather clauses were voided by the Supreme Court as a violation of the 15th Amendment. In U.S. practice, a poll tax was used as a de facto or implicit pre-condition of the exercise of the ability to vote. This tax emerged in some states of the United States in the late 19th century as part of the Jim Crow laws. After the ability to vote was extended to all races by the enactment of the Fifteenth Amendment, many Southern states enacted poll tax laws. As used by the states, the literacy test gained infamy as a means for

denying suffrage to African-Americans. Adopted by a number of southern states, the literacy test was applied in a patently unfair manner, as it was used to disfranchise many literate blacks while allowing many illiterate whites to vote. This was accomplished by making the test inordinately difficult and allowing test-givers to choose who had to take the test and who did not.

Ida B. Wells: was an African American journalist, newspaper editor and, with her husband, newspaper owner Ferdinand L. Barnett, an early leader in the civil rights movement. She documented the extent of lynching in the United States, and was also active in the women's rights movement and the women's suffrage movement. In 1892 she published a pamphlet titled Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases, and A Red Record, 1892–1894, which documented research on a lynching. Having examined many accounts of lynching based on alleged "rape of white women," she concluded that Southerners concocted rape as an excuse to hide their real reason for lynchings: black economic progress, which threatened not only white Southerners' pocketbooks, but also their ideas about black inferiority.

Booker T. Washington: Washington believed that the best interests of black people in the post-Reconstruction era could be realized through education in the crafts and industrial skills and the cultivation of the virtues of patience, enterprise, and thrift. He urged his fellow blacks, most of whom were impoverished and illiterate farm labourers, to temporarily abandon their efforts to win full civil rights and political power and instead to cultivate their industrial and farming skills so as to attain economic security. He was a vital component in the early civil rights movement for blacks even though he himself was mulotto.

Granger Laws: Granger laws, so-called because they were advocated by the Patrons of Husbandry, or Grange, were state laws designed to regulate railroad and grain warehouse rates. Such laws were upheld as constitutional in "Munn v. Illinois", but in the Wabash case (1886), the Supreme Court ruled that the regulation of interstate trade was an exclusive power of the national government.

Munn V Illinois: was a United States Supreme Court case dealing with corporate rates and agriculture. The Munn case allowed states to regulate certain businesses within their borders, including railroads, and is commonly regarded as a milestone in the growth of federal government regulation. The Supreme Court decided that the Fourteenth Amendment, because the Grangers asserted their due process right to property was being violated, did not prevent the State of Illinois from regulating charges for use of a business' grain elevators. Instead, the decision focused on the question of whether or not a private company could be regulated in the public interest. The court's decision was that it could, if the private company could be seen as a utility operating in the public interest.

Wabash V Illinois: was a Supreme Court decision that severely limited the rights of states to control interstate commerce. It led to the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission. The Wabash decision led to the creation in 1887 of the first modern regulatory agency, the Interstate

Commerce Commission. It was one of the first instances in government assuming responsibility for economic affairs that had previously been delegated to the states.

Interstate Commerce Act: As the United States continued to industrialize in the second half of the nineteenth century, Americans became more and more concerned about the unfair competition created by monopolies. In particular, railroads were able to control their markets and manipulate rates to their own advantage. A number of states, including Ohio, had unsuccessfully attempted to regulate railroads before 1887. Ohio had created a state commission to report on railroad and telegraph rates as early as 1867, but this commission did not have any authority to change rates or to order the railroad companies to change their policies. As a result of the failure of states to regulate railroads, the United States Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887. The Interstate Commerce Act required that railroads charge fair rates to their customers and make those rates public. This legislation also created the Interstate Commerce Commission, which had the authority to investigate and prosecute companies who violated the law.

Ocala Platform: During the 1880s an agricultural depression in the South and Great Plains gave rise to several agrarian lobbying organizations, including the Southern Farmers' Alliance and the National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial Union. Under the leadership of Leonidas Polk and Charles Macune, the two organizations met at Ocala, Florida, in December 1890 to demand government support for the nation's depressed farmers. The Ocala Platform demanded, among other things, the abolition of national banks, a graduated income tax, free and unlimited coinage of silver, the establishment of sub treasuries where farmers could obtain money at less than 2 percent on nonperishable products, and the election of U.S. senators by a direct vote of the people. When neither major party adopted the Ocala demands, the disgruntled farmers turned to direct political action on their own behalf. In July 1892 they organized the Populist Party at Omaha, Nebraska, and nominated James B. Weaver as their presidential candidate. Weaver garnered 1 million votes; carried the states of Colorado, Kansas, Nevada, and Idaho; but finished third in the race. In 1896 the Populist Party fused with the Democratic Party in support of William Jennings Bryan's presidential campaign.

Ch. 17

Multiple Choice

1. D2. D3. D4. D5. D6. D

7. D8. D9. D10. D

Essays

Social Darwinism: is a belief which states that the strongest or fittest should survive and flourish in society, while the weak and unfit should be allowed to die. The theory was chiefly expounded by Herbert Spencer, whose ethical philosophies always held an elitist view and received a boost from the application of Darwinian ideas such as adaptation and natural selection. Herbert Spencer, the father of Social Darwinism as an ethical theory, was thinking in terms of elitist, "might makes right" sorts of views long before Darwin published his theory. However, Spencer quickly adapted Darwinian ideas to his own ethical theories. The concept of adaptation allowed him to claim that the rich and powerful were better adapted to the social and economic climate of the time, and the concept of natural selection allowed him to argue that it was natural, normal, and proper for the strong to thrive at the expense of the weak. After all, he claimed, that is exactly what goes on in nature every day.

Herbert Spencer: British philosopher and sociologist, Herbert Spencer was a major figure in the intellectual life of the Victorian era. He was one of the principal proponents of evolutionary theory in the mid nineteenth century, and his reputation at the time rivaled that of Charles Darwin. Spencer was initially best known for developing and applying evolutionary theory to philosophy, psychology and the study of society. Spencer’s method was also synthetic. The purpose of each science or field of investigation was to accumulate data and to derive from these phenomena the basic principles or laws or ‘forces’ which gave rise to them.

Samuel F. B. Morse: was an American contributor to the invention of a single-wire telegraph system based on European telegraphs, co-inventor of the Morse code. By 1838, at an exhibition of his telegraph in New York, Morse transmitted ten words per minute. He had dispensed with his number-word dictionary, using instead the dot-dash code directly for letters.

Alexander Graham Bell: A pioneer in the field of telecommunications, Alexander Graham Bell was born in 1847 in Edinburgh, Scotland. He moved to Ontario, and then to the United States, settling in Boston, before beginning his career as an inventor. Throughout his life, Bell had been interested in the education of deaf people. This interest lead him to invent the microphone and, in 1876, his "electrical speech machine," which we now call a telephone. News of his invention quickly spread throughout the country, even throughout Europe. By 1878, Bell had set up the first telephone exchange in New Haven, Connecticut. By 1884, long distance connections were made between Boston, Massachusetts and New York City.

Thomas A. Edison: was an American inventor, scientist, and businessman who developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and a long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Edison is considered one of the most prolific inventors in history, holding 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as many patents in the United Kingdom, France, and Germany. He is credited with numerous inventions that contributed to mass communication and, in particular, telecommunications. Edison originated the concept and implementation of electric-power generation and distribution to homes, businesses, and factories.

George Westinghouse: George Westinghouse was responsible for the introduction and development of alternating current for light and power. With the desire to turn ideas into enterprises, he founded Westinghouse Electric and 59 other companies, eventually receiving over 100 patents for his work. A continuing interest in railroads led Westinghouse to his first major invention. Observing the problems and limitations of stopping trains by manually-operated brakes, he devised a method of using brakes actuated by compressed air. He turned this idea into the Westinghouse Air Brake Company, founded in 1869. With additional features added to the design, the air brake became widely accepted, and the Railroad Safety Appliance Act of 1893 made air brakes compulsory on all American trains. Eventually, the use of air brakes spread to Europe, and under Westinghouse's lead, brake equipment became standardized.

Sears, Roebuck; Montgomery Ward: In 1886, Richard Sears bought an unwanted shipment of gold watches from a Chicago jewelry shop. The purchase changed the course of his life. The sales that he made from those watches launched a career as a watch retailer. Later, Sears hired watchmaker Alvah C. Roebuck to assist him. After some time working together, they decided to start a company by the name of Sears, Roebuck and Co. It was not until 1896 that Ward experienced his first serious competition, Sears, Roebuck and Co., which managed to surpass Ward's business in 1900. The company became very profitable, and in 1895 the partners offered their mail-in catalog, which illustrated shoes, garments, wagons, fishing tackle, stoves, furniture, saddles, bicycles, and much more. The move brought Sears into direct competition with Montgomery Ward's "Wish Book" that had been in circulation since 1883. As the demand for more products grew, Sears, Roebuck and Co. built numerous stores throughout the United States, which became a record expansion over a six-year period. Today the company is the owner of such major brand name products as Kenmore, Craftsman, Die-Hard, and Tuff-skin.

Horatio Alger: was a prolific 19th-century American author, best known for his many formulaic juvenile novels about impoverished boys and their rise from humble backgrounds to lives of respectable middle-class security and comfort through hard work, determination, courage, and honesty. He initially wrote and published for adults, but a friendship with boys' author William Taylor Adams led him to writing for the young. He published for years in Adams's Student and Schoolmate, a boys' magazine of moral writings. His lifelong theme of "rags to respectability" had a profound impact on America in the Gilded Age. His works gained even greater popularity following his death, but gradually lost reader interest in the 1920s.

scab; lockout; blacklist; yellow-dog contract; injunction: Scabs were unemployed persons desperate for jobs. Lockouts were when closing a factory broke out in a labor movement. Yellow-dog contracts were the names of prounion workers. And lastly injunctions were agreements not to join a union, for strikes (a tactic used to defeat unions).

Railroad Strike of 1877: The depression of the 1870s forced the American railroads into a cost-cutting mode. The workers for the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad went on strike in 1877 after receiving a second pay cut within a short period of time. Violence erupted; state militia units were brought in, but often proved to be ineffective because of their sympathy for the strikers. Responding to a request from the governor of West Virginia, President Hayes dispatched federal forces to protect the railroad—the first use of such soldiers in a labor matter. The rationale for the show of strength was the government's need to protect the mails. Demonstrations, general strikes and violence occurred in cities across the nation. Pittsburgh was the scene of the greatest loss of life and property damage. Massive intervention by the federal government sank the strikers' spirits and buoyed those of management. The workers eventually capitulated, but harbored ill feeling against Hayes for his action. The strike of 1877 was most violent labor-management confrontation to that point in American history. It was the starting signal for an era of strife between workers and owners.

The Knights of Labor: In 1869, the Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor, which initially offered a more reasoned approach to solving labor problems, was established in Philadelphia. At its inception, the KOL comprised nine tailors whose leader was Uriah S. Stephens. The organization believed that its predecessors had failed by limiting membership; the Knights proposed to organize both skilled and unskilled workers in the same union and opened their doors to blacks and women. In its early years, the organization was highly secret since in many areas union members were summarily fired. The Knights developed ornate rituals, drawn from Freemasonry,* to govern their meetings. By the early 1880s, the group had emerged as a national force and had dropped its initial secrecy. They sought to include within their ranks everyone but doctors, bankers, lawyers, liquor producers and gamblers.

Terrence v. Powderly: Terence Powderly, son of Irish immigrants, was born in Carbondale, Pennsylvania. He began working for the railroad at age 13 and was later apprenticed in a machine shop. In 1871, Powderly joined the Machinists’ and Blacksmiths’ National Union and rapidly rose through positions of leadership in the organization. In 1874, Powderly joined the Knights of Labor and by 1879 had succeeded Uriah Stephens as its leader. During the next dozen years, the Knights achieved their greatest influence and numerical strength. Powderly was personally opposed to the use of work stoppages, but strikes brought them increased power. The high-water mark was undoubtedly the taming of Jay Gould and his Missouri Pacific Railroad in 1885. Powderly also tried to broaden the KOL's appeal by diminishing the roles of secrecy and ritual. He worked with the noted American bishop, James Gibbons, to persuade the pope to remove sanctions against Roman Catholics who joined unions. In the end, the Knights’ very success was their undoing. The rapidly expanding membership rolls — at one time as high as

700,000—fractured the leadership and many of the local leaders pursued their own radical courses. In 1893, Powderly resigned from the union because of protracted internal quarreling.

Harmarket bombing (1886): A bomb went off amidst a group of policemen at a labor rally called by Albert Parsons and Samuel Feldman. The rally took place at the end of a peaceful four-day nationwide strike calling for an eight-hour work day. The bomb blast killed one policeman and wounded many more. This event discredited the labor movement. On May 1, the American labor movement seemed to have reached new heights. Over 100,000 workers took part in a nationwide job action calling for the institution of an eight-hour work day. Five days later, many of the advances that the laborers had achieved were lost. The bomb that went off at the Hay Market Labor Rally turned public opinion against their movement. A year later, the six who were convicted of setting the bomb were hung.

American Federation of Labor: was one of the first federations of labor unions in the United States. It was founded in 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a national labor association. Samuel Gompers was elected president of the Federation at its founding convention and was reelected every year except one until his death. As the Knights of Labor faded away, the AFL coalition gradually gained strength. In practice, AFL unions were important in industrial cities, where they formed a central labor office to coordinate the actions of different AFL unions. Most strikes were assertions of jurisdiction, so that the plumbers, for example, used strikes to ensure that all major construction projects in the city used union plumbers. To win they needed the support of other unions, hence the need for AFL solidarity. Gompers promoted harmony among the different craft unions that comprised the AFL. Focused on higher wages and job security, the AFL fought against socialism and the Socialist party. After 1907 it formed alliances with the Democratic party at the local, state and national levels. The AFL enthusiastically supported the war effort in World War I, and saw rapid growth in union membership and wage rates.

Samuel Gompers: Samuel Gompers was the first and longest-serving president of the American Federation of Labor; it is to him, as much as to anyone else, that the American labor movement owes its structure and characteristic strategies. Under his leadership, the AFL became the largest and most influential labor federation in the world. It grew from a marginal association of 50,000 in 1886 to an established organization of nearly 3 million in 1924 that had won a permanent place in American society. In a society renowned for its individualism and the power of its employer class, he forged a self-confident workers' organization dedicated to the principles of solidarity and mutual aid.

Homestead Strike: The Homestead Steel Works, located southeast of Pittsburgh, was an important segment of Andrew Carnegie's empire. Management and labor had been locked in negotiations for several months when plant general manager Henry C. Frick announced wage cuts of nearly 20 percent. The union balked at the reductions and Frick closed the plant on June 30. On July 6, the displaced workers opened fire on a barge loaded with 300 Pinkerton agents

who were being brought in as strikebreakers. A battle raged for several hours. Three Pinkerton agents and seven strikers (or their supporters) were killed; later, several other men died from their wounds. The workers initially thought they had won a great victory since the management forces had to withdraw. In fact, the Homestead strike was a total defeat for the workers and unionism as a whole.

Pullman Strike: The most famous and far reaching labor conflict in a period of severe economic depression and social unrest, the Pullman Strike began May 11, 1894, with a walkout by Pullman Palace Car Company factory workers after negotiations over declining wages failed. These workers appealed for support to the American Railway Union (ARU), which argued unsuccessfully for arbitration. On June 20, the ARU gave notice that beginning June 26 its membership would no longer work trains that included Pullman cars. The boycott, although centered in Chicago, crippled railroad traffic nationwide, until the federal government intervened in early July, first with a comprehensive injunction essentially forbidding all boycott activity and then by dispatching regular soldiers to Chicago and elsewhere.

Eugene v. Debs: Debs in 1893 became president of the American Railway Union, the first effective industrial union in the United States. The ARU made its mark in 1894 with a successful strike against the Great Northern Railway, when not a wheel moved on the railway for 18 days, until the company finally granted the union's demands. On May 11th, 1894 the Pullman boycott and strike in Chicago began, and on July 23rd Debs and the leaders of the ARU were jailed for defying a federal injunction to return to work. In May 1895 Debs and the leaders of the ARU found themselves back in jail, but this time it was for contempt of court in connection with the Pullman strike. While in detention, Debs read widely and was deeply impressed by the writings of Karl Marx. His sentence was finished in November of that year. He emerged from prison convinced that the plight of the worker was most accurately viewed as a class struggle. Debs supported William Jennings Bryan in the Election of 1896, but turned to socialism the following year. He was a founder of the Social Democratic Party, and later the Socialist Party of America. Debs was the Socialist presidential nominee in 1900, when he ran poorly, and 1904, when he had ran a much stronger campaign.

Ch. 18

Essays

1. “The Experience of the new immigrants in the late 19th century was little different from the experience of preceding groups of immigrants to the United States.” Assess the validity of this statement.

In the 1890s all the way until the outbreak of World War I, there was a notable change in the national origins of most immigrants. The “new” immigrants came from the southern and eastern sections of Europe. They were primarily Italian, Greek, Croatian, Slovak, Polish and Russian. Many were opor and illiterate peasants who had left autocratic countries and therefore were

unaccustomed to democratic traditions. Unlike the earlier groups of Protestant immigrants, the newcomers were largely Roman catholic, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox and Jewish. On arrival, most new immigrants crowded into poor ethnic neighborhoods in urban inter-cities such as New York and Chicago. Around 25 percent of them were “birds of passage,” young men contracted for unskilled factory, mining and construction jobs, ho would return to their native lands once they had saved a fair sum of money to bring back to their families. It had become apparent in this time the shift of immigration from not only racial variance but cultural and religious alterations in immigrants.

2. Explain how three of the following factors changed American cities between 1865 and 1900

Immigration: n the late 1800s, people in many parts of the world decided to leave their homes and immigrate to the United States. Fleeing crop failure, land and job shortages, rising taxes, and famine, many came to the U. S. because it was perceived as the land of economic opportunity. Others came seeking personal freedom or relief from political and religious persecution. With hope for a brighter future, nearly 12 million immigrants arrived in the United States between 1870 and 1900. During the 1870s and 1880s, the vast majority of these people were from Germany, Ireland, and England--the principal sources of immigration before the Civil War. That would change drastically in the next three decades. Once settled, immigrants looked for work. There were never enough jobs, and employers often took advantage of the immigrants. The newcomers helped transform American society and culture, demonstrating that diversity, as well as unity, is a source of national strength.

Transportation: Transportation in this period had transformed in many ways; many were on the brink of innovation such as Diesel, the inventor of the engine used in cars. However, this innovation was not yet accessible to the masses, thus the use of carriages and trains was still most reasonable. In the cities of the United States such as in San Francisco and New York, trollies systems began to carve routes throughout downtown making quick routes faster and easier.

Architecture: Architecture in this era was extensively diverse in a sense. The art styles included shingling, Queen Anne styling, and Stick Styling. The Stick Style embodies the idea that architecture should be truthful. Primarily seen in residences, a Stick Style building expressed its inner structure through the use of exterior ornament such as trim boards. These trim boards were often applied to gable ends and upper floors in order to symbolize the structural skeleton. The Queen Anne style can be summarized in one word: eclecticism. The rich, picturesque style is characterized by an asymmetrical silhouette shaped by turrets, towers, gables, and bays. Ideally suited to sprawling, free-standing residences, the Queen Anne style can also be seen in the urban row houses of the late 1800's. Popular in New England, the Shingle Style was less ornate and more horizontal than the typical Queen Anne house. Shingle Style houses were often rambling

two or three story structures almost exclusively covered with wooden shingles at all exterior surfaces.

3. The growth of urban poverty was a concern of may reformers in the late 19th century. Compare and contrast the response to poverty taken by three of the following:

Jane Addams was the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In a long, complex, career, she was a pioneer settlement worker and founder of, Hull House in Chicago, public philosopher sociologist, author, and leader in woman suffrage and world peace. She emphasized that women have a special responsibility to clean up their communities and make them better places to live, arguing they needed the vote to be effective. Henry George was an American writer, politician and political economist, who was the most influential proponent of the land value tax, also known as the "single tax" on land. He inspired the philosophy and economic ideology known as Georgism, which is that everyone owns what he or she creates, but that everything found in nature, most importantly land, belongs equally to all humanity. His most famous work is Progress and Poverty written during 1879. Frances Willard was an American educator, temperance reformer, and women's suffragist. Her influence was instrumental in the passage of the Eighteenth (Prohibition) and Nineteenth (Women Suffrage) Amendments to the United States Constitution.

The differences among the preceding icons of the late 19th century in terms of concern of urban reform are among their means of anthropology. Addams for example worked directly within urban cities in order to clean up communities while George sought to aide the needy indirectly through political policies. On the other hand, he is comparable to Willard as they both sought to cleanse the stains of society through political policy making.

4. “the creative arts in the United States produced little of worth during the materialistic Gilded Age (1865-1900).” assess the validity of this statement with respect to three of the following:

Literature: during this age, Literature witnessed a backlash to the preceding age of Romanticism. Realism and symbolism arose as dominant writing styles. For example, Mark Twain’s novel The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn combined the two genres and satirically mocked both romanticism and southern culture in the pre war south. Moreover, this validates the statement in the perspective of cultured people since this age withdrew from the previous gawkiness of romanticism and more so into simplistic literature.

Music: Music in this age was very politically driven. In this age, women suffrage was still a seemingly joke amongst masculine biased males. However, through music, suffragists called for their equality. The quote remains true under the perspective of males during the Gilded Age as they would have perceived music as meaningless in fashion.

Architecture: As in the case of literature, the style of architecture shifted from overly dramatized constructions into more so realistic stylings. This age preceded the era of art deco which would be prominent in the following age. But during this time, simple shingling or statute stylings were in fashion. This again validates the statement as architecture did not expand much during this age as in others.

5. “An analysis of the popular culture of the United States from 1865 to 1900 reveals deep class, gender and ethnic or racial divisions.” Assess the validity of this statement.

The validity of this statement is completely true is all aspects. There is a reason why this age is referred to as the Gilded Age; because on the outside, such as through political policy making and/or artistic movements, the age seemed progressive in social settings; however, when analyzed deeper is made apparent how backwards this age was. Class division was a major component of this era as immigrants from southern and eastern Europe made up the large lower class along with disenfranchised workers, the middle class was dissolving and moving out west in search of agrarian wellbeing which too failed, while the rich just got richer despite some anthropological aristocrats. Gender wise, women were still not seen as full equals of men. Despite the motivations of women suffragists and motivators, their voting rights were still seen as unimportant and erroneous. Lastly, racially and ethnically the country had improved politically policy wise, but the south still saw major horrors brought along by white supremacists.

Multiple Choice

1. D2. D3. D4. D5. D6. D7. D8. D9. D10. D

Terms

“old immigrants”: The nonchalant term used to describe the initial immigrants to the United States. It was coined in order to note the difference between the new coming immigrants of eastern and southern Europe from the western and northern immigrants who had migrated half a century earlier.

“new immigrants”: the coined term used in the late nineteenth century in order to describe the new immigrants coming from southern and eastern Europe. It was used in order to note the difference in ethnicity and culture from that of the old immigrants form western and northern Europe.

Chinese Exclusion Act: In the spring of 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed by Congress and signed by President Chester A. Arthur. This act provided an absolute 10-year moratorium on Chinese labor immigration. For the first time, Federal law proscribed entry of an ethnic working group on the premise that it endangered the good order of certain localities. The Chinese Exclusion Act required the few nonlaborers who sought entry to obtain certification from the Chinese government that they were qualified to immigrate. But this group found it increasingly difficult to prove that they were not laborers because the 1882 act defined excludables as “skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in mining.” Thus very few Chinese could enter the country under the 1882 law.

Frederic Law Olmsted: was an American journalist, landscape designer and is popularly considered to be the father of American landscape architecture, although many scholars have bestowed that title upon Andrew Jackson Downing. Olmsted was famous for co-designing many well-known urban parks with his senior partner, Calvert Vaux, including Central Park and Prospect Park in New York City

Henry George, Progress and Poverty: he is known mostly for his philosophy which is that everyone owns what he or she creates, but that everything found in nature, most importantly land, belongs equally to all humanity. His most famous work is Progress and Poverty written during 1879; it is a treatise on inequality, the cyclic nature of industrial economies and possible remedies.

Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward: was an American author and socialist, most famous for his utopian novel, Looking Backward, set in the year 2000. This political movement came to be known as Nationalism, not to be confused with the political concept of nationalism. The novel also inspired several utopian communities.

Jane Addams: She was the most prominent woman of the Progressive Era and helped turn the nation to issues of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, public health and world peace. She emphasized that women have a special responsibility to clean up their communities and make them better places to live, arguing they needed the vote to be effective. Addams became a role model for middle-class women who volunteered to uplift their communities. She is increasingly being recognized as a member of the American pragmatist school of philosophy.

Walter Raschenbusch: was a Christian theologian and Baptist minister. He was a key figure in the Social Gospel movement in the United States of America. In 1892, Rauschenbusch and some friends formed a group called the Brotherhood of the Kingdom. The group's charter declared that "the Spirit of God is moving men in our generation toward a better understanding of the idea of

the Kingdom of God on earth," and that their intention was to reestablish this idea in the thought of the church, and to assist in its practical realization in the world."

Frances E. Willard: Willard's ideas of temperance had clashed with those of the university president, Charles H. Fowler, the same man to whom she had been engaged in 1861. The conflicts escalated, and in March of 1874, Frances Willard chose to leave the University and accepted the presidency of the Chicago Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). In October she became corresponding secretary of the Illinois WCTU, and in November, corresponding secretary of the national WCTU, a position which required frequent travel and speaking. From 1876, she also headed up the WCTU publications committee. Willard was also associated briefly with evangalist Dwight Moody, disappointed when she realized he only wanted her to speak to women.

Johns Hopkins University: The Johns Hopkins University opened in 1876, with the inauguration of its first president, Daniel Coit Gilman. The mission laid out by Gilman remains the university's mission today, summed up in a simple but powerful restatement of Gilman's own words: "Knowledge for the world." What Gilman created was a research university, dedicated to advancing both students' knowledge and the state of human knowledge through research and scholarship. Gilman believed that teaching and research are interdependent, that success in one depends on success in the other. A modern university, he believed, must do both well. The realization of Gilman's philosophy at Johns Hopkins, and at other institutions that later attracted Johns Hopkins-trained scholars, revolutionized higher education in America, leading to the research university system as it exists today.

Oliver Wendell Holmes: was an American jurist who served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1902 to 1932. Noted for his long service, his concise and pithy opinions, and his deference to the decisions of elected legislatures, he is one of the most widely cited United States Supreme Court justices in history, particularly for his "clear and present danger" majority opinion in the 1919 case of Schenck v. United States, and is one of the most influential American common law judges. Holmes retired from the Court at the age of 90, making him the oldest Justice in the Supreme Court's history.

Clarence Darrow: was an American lawyer and leading member of the American Civil Liberties Union, best known for defending teenage thrill killers Leopold and Loeb in their trial for murdering 14-year-old Bobby Franks (1924) and defending John T. Scopes in the Scopes Trial (1925), in which he opposed William Jennings Bryan. Called a "sophisticated country lawyer", he remains notable for his wit and agnosticism, which marked him as one of the most famous American lawyers and civil libertarians.

W.E.B. Du Bois: He was one of the most influential black leaders of the first half of the 20th Century. Dubois shared in the founding of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, or NAACP, in 1909. He served as its director of research and editor of its

magazine, "Crisis," until 1934. Dubois was the first African American to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1896. Between 1897 and 1914 Dubois conducted numerous studies of black society in America, publishing 16 research papers. He began his investigations believing that social science could provide answers to race problems. Gradually he concluded that in a climate of virulent racism, social change could only be accomplished by agitation and protest. At the turn of the century Dubois had been a supporter of black capitalism. Throughout his career he moved steadily to the political left. By 1905 he had been drawn to socialist ideas and remained sympathetic to Marxism throughout his life. Dubois acted in support of integration and equal rights for everyone regardless of race, but his thinking often exhibited a degree of black separatist-nationalist tendencies. In 1961 Dubois became completely disillusioned with the United States. He moved to Ghana, joined the Communist Party, and a year later renounced his American Citizenship.

Mark Twain: Samuel Langhorne Clemens better known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American author and humorist. He is noted for his novels Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), called "the Great American Novel", and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876). He achieved great success as a writer and public speaker. His wit and satire earned praise from critics and peers, and he was a friend to presidents, artists, industrialists, and European royalty.

Stephen Crane: An exemplary novelist of realism, Henry Fleming's experience as a new recruit and his struggles internal and external while under fire was hailed as a remarkable achievement for Crane and remains in print today. Crane lived a very short but eventful life author and publisher Irving Bacheller hired him as reporter and he travelled across America, to Mexico, down to Cuba to report on the Spanish-American conflict, and later to Greece. He was respected by many authors, among them Henry James and H.G. Wells, and influenced many others including Joseph Conrad and Ernest Hemingway.

Jack London: Once Jack had resolved himself to succeed as an author, his diligent habits and innate skills catapulted him far beyond most of his literary peers in both perspective and content. By following a strict writing regimen of 1,000 words a day, he was able to produce a huge quantity of high quality work over a period of eighteen years. Jack had become the best-selling, highest paid and most popular American author of his time. He was prolific: fifty-one of his books and hundreds of his articles had been published. He had written thousands of letters. His most notable books include The Call of the Wild (originally entitled “The Sleeping Wolf”) which was published in 1903, The Iron Heel, White Fang, The Sea-Wolf (originally entitled “Mercy of the Sea”), The People of the Abyss (a sociological treatise about the slums of London, England), John Barleycorn, Martin Eden, and The Star Rover. This American literary genius brilliantly and compassionately portrayed his life and times, as well as the never ending struggles of man and nature.

Winslow Homer: was an American landscape painter and printmaker, best known for his marine subjects. He is considered one of the foremost painters in 19th century America and a preeminent

figure in American art. Largely self-taught, Homer began his career working as a commercial illustrator. He subsequently took up oil painting and produced major studio works characterized by the weight and density he exploited from the medium. He also worked extensively in watercolor, creating a fluid and prolific oeuvre, primarily chronicling his working vacations.

James McNeill Whistler: Although a contemporary of the Impressionists, Whistler walked his own path from the Realism of Courbet to an aesthetic approach of "Art for Art's Sake." As one of the first westerners to be influenced by the artistic tradition of Japan, Whistler developed an aesthetic response to living. The Japanese made no distinction between fine and decorative art. His appreciation of this led Whistler to a wide range of artistic pursuits. In addition to his canvasses in a wide variety of media, Whistler collaborated with the architect E.W. Godwin in the design of a house as well as furniture. His famous "Peacock Room" is a milestone in interior decoration. Before Whistler, the visitor to an art gallery would be confronted by a wall-full of paintings hung from baseboard to ceiling. Whistler pioneered the modern style of sparse galleries, involving himself intimately in the presentation of his work. He even went so far as to have the gallery attendant attired in colors that would harmonize with the paintings on display.

Frederick Law Olmsted: an American journalist, landscape designer and is popularly considered to be the father of American landscape architecture, although many scholars have bestowed that title upon Andrew Jackson Downing. Olmsted was famous for co-designing many well-known urban parks with his senior partner, Calvert Vaux, including Central Park and Prospect Park in New York City

John Phillip Sousa: It is arguably the most famous march in the world and it's certainly one of the best. It is recognized by the U.S. government as the official march of the United States (U.S. Code, Title 36, Section 304). It has original lyrics by Sousa and some other words you may have learned as a child that are definitely not by Sousa ("Be Kind To Your Web-Footed Friends"). With crashing cymbals, bombastic brass and chirping piccolos, "The Stars and Stripes Forever!" gets millions of people on their feet, clapping and cheering every year.

Jelly Roll Morton: Jelly Roll Morton was the first great composer and piano player of Jazz. He was a talented arranger who wrote special scores that took advantage of the three-minute limitations of the 78 rpm records. But more than all these things, he was a real character whose spirit shines brightly through history, like his diamond studded smile. As a teenager Jelly Roll Morton worked in the whorehouses of Storyville as a piano player. From 1904 to 1917 Jelly Roll rambled around the South. He worked as a gambler, pool shark, pimp, vaudeville comedian and as a pianist. He was an important transitional figure between ragtime and jazz piano styles. He played on the West Coast from 1917 to 1922 and then moved to Chicago and where he hit his stride.

Scot Joplin;ragtime: was an American composer and pianist. He achieved fame for his unique ragtime compositions, and was dubbed the "King of Ragtime." During his brief career, Joplin

wrote 44 original ragtime pieces, one ragtime ballet, and two operas. One of his first pieces, the "Maple Leaf Rag", became ragtime's first and most influential hit, and has been recognized as the archetypal rag. He was born into a musical African-American family of laborers in eastern Texas, and developed his musical knowledge with the help of local teachers. During the late 1880s he traveled around the American South as an itinerant musician, and went to Chicago for the World's Fair of 1893 which played a major part in making ragtime a national craze by 1897.

Joseph Pulitzer; New York World: was a Hungarian-American newspaper publisher of the St. Louis Post Dispatch and the New York World. Pulitzer introduced the techniques of "new journalism" to the newspapers he acquired in the 1880s and became a leading national figure in the Democratic party. He crusaded against big business and corruption. In the 1890s the fierce competition between his World and William R. Hearst's New York Journal introduced yellow journalism and opened the way to mass circulation newspapers that depended on advertising revenue and appealed to the reader with multiple forms of news, entertainment and advertising.

P.T. Barnum; James A. Balley: Barnum was an American showman, businessman, and entertainer, remembered for promoting celebrated hoaxes and for founding the circus that became the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus. As a boy, James Anthony Bailey travelled with an itinerant circus. In 1872 he became a partner in James E. Cooper’s Circus, later called the Great International Circus.

Ch. 19

Multiple Choice

1. D2. D3. D4. D5. D6. D7. D

Essays

1. “the rise of the Greenback and the Populist parties in the late 19th century was evidence that the two major parties were failing to address critical problems” Assess the validity of this statement.

This statement is both valid and invalid in some sense. During the terms of President Garfield the idea of Laissez Faire (or in macroeconomics terms is called a Classical Economy) the government was uninterested in any form of government aide to those hurt by both frictional and structural unemployment. Despite numerous marches on Washington, Garfield held his ground

and many were hurt from the lack of aide. Arising from this government dissatisfaction among citizens led to the creation of such parties as the Populist and Socialist Parties. However, during this era, certain groups were looked upon with special needs such as veterans under the terms of Ulysses S. Grant. Freed blacks were also looked upon with pardon for the most part by the federal government even though socially blacks remained oppressed. Furthermore, for example, the populist party was made up primarily of workers and farmers; this exemplified the separation of classes and lack of political realization that the ideals of many middle class people were not being accounted for.

2. “the low quality of American politics during the Gilded Age resulted because the best people did not go into national politics.” Assess the validity of this statement.

The validity of this statement is vague in a sense as many strong and stern politicians were active politically; however, some politicians reached executive offices through disharmonious ways. For example, the elections of the latter half of the nineteenth century were conducted under negative campaigns and dramatic/gawky campaigns. In this way, politicians reached executive jobs, such as the five mediocre presidents who followed Lincoln, sometimes without the right attributes. Moreover, social and racial oppression kept many from going into politics. For a black to run for an executive office would be laughable at the time. Despite the black political activism in the south, the north still primarily ran the south overruling black legislature. The black politicians were more so a “gild” used by northern politicians. Thus, blacks were not inherently active in national politics. Furthermore, the reasoning for the gilded age cannot be connected to merely poor politicians, it is more so based on social backwardness in the south, lack of regulation of legislature by the federal government and the lack of social (non governmental) leadership.

3. Evaluate the federal government’s efforts to deal with the Panic of 1893 and subsequent depression.

As I have mentioned before, during this era the idea of Laissez Faire was withheld by most executive leaders. This ideals means literally “hands off”; that the economy is sturdy enough that it will cyclically bounce up and down and that government interaction would crash the cycle. However, despite the goodwill that resounds from this philosophy, it was very harsh to those who suffer during economic recessions. For example, during the Garfield administration, President Garfield withheld from aiding those frictionally and cyclically unemployed from the recession. Despite the marches on Washington and the suffering of many people, he would no budge. From my stand point after studying Macroeconomics, I realize how inherently ignorant

this philosophy is. After the lessons learned from the Great Depression, a more Keynesian philosophy would have been more appropriate for the time instead of a Classical ideology. The Keynesian idea of a fiscal policy would have helped the frictionally unemployed find jobs and help boost the economy back to equilibrium. However, due to the stubbornness of Garfield, the recession lasted for three years and countless jobs were lost. On the other hand, at the time, that was the appropriate measures to take by the executive branch of government; the United States had not yet learned the effects of a depression. The Panic actually was a serious economic depression in the United States that began in that year. Similar to the Panic of 1873, this panic was marked by the collapse of railroad overbuilding and shaky railroad financing which set off a series of bank failures. Compounding market overbuilding and a railroad bubble was a run on the gold supply and a policy of using both gold and silver metals as a peg for the US Dollar value. Until the Great Depression, the Panic of '93 was considered the worst depression the United States had ever experienced.

4. Explain the reasons (a) for the rise of the Populist party before 1896 and (b) its decline after the election in that year

The Populist part saw a boost in activity majorly due to the Republican party’s major setbacks of 1890. The growing agrarian discontent in the South and West would foster the growth even more. Members of the Farmers’ Alliances elected U.S. senators and representatives, the governors of several states and majorities in four state legislatures in the West. The Omaha platform provided the foundation of the new political part; their called for political and economic reforms: politically, it demanded the restoration of government to the people by means of direct popular election and the enacting of state laws by voters themselves through initiatives and referendums placed on the ballot; economically, the populists were even more ambitious as they called for unlimited coinage of silver (undermining the effects of inflation), a graduated income tax, public railroad ownership, telegraph and telephone systems for farmers, and loans and fedral warehouses for farmers. These ideals attracted many industrial workers and agrarian farm hands. However, the Populist party declined after 1896 and soon ceased to be a national party. Thomas Watson in the South gave up trying to untie poor whites and blacks. He discovered the hard lesson that racism was stronger than common economic interests. Ironically, in defeat, much of the Populist reform agenda such as the graduated income tax and popular election of senatorswas adopted by both Democrats and republicans during the Progressive era.

5. To what extent did the electin of 1896 represent a turning point in the history of U.S. politics?

McKinley conducted a "front porch campaign" in which he remained at home in Canton, Ohio and trainloads of supporters (perhaps as many as 750,000) were brought in to hear him deliver short speeches tailored for his audiences. The lack of energy in such a campaign seems strange to modern observers, but several factors were at work: Tradition held that presidential candidates should not actively seek votes by widespread campaigning, a spectacle thought to be

beneath the dignity of the office; McKinley's opponent, more than any other presidential aspirant, broke that tradition. Mrs. McKinley was seriously ill and her husband was deeply devoted to her; he refused to consider long campaign trips that would separate him from his wife. McKinley was clearly an inferior public speaker compared to the polished and dramatic Bryan; Mark Hanna and other advisors thought it unwise to do anything that might accentuate the difference between the two candidates. Bryan made no apologies for traveling widely and asking his audiences for their votes. His campaign train stopped at towns and hamlets and the candidate delighted his largely rural listeners with his flamboyant oratory. In the early fall of 1896, many observers believed Bryan was the frontrunner. This assessment was probably based more on the Bryan crowds' fervor than anything else. The excitement created by the Democratic campaign was used to advantage by Hanna, who managed to leverage the fear of a free-silver victory into hefty contributions from Republican businessmen. Somewhere between three and seven million dollars were raised, compared to about $300,000 by the Democrats. McKinley's victory was convincing. Massive Republican advertising and the faltering economy worked heavily against the Democrats. Further, Bryan's revivalistic style, so much loved by the farmers of the West and South, actually alienated many immigrant voters who would have ordinarily been Democratic supporters. Bryan failed to carry any Northern industrial state and lost such farm states as North Dakota, Minnesota and Iowa. In short, Bryan's message was too narrow.

Terms

Gilded Age: The late 19th century witnessed the birth of modern America. It saw the closing of the Western frontier. Between 1865 and the 1890s, Americans settled 430 million acres in the Far West--more land than during the preceding 250 years of American history. But to open lands west of the Mississippi River to white settlers, the Plains Indians were pushed in a series of Indian wars onto restricted reservations. This period also witnessed the creation of a modern industrial economy. A national transportation and communication network was created, the corporation became the dominant form of business organization, and a managerial revolution transformed business operations. By the beginning of the twentieth century, per capita income and industrial production in the United States exceeded that of any other country except Britain. Long hours and hazardous working conditions, led many workers to attempt to form labor unions despite strong opposition from industrialists and the courts.

Rosco Conkling: In 1854, Conkling was instrumental in the founding of the Republican Party in New York State. Four years later he was elected mayor of Utica, but resigned after being elected to the House of Representatives, where he served from 1859 to 1863 and later from 1865 to 1867. Conkling was a firm supporter of Abraham Lincoln and later would be aligned with the Radical Republicans. Some of his views, such as taking land from slaveowners to distribute among the former slaves, were regarded as extreme by others in his party. In 1867, Conkling was elected by the New York legislature to serve in the U.S. Senate. He quickly became one of U.S. Grant's most loyal supporters. With the president's assistance, Conkling dominated patronage in

his home state and opposed all efforts at civil service reform. Conkling was never a widely popular figure. His abrasive nature offended many, politician and voter alike.

Stalwarts: were the "traditional" Republicans who opposed Rutherford B. Hayes' civil service reform. They were pitted against the "Half-Breeds" (moderates) for control of the Republican Party. The only real issue between Stalwarts and Half-Breeds was patronage. The Half-Breeds worked to get civil service reform, and finally created the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act. Stalwarts also favored traditional machine politics. During the Republican national convention in 1880, the Half-Breeds advocated the candidacy of James Blaine of Maine for President. A stalemate ensued between Half-breeds and Stalwarts, and a compromise was struck to nominate a decent, unabrasive man: James Garfield. Additionally, Chester Arthur, former collector for the port of New York, was chosen to be his running mate to satisfy the Stalwarts.

Halfbreeds: were a political faction of the United States Republican Party that existed in the late 19th century. The Half-Breeds were a moderate-wing group, and they were the opponents of the Stalwarts, the other main faction of the Republican Party. The main issue that separated the Stalwarts and the Half-Breeds was political patronage. The Stalwarts were in favor of political machines and spoils system-style patronage, while the Half-Breeds, led by Maine senator James G. Blaine, were in favor of civil service reform and a merit system.

Thomas Reid: is a Scottish philosopher and one of the founders of the “common sense” school of philosophy. Reid is best known for his epistemology of sensation—he believes that sensations serve to make us directly aware of real objects without the aid of any intervening medium—and for his view of free will—he holds that the only free actions are those that come about through a causal process originated by the agent. In the explication of both he offers perceptive and important criticisms of the philosophy of Locke, Berkeley and especially Hume. He is also well known for his criticisms of Locke's view of personal identity and Hume's view of causation. However, Reid also wrote on a wide variety of other philosophical topics including ethics, aesthetics and various topics in the philosophy of mind.

Rum, Romanticism and rebellion: In the Election of 1884, Republican James Blaine lost the state of New York by 1,149 votes. Winning the state and the thirty-six electoral votes was critical in the close election. Grover Cleveland, however, took New York, the first Democrat to occupy the White House since James Buchanan won election in 1856. Although the 1884 election was one of the vilest in American History, it was the phrase “Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion” that might have been the final deciding factor.

Pendleton Act (also the assassination of Garfield): Public reaction to the assassination of President Garfield forced Congress to pass the Civil Service Reform Act. The law established a three-person, bi-partisan panel to develop exams to hire federal employees based on merit. The act initially covered 10% of federal employees, but became the basis for most of the Civil Service of today. Reformers had long been calling for an end to the "spoils system" in civil

service appointments. However, the assassination of President Garfield provided the needed push to make the change. President Arthur, who himself had been a product of the spoils system, surprised his critics by becoming a vocal supporter of the reform. A bi-partisan, three-person commission was created to oversee the newly-established Civil Service System. Arthur appointed three individuals long identified with civil service reform to serve as its commissioners. The new law called for open competitive exams for all jobs classified as civil service jobs.

Crime of 1873: The Fourth Coinage Act was enacted by the United States Congress in 1873 and embraced the gold standard and demonetized silver. Western mining interests and others who wanted silver in circulation years later labeled this measure the "Crime of '73". Gold became the only metallic standard in the United States, hence putting the United States de facto on the gold standard. The U.S. did not actually adopt the gold standard de jure until 1900, following a lengthy period of debate that was made famous by William Jennings Bryan's cross of gold speech at the 1896 Democratic convention. By this time, most major nations had moved to a gold standard.

Black Allison Act: The Bland-Allison Act of 1878 is a U.S federal statute. The Act empowers the Treasury to buy silver and put it into circulation as silver dollars. This Act aims to promote use of bimetals in U.S. For accomplishing the object, the Act requires the Treasury to buy between $2 million and $4 million worth of silver each month from the western mines. The purchase of silver is at market rates and not at a predetermined value. An amendment to the Act was made by the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890.

Mckinley Tariff: The highest tariff in American history, to date, was passed. It called for a tariff of over 49.5% on most goods. The eastern industrialist interests, who were strong supporters of protectionism, were the prime movers behind the tariffs. The Democrats, under Cleveland, lowered the tariffs slightly. They were soon raised again.

Sherman Silver Purchase Act: Agitation for action on the silver question was intense by 1890. Farmers were straining under growing debt and sharply falling prices. Western mining interests were anxious for a ready market for their silver and exerted pressure on Congress. Western voices were much stronger with the recent addition of Idaho, Montana, Washington, Wyoming and the Dakotas to the Union. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act was part of a broader compromise. The Democrats gave their support to the highly protective McKinley Tariff in return for Republican votes for silver. The measure provided for the following: The Treasury would purchase 4.5 million ounces (or 281,250 pounds) of silver each month at market rates. The Treasury would issue notes redeemable in either gold or silver.

Populist Party: Rural discontent had brewed in the United States since the sharp decline of farm prices in the 1870s. Popular opinion tended to place the blame for the depressed economy on Eastern financial interests. The Greenback Party emerged as a force in national politics, leading

the agitation for the currency's expansion. The temporary return of prosperity blunted the Greenback message, but the return of hard times in the 1880s led to emergence of the farmers' alliances. In December 1890, representatives from a number of the alliances met in Ocala, Florida to examine the issue of united political action. This initial foray into direct involvement came to nothing; allegiances to the Democratic Party still remained strong. Racism, as well as loyalty, played a role; some feared that splitting the Democratic vote would revive the old Republican-black alliance.

Omaha’s platform: Although historians often speak of a “Populist movement” in the 1880s, it wasn’t until 1892 that the People’s or Populist Party was formally organized. The Omaha Platform, adopted by the founding convention of the party on July 4, 1892, set out the basic tenets of the Populist movement. The movement had emerged out of the cooperative crusade organized by the Farmer’s Alliance in the 1880s. The preamble was written by Minnesota lawyer, farmer, politician, and novelist Ignatius Donnelly. Delegates to the convention embraced the platform with great enthusiasm.

Coxey’s Army: Group of unemployed men who marched to Washington, D.C., in the depression year of 1894. Jacob S. Coxey (1854 – 1951), a businessman, led the group, which hoped to persuade Congress to authorize public-works programs to provide jobs. It left Ohio on March 25 and reached Washington on May 1 with about 500 men, the only one of several groups to reach its destination. It attracted much attention but failed to bring about any legislation.

William Jenning Bryan; Cross of Gold: Bryan was elected to Congress twice, 1890 and 1892. His influence grew rapidly, due largely to his strong advocacy of free silver, opposition to high protective tariffs and oratorical skills. In 1894, Bryan worked to unite the Democrats and Populists in Nebraska, but later lost a bid for a Senate seat. Out of politics, Bryan became the editor of the Omaha World-Herald and traveled widely as a lecturer on the Chautauqua circuit. The most famous speech in American political history was delivered by William Jennings Bryan on July 9, 1896, at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago. The issue was whether to endorse the free coinage of silver at a ratio of silver to gold of 16 to 1. (This inflationary measure would have increased the amount of money in circulation and aided cash-poor and debt-burdened farmers.) After speeches on the subject by several U.S. Senators, Bryan rose to speak. The thirty-six-year-old former Congressman from Nebraska aspired to be the Democratic nominee for president, and he had been skillfully, but quietly, building support for himself among the delegates. His dramatic speaking style and rhetoric roused the crowd to a frenzy. The response, wrote one reporter, “came like one great burst of artillery.” Men and women screamed and waved their hats and canes. “Some,” wrote another reporter, “like demented things, divested themselves of their coats and flung them high in the air.” The next day the convention nominated Bryan for President on the fifth ballot.

Mark Hannah: was an American industrialist and Republican politician from Cleveland, Ohio. He rose to fame as the campaign manager of the successful Republican Presidential candidate,

William McKinley, in the U.S. Presidential election of 1896 in a well-funded political campaign and subsequently became one of the most powerful members of the U.S. Senate.

Ch. 20

Multiple Choice

1. D2. D3. D4. D5. D6. D7. D8. D9. D10. D

Essays

1. “Since, rom the U.S. point of view, there were no negative consequences from the Spanish-American war, John hay was right to call it a splendid little war. “Assess the validity of this statement with respect to the opinions of three of the following:

Any radical statement such as this is not completely valid; however, from a political stand point, the pros do outweigh the cons for the US from the Spanish American War. The main pro is that under Spanish rule Cuba was forced into virtual slavery with mass starvation. This proved to be a major pro for Cuban Revolutionaries. After the US defeated the Spanish, it became a free country; until Castro took over. However, a major con was for businessmen who believed that the war with Spain would largely detriment business internationally. The results of the war were largely in favor of America though. The use acquired the Spanish islands of Puerto Rico and Guam; moreover, they received the Philippines in return for payment to Spain twenty million dollars. Since the initial goal was to liberate Cuba, Americans accepted this provision of the treaty. This proved to be extremely detrimental to Spain thus hurting Emilio Aguinaldo. However, they were not prepared for the acquisition of such a large land as the Philippines. This for the case of Theodore Roosevelt was very harsh as he would have to assume responsibility of the nation. Lastly, the treaty of Paris ended imperialistic ideals in the US. Overall, it could be said that there were many positive outcomes for the US from the Spanish American war, but the horrors of war and the failure in the Philippines still stain the perception of the war.

2. Discuss whether or not U.S. foreign policy from 1890-1914 was principally guided by economic motives

The United States’ approach to foreign policy had not changed conceptually from the days it signed its independence. These ideas were primarily based on protecting US interests overseas and restricting foreign influences in the Americas. Once they furthered themselves politically and economically, they gained the status of being a world power and they still wanted more. They figured they had to strengthen the country industrially as they needed worldwide markets for its growing industrial and agricultural surpluses as well as sources of raw materials for manufacturing. They could only achieve these foreign markets with more concentrated efforts on its foreign. A prominent example of US foreign policy being guided by economic motives was the US desire to obtain land in Asia. Countries including Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia all claimed exclusive trading rights to certain parts of China. The internal economic growth of the United States made them want to look outward for foreign markets. In addition, American businessmen were alarmed that as all the world was divided up among other world powers, their access to markets would be restricted and thus their businesses would suffer. Expansionists throughout America emphasized the resources of what other lands could provide and the wealth that could result from their establishment.

3. Compare and contrast the foreign policies of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson toward Latin America.

Theodore Roosevelt inherited an empire-in-the-making when he assumed office in 1901. This differed to Wilson who came into office forming an empire. After the Spanish-American War in 1898, Spain ceded the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam to the United States. In addition, the United States established a protectorate over Cuba and annexed Hawaii. For the first time in its history, the United States had acquired an overseas empire. The most spectacular of Roosevelt's foreign policy initiatives was the establishment of the Panama Canal. For years, U.S. naval leaders had dreamed of building a passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through Central America. During the war with Spain, American ships in the Pacific had to steam around the tip of South America in two-month voyages to join the U.S. fleet off the coast of Cuba. In 1901, the United States negotiated with Britain for the support of an American-controlled canal that would be constructed either in Nicaragua or through a strip of land—Panama—owned by Colombia. In a flourish of closed-door maneuvers, the Senate approved a route through Panama, contingent upon Colombian approval. This project also converted the Panama Canal Zone into a major staging area for American military forces, making the United States the dominant military power in Central America. One instance of United States intervention in Mexico took place in April of 1914. During this time, Mexico was in the midst of its revolution which started four years earlier and would end in 1920. Using the excuse of the

arrest of several U.S. Marines in Tampico, Tamaulipas, Wilson ordered the invasion of Mexico via the port city of Veracruz. The arrests were a mistake and the soldiers were released after roughly an hour and a half of detention, but that didn’t satiate the need for intervention. Overall, it is apparent that the major differences between the two presidents concerning foreign affairs in Latin America were that Roosevelt sought harshly for diplomatic incentives while Wilson was a “by all means” type of diplomat who resorted to violence in the case of Mexico.

4. Asess the importance of three of the following in the U.S. decision to declare war against Spain in 1898.

US Business interests: There was much business interest in Cuba by American entrepreneurs and business owners. The idea of an expansionary economy was also pushed by American business such as through imperialism and the acquisition of foreign lands. However, reciprocal to these ideals, Presidents Cleveland and McKinley believed this would be immoral and economically disastrous..

The Cuban Revolution: Bands of Cuban nationalists had been fighting for ten years to overthrow Spanish colonial rule. In 1895, they adopted the strategy of sabotaging and laying waste Cuban plantations in order either to force Spain’s withdrawal or involve the Untied States in their revolution. Spain responded by sending the autocratic General Valeriano Weyler and over 100,000 troops to suppress the revolt.

Sinking of the Maine: Less than one week after the de Lome letter made headlines, a far more shocking event occurred. ON February 15, 1898, the US battleship Maine was at anchor in the harbor of Havana, Cuba when it suddenly exploded, killing 260 Americans on board. The yellow press accused Spain of deliberately blowing up the ship, even though experts later concluded that the explosion was probably an accident.

5. “As the United States became more involved in East Asia after 1900, its relationship with Japan became more competitive.” Assess the validity of this statement.

The imperialistic rivalry between Russia and Japan led to a war between these nations, which Japan actually was winning. To end the war, Theodore Roosevelt arranged a diplomatic conference between representatives of the two foes at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1905. Although both Japan and Russia agreed to the Treaty of Portsmouth, Japanese nationalists blamed the United States for not giving their country all that they wanted from Russia. A major cause of friction between japan and eth United States concerned the laws of California, which discriminated against Japanese Americans. In 1908 Roosevelt arranged a compromise by means of an informal understanding or “gentlemen’s agreement”. The Japanese government secretly agreed to restrict the emigration of Japanese workers to the US in return for Roosevelt persuading California to repeal its discriminatory laws.