Christian Wüthrich(2) Feminist postmodernism (3) Feminist empiricism (2) Feminist postmodernism “discursively constructed”reality Heraclitean version of historicism (“You can’t

Introduction situated knowers and feminismFeminist epistemology three views

Feminism and science

Feminist epistemology

Christian Wuumlthrich

httpphilosophyucsdedufacultywuthrich

15 Introduction to Philosophy Theory of KnowledgeSpring 2010

Christian Wuumlthrich Topic 8

Feminist epistemology and philosophy of scienceSex gender and other things terminologicalGendered knowledge

Feminist epistemology and philosophy of science

E Anderson ldquoFeminist epistemology and philosophy of sciencerdquo Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Characterization (Feminist epistemology and philosophy of science)

ldquoFeminist epistemology and philosophy of science studies the ways inwhich gender does and ought to influence our conceptions ofknowledge the knowing subject and practices of inquiry andjustification It identifies ways in which dominant conceptions andpractices of knowledge attribution acquisition and justificationsystematically disadvantage women and other subordinated groupsand strives to reform these conceptions and practices so that theyserve the interests of these groupsrdquo (from the abstract)

Furthermore feminist epistemology aims at

explaining why and how entry of female researches intosciences (particularly biological and social sciences) hasgenerated new questions theories and methods

showing how gender has in fact played a causal role in thesetransformations

ldquodefending these changes as cognitive not just socialadvancesrdquo (ibid)

Feminism and science main idea

Thesis (Feminism on science)

Science is part of the structure that perpetuates inequalities betweenman and woman This has political as well as epistemicconsequences

Remedies

inclusion of more women in science affirmative action

encouragement of female ldquovoicerdquo in science

dethrone science from its preeminent position in Western culture

Political v epistemic implications

Note political demands arising in feminism such as affirmativeaction equal opportunities etc have per se no implication forphilosophy of science or epistemology

Feminist philosophical ideas about science

(i) fem analysis of history of ideassci

(ii) fem analysis of specific sci disciplines (mostly social andbiomedical sci)

(iii) fem epistemology rationalityknowledge from fem point of view

Sex and gender

Definition (Sex a biological concept)

Sex is the biological difference between males and females it isldquoeither of the two major forms of individuals that occur in manyspecies and that are distinguished repsectively as female or maleespecially on the basis of their reproductive organs and structuresrdquo(From merriam-webstercom)

Definition (Gender a social concept)

ldquoGender is what societies make of sexual differences the differentroles norms and meanings they assign to men and women and thethings associated with them on account of their real or imaginedsexual characteristicrdquo (Anderson Sec 13)

Androcentric and gynocentric representations

Definition (Andocentric representation)

An androcentric representation ldquodepicts the world in relation to maleor masculine interests emotions attitudes or valuesrdquo (ibid Sec 14)

Definition (Gynocentric representation)

A gynocentric representation ldquodepicts the world in relation to femaleor feminine interests emotions attitudes of valuesrdquo (ibid)

Gendered knowledge

general account of situated knowledge + account of gender as socialsituationrarr ldquogendered knowledgerdquo

To what extent have dominant perspectives (particularlyconcerning body and mind) seemed compelling because theyconform to male or masculine perception interests values

Do dominant practices and conceptions in philosophy and inscience reflect a androcentric perspective

Could these be changed improved if they reflected womenrsquosstandpoints and interests

What feminist epistemology is not relativism

While fem epi stresses the situatedness andperspective-relativity of much knowledge it doesnrsquot reduce torelativism (or at least not all forms of it do)

Ie it doesnrsquot claim that all perspectives are equally valuable orthat they canrsquot be externally evaluated

It also doesnrsquot claim that there is no objective perspective or thatsuch perspective would not be desirable

rArr Whatrsquos the relation bw objective and gendered perspectivesWhatrsquos objectivity

(1) Feminist standpoint theory(2) Feminist postmodernism(3) Feminist empiricism

Sandra Harding (1935) UCLAThree views in feminist epistemology

The Science Question in Feminism(1986)Whose Science WhoseKnowledge Thinking from WomenrsquosLives (1991)contributions to standpoint thynotorious for quote that ldquoIsaacNewtonrsquos Principia Mathematica is alsquorape manualrsquo because lsquoscience is amale rape of female naturersquo rdquo (ScienceQuestion 264)influential categorization of feministepistemology

Hardingrsquos categorization

1 Feminist empiricism espouses value-neutrality of sciandrocentric bias sign of ldquobadrdquo science studies in a naturalisticframework how different perspectives can be harnessed toadvance knowledge

2 Standpoint epistemology stresses role of ldquosituatednessrdquo ofepistemic agent oppressed or marginalized standpoints areepistemically superior in their ability to criticize basics

3 Feminist postmodernism embraces full-blown relativism andepistemological anarchism idea of ldquotruerdquo neutral description ofworld is harmful illusion contingency and instability of socialidentity of knowers is emphasized

(1) Feminist standpoint theory

being particularly situated within society gives epistemicallyprivileged perspective to women

ie women are better knowers because they are women

oppressed have interest and ability to represent the world fromboth the oppressed and the oppressorrsquos viewpoint and are thusepistemically superior

standpoint of oppressed women correctly exposes dominantandrocentric view as socially contingent

inspiration from Hegel Marxism

group membership is defined subjectively making membershipis both necessary and sufficient for access to grouprsquosperspective (if membership were objectively defined it would beneither)

Criticisms of standpoint theory

What contextual beliefs might women have that gives themprincipled epistemic superiority

Helen Longino (1993) standpoint thy cannot providenon-circular basis for establishing female standpoint asprivileged

gender relations cannot be universalized there is not unique ortypical female standpoint (feminist standpoint theorists arealmost exclusively white middle-class academicsmdashhardlyconstituting the most oppressed class or offering typical femaleperspective)

(2) Feminist postmodernism

ldquodiscursively constructedrdquo reality

Heraclitean version of historicism (ldquoYou canrsquot step into the samestream of thoughts twicerdquo)

idea of ldquototalizingrdquo extra-linguistic reality is dangerous fiction

not that existence of external world is denied but that ldquoworlddoes not dictate the categories we use to describe itrdquo (Sec 31)

gender is socially or discursively ldquoconstructedrdquo ie nurture ratherthan nature

gender identity is not universal transhistorical necessarycategory

scepticism about universality and unity of category ldquowomanrdquorArrproliferation of perspectives

Criticisms of feminist postmodernism

opposition to generalizations about women undercuts feministcritiques of dominant social forces that disadvantage women

impossible to criticize sci for androcentric bias on relativist basissince it eschews all normative judgments

dissolves all groups thus ironically reproducing the individualismof standard epistemology that it repudiates

(3) Feminist empiricism

feminist empiricism supports typical C20 empiricist hypotheses(1) observation is thy-laden (2) naturalized epistemology ieepist as project in sci to elucidate our practices of inquiry notoffering an extrascientific foundation for sci

espouses value-netruality of sci

androcentric bias sign of ldquobadrdquo science

studies how different perspectives can be harnessed to advanceknowledge

paradox of bias how can bias be bad (if androcentric) and good(if gynocentric) Fem emp needs to reconcile this

paradox of social construction fem emp criticizes negativeinfluence of social factors in sci inquiry yet they stress the socialconstruction of all knowledge

Criticisms of feminist empiricism

if non-cognitive factors cannot be eliminated thenvalue-neutrality not convincing

IOW therersquos a sense in which fem emp tries to have the cakeand eat it too be objective yet criticize objectivity (as can beseen from the two paradoxes)

Many of the feminist arguments in epistemology equally apply tothe study of science as practice of inquiry but some additionalpoints merit attention

many of the points particularly concern sciences that deal withhuman subjects (eg social science psychology biomedicalresearch)

ldquoFeminist science critics focus on identifying androcentric andsexist biases in the actual practice of sciencerdquo (Sec 5)

A few examples

knowledge of others in gendered relationships research basedon personal contact bw researcher and subject may beinfluenced by gendered relations

gendered background beliefs and worldviews unexaminedandrocentric background beliefs of scientists may lead to sexisttheories about women

androcentric research agenda and methods may disadvantagewomenrsquos interests

Feminist science criticism bias as error

Criticism of this type takes different forms includes studies of how

1 ldquothe exclusion or marginalization of women scientists impairscientific progress

2 ldquothe applications of science and technology disadvantagewomen and other vulnerable groups

3 ldquoscience has ignored women and gender and how turningattention to these issues may require revision of acceptedtheories

4 ldquobiases toward working with lsquomasculinersquo cognitive styleshave impaired scientific understanding

5 ldquoresearch into sex differences and womenrsquos and menrsquoslsquonaturesrsquo taht reinforces sex stereotypes and sexist practices failto live up to standards of good sciencerdquo (Sec 51)

Case study Primatology

ThesisThere are cases in which science benefits from inclusion of women infield

Observation in study of social behaviour in nonhuman primatescoincidence bw significant influx of female scientists into primatologywith emergence of more sophisticated picture of sexual behaviour offemale primatesoften interpreted as causal relationship

Kathleen Okruhlik

Kathleen Okruhlik ldquoGender and the biological sciencesrdquo Biology and Society Suppl vol 20 (1994) 21-42

1 Non-cognitive factors influence the generation of theories2 Theory choice in science even if perfectly rational and

uncontaminated by non-cognitive factors is irreduciblycomparative ie only operative among extant rival theories

3 The number of actually available contenders in each choice isfinite [Okruhlik two]

4 By (2) and (3) theory choice only identifies the theory which isepistemically superior over a finite number of extant rivals

5 By (1) and (4) nothing in the appraisal machinery will completelyldquopurifyrdquo the victorious theory from non-cognitive elements

6 In particular if all of the contenders for a particular choice or setof choices suffer from an androcentric bias then the content ofscience as a whole suffers from an androcentric bias even if themechanisms of theory choice are fully rational

The limiting effect of bias

bias is limiting and leads to partial understanding but does notimply errorbiases are often legitimate scientific inquiry cannot beconducted in complete absences of non-cognitive factors thatare subject to biasesThe real problem arises if some (androcentric) biases arepermitted to dominate scientific inquiry ldquoto the exclusion of othergenerative biases that would generate rival theories possessinga different range of important empirical successesrdquo (Sec 51)

Feminist science criticism bias as resource

feminists often stress that feminist science should not excludeother ways of doing science

but it should be included as legitimate and fully equal choiceavailable to scientists

rArr irreducibly pluralist and realist understanding of science

Introduction situated knowers and feminism


Sex gender and other things terminological

Gendered knowledge

Feminist epistemology three views





E Anderson ldquoFeminist epistemology and philosophy of sciencerdquo Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Characterization (Feminist epistemology and philosophy of science)

ldquoFeminist epistemology and philosophy of science studies the ways inwhich gender does and ought to influence our conceptions ofknowledge the knowing subject and practices of inquiry andjustification It identifies ways in which dominant conceptions andpractices of knowledge attribution acquisition and justificationsystematically disadvantage women and other subordinated groupsand strives to reform these conceptions and practices so that theyserve the interests of these groupsrdquo (from the abstract)

Remedies

Sex and gender

Gendered knowledge

A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






Remedies

Sex and gender

Gendered knowledge

A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






Remedies

Sex and gender

Gendered knowledge

A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






Sex and gender

Gendered knowledge

A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






Sex and gender

Gendered knowledge

A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






A few examples

Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






Kathleen Okruhlik



Gendered knowledge






Documents

Christian Wüthrich(2) Feminist postmodernism (3) Feminist empiricism (2) Feminist postmodernism “discursively constructed”reality Heraclitean version of historicism (“You can’t