Choosing a Better Road: Ernie’s Storyici.umn.edu/products/impact/182/182.pdf · EBD (e.g., characteristics, numbers, factors placing them at increased risk of school failure, where

Published by the Institute on Community Integration (UCEDD) · Research and Training Center on Community Living Volume 18 · Number 2 · Spring 2005

Feature Issue on Fostering Success inSchool and Beyond for Students withEmotional/Behavioral Disorders

From the EditorsIn today’s K-12 schools, educators musteffectively work with increasingly diversepopulations in their classrooms. This includeseducating students identified as havingemotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) in thegeneral education classrooms and ensuringtheir inclusion in all aspects of the schoolcommunity. This can be a challenging taskfor several reasons. To effectively educatestudents with EBD there must becollaboration between all the instructionaland administrative staff in the school;everyone must be “on the same page” inimplementing prevention and interventionefforts. In addition, there must be awillingness on the part of teachers to explorenew teaching methods that more activelyengage students with EBD. Ongoing staffdevelopment and training are needed toupdate and maintain educator skills inworking with students with EBD. Andsufficient resources must be available at theschool and district level to sustainprogramming. This Impact describes howthese and other challenges are beingaddressed around the country, and offersstrategies that have been demonstrated toimprove positive educational and socialoutcomes for students with EBD in today’s K-12 schools.

What’s InsideOverview ArticlesProgram and Personal ProfilesResources

Ernie Vigil, shown here with his mother Darlean Urban, had some turbulent years in high school until he turnedthings around. Today, he’s graduated, pursuing his career goals, and raising his son. See story below.

[Ernie, continued on page 36]

Choosing a Better Road: Ernie’s Storyby Jesse Gallegos

Ernie Jarvis Vigil remembers when, as a freshman at Robertson High School inLas Vegas, New Mexico, he started hanging out with seniors and found himself party-ing all the time. His mom, Darlean Urban, describes it as “he pretty much lost control.”“During my freshman year, I was found carrying a knife and was suspended fromschool for two weeks,” Vigil, now 19, recalls. “When I turned 16, I went back to schooldrunk and spent the weekend in jail. I spent my birthday in jail,” he says. Darlean usedthe authorities as a means to help her son. “It was my decision not to take him homethat day. I called the cops,” says Darlean. “I felt that was what I had to do, so hewouldn’t do it again. He had a juvenile probation officer, and for the next six months itwas really hard.” But that didn’t seem to deter him. “It was a point in my life where noone was going to tell me what I was going to do,” says Ernie, who used the excuse of hismom and dad getting a divorce for his belligerent behavior. Those are just some of thestories Ernie remembers, stories he hopes he will never forget because at some point hechanged his life.

In his junior year, he and his girlfriend had a little boy, Esteban. “I started thinkingwhat I had to do in my life. I told myself that I wanted my child to do things I didn’t geta chance to do because of my own decisions. I wanted him to play basketball and be inother sports,” says Ernie. “When I had my baby, I started to pay more attention inschool. I was already living with my girlfriend. I was handling a job, school, a girlfriendand myself. I knew I had to take care of myself before I took care of anyone else.”

2

Students with Emotional/BehavioralDisorders: Promoting Positive Outcomesby Camilla A. Lehr and Jennifer McComas

Overview

Public schools are designed to provideinstructional programs that foster theeducational success of all students andshape citizens who can contribute inpositive ways to society. Working to pro-mote successful school experiences forstudents with emotional/behavioraldisorders (EBD) can be a particularlychallenging task because of the necessityfor multi-faceted and cohesive program-ming to effectively meet multiple needs.

Identification of Students withEmotional or Behavioral Disorders

An emotional/behavioral disorder canbe described in the following way:• Emotional or Behavioral Disorder

(EBD) refers to a condition in whichbehavioral or emotional responses ofan individual in school are so differ-ent from his/her generally accepted,age appropriate, ethnic or culturalnorms that they adversely affect per-formance in such areas as self care,social relationships, personal adjust-ment, academic progress, classroombehavior, or work adjustment.

• EBD is more than a transient, ex-pected response to stressors in thechild’s or youth’s environment andwould persist even with individual-ized interventions, such as feedbackto the individual, consultation withparents or families, and/or modifica-tion of the educational environment.

• The eligibility decision [for specialeducation services] must be based onmultiple sources of data about theindividual’s behavioral or emotionalfunctioning. EBD must be exhibitedin at least two different settings, atleast one of which is school related.

• EBD can co-exist with other[disabling] conditions.

• This category may include children oryouth with schizophrenia, affectivedisorders, anxiety disorders, or whohave other sustained disturbances ofconduct, attention, or adjustment.(National Association of SchoolPsychologists, 2004, p. 1)

Information from the Twenty-fourthAnnual Report to Congress on the Imple-mentation of the Individuals with Disabili-ties Education Act (IDEA) (U.S. Depart-ment of Education, 2002) indicates thatstates served 5,775,722 students ages 6through 21 under IDEA in 2000-2001.Nearly 474,000, or about 18%, of thosestudents were identified as students withEBD. This is less than 1% of the entirestudent population in 2000-2001. TheReport of the Surgeon General’s Conferenceon Children’s Mental Health (U.S. PublicHealth Service, 2000) proposes theactual number of students with EBD ismuch higher. This suggests that many ofthe children and youth who could qualifyfor service under IDEA may not be iden-tified and may not receive adequate sup-ports to assist them with emotional andbehavioral challenges they face both inand out of school settings.

On the other hand, we find thatchildren and youth who are AfricanAmerican are disproportionately over-identified as having EBD. Many con-cerns have been expressed about minor-ity children being misplaced in specialeducation, especially in certain disabilitycategories. Researchers have determinedthe level of risk for various subgroupsassociated with being identified as hav-ing EBD. Using data from the U.S.Department of Education, analyses sug-gest that Black children are 2.88 timesmore likely than White children to belabeled as having mental retardationand 1.92 times more likely to be labeledas having an emotional/behavioral dis-order (Losen & Orfield, 2002). Althoughstudents with disabilities are entitled toreceive supports and services tied totheir individual needs, the concern isthat too often minority students areeducated in separate settings, subject tolower expectations, and excluded fromeducational opportunities. While minor-ity populations are often at greater riskof living in poverty, many individualsargue that the effect of poverty doesnot adequately explain the racial dispari-ties in identification of EBD. Researchsuggests that unconscious racial bias,stereotypes, inequitable implementationof discipline policies, and practices thatare not culturally responsive maycontribute to the observed patterns ofidentification and placement for manyminority students.

School and Post-School Outcomes

Much of what we know about studentswith EBD has been gathered through theNational Longitudinal Transition Study(NLTS). This study collected data on thelives of youth with disabilities in theirhigh school years and in their transitionto adulthood during the early 1990s(Wagner et al., 1991). Overall, outcomes

Promoting successful school

experiences for students with

emotional/behavioral disorders can

be a particularly challenging task

because of the necessity for multi-

faceted and cohesive programming

to meet multiple needs.

Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http://ici.umn.edu). Citation: Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. &Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on Fostering Success in School and Beyond for Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, 18(2). Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota, Institute on Community Integration.

3Overview

for youth with EBD were found to be“particularly troubling.” These youthshowed a pattern of disconnectednessfrom school, academic failure, poorsocial adjustment, and involvement withthe criminal justice system. Data fromthe Office of Special Education Pro-grams shows that youth with EBD are atgreatest risk of dropping out of schoolas compared with students in other dis-ability categories; in 1999-2000, 51% ofstudents with EBD age 14 and olderdropped out of school (U.S. Departmentof Education, 2002). Furthermore, weknow that as a group, a higher percent-age of these youth are incarcerated orare not employed as compared to otherstudents with disabilities after highschool.

Instructional Settings

Where are students with EBD served? Ingeneral, they experience general educa-tional instruction to a lesser degree thanyouth with disabilities as a whole. Onaverage, 16% of youth with EBD take allof their courses in special educationsettings (compared with 9% of youthwith disabilities as a whole who takeonly special education courses). Manyalso attend alternative schools, whichare generally designed to serve studentsplaced at risk of school failure due tocircumstance or ability (e.g., behind incredits, suspended, pregnant or parent-ing). In addition to these settings, a highproportion of youth who are incarcer-ated have disabilities. One conservativeestimate suggests that about 32% ofyouth in juvenile corrections have dis-abilities (Quinn, Rutherford, & Leone,2001). Nearly 46% of the incarceratedyouth with a disability were identified ashaving EBD. Most often, the transitionback into the traditional school settingfor these students is unsuccessful, andthey go elsewhere (e.g., alternativeschools, back into juvenile corrections,or drop out altogether).

Risk Factors Contributing to StudentOutcomes

Findings from the current National Lon-gitudinal Transition Study – 2 (NLTS2)suggest that students with EBD differfrom the general population of youth inways other than their disability (Wagner& Cameto, 2004). For example, as com-pared with the general population ofyouth, youth with EBD are more likely tolive in poverty, have a head of house-hold with no formal education past highschool, and live in a single parent house-hold. Nearly 38% of the NLTS-2 samplehad been held back a grade, 75% hadbeen suspended or expelled at leastonce, and about two- thirds werereported to have co-occurring attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).Students with EBD also experiencegreater school mobility than other youthwith disabilities; 40% had attended fiveor more schools since kindergarten.Moving to multiple schools can beconsiderably disruptive and signifi-cantly decrease the chances of continu-ity across instructional programs. Inaddition, frequent moves increase thedifficulties associated with establishingpositive long-term relationships withadults and peers, and can heighten feel-ings of alienation and limit the sense ofbelonging.

Shifting From Deficits to Strengths

We know quite a bit about students withEBD (e.g., characteristics, numbers,factors placing them at increased risk ofschool failure, where they are served,outcomes). Fortunately, we also knowmuch about effective strategies that wecan use with these students to improvetheir success in school and after theyleave school. Shifting from a deficitmodel that focuses on multiple risk fac-tors and moving toward a focus onstrengths is a difficult, yet necessary,step for those who hope to foster resil-ience, enhance competence, and facili-tate successful school experiences forstudents with EBD.

Beginning with a Solid Foundation

With the move toward greater inclusionand providing instruction in the generaleducation curriculum, there is an in-creased need for general education teach-ers to be well-informed about how toeffectively educate students with EBD.It is essential for teacher education pro-grams to train general educators to work

with the increasingly diverse populationsin their classrooms (including studentswith varying disabilities, abilities, socio-economic standing, and cultural back-grounds). Necessary skills include theability to actively engage students incoursework that is relevant to studentbackgrounds and interests, effectivelyorganize a classroom environment, andmanage student behavior using strategiesthat are evidence based (e.g., techniquesto increase active student responding,small group or peer tutoring, appliedprinciples of reinforcement, use ofimmediate feedback). In addition,opportunities for staff developmentmust be provided on a regular basis toupdate and maintain skills.

Providing Supports at VaryingLevels: The Three-Tiered Model

Students with or at risk for EBD can beprovided with supports at a variety oflevels. A three-tiered model that providesa framework for thinking about the pro-vision of supports includes prevention atthe primary, secondary, and tertiarylevels (Sugai & Horner, 2002):

[Lehr, continued on page 37]

We know quite a bit about students

with EBD. Fortunately, we also know

much about effective strategies that

we can use with these students to

improve their success in school.

Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http://ici.umn.edu). Citation:Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. & Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on Fostering Success in School and Beyond for Studentswith Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, 18(2). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Institute on Community Integration.

4 Overview

School-wide Positive Behavior Support:Investing in Student Successby Robert Horner, George Sugai and Claudia Vincent

Problem behaviors, such as aggression,defiance, truancy, property destruction,disruption, and self-injury remain amajor challenge in schools and a dra-matic barrier to academic achievement.Historically, schools have assumed thatsocial skills should be learned at home,and that children who behave inappro-priately at school should be identifiedand given a strong disciplinary messagethat such behavior will not be tolerated.When the “get tough” response does notresult in an immediate elimination ofthe problem behavior, next steps areexclusionary (e.g., suspensions), in somecases moving children to “special” con-texts. Students identified with emo-tional and behavioral disorders (EBD)are especially at risk of exclusion fromgeneral education settings, even thoughthey are likely to benefit most from thetypical social interactions occurring ingeneral education classrooms (Panacek& Dunlap, 2003).

Exclusionary approaches have neverbeen effective, and as the number of stu-dents with problem behavior has in-creased, schools face an overwhelmingdemand from teachers and families torespond. In a variety of ways policy-makers, school boards, administrators,and teachers are being asked to makeschools safe, positive, predictable placesof learning. Increasingly and ironically,schools that do not invest in building apositive social culture have difficultyachieving the academic standards thatare now expected.

School-wide positive behavior support(SW-PBS) is an approach that beginswith a school-wide prevention effort,and then adds intensive individualizedsupport for those students with moreextreme needs. SW-PBS has five corestrategies:• Focus on preventing the develop-

ment and occurrence of problembehavior, which is more effective,

cost-efficient, and productive thanresponding after problem behaviorpatterns have become ingrained.

• Teach appropriate social behaviorand skills. Because children come toschool from many different back-grounds, schools must define thecore social expectations (e.g., be re-spectful, be responsible, be safe), andovertly teach the behaviors and skillsassociated with these expectations.When all students in the school aretaught the same social skills, a socialculture is established where studentsnot only have personal knowledgeabout social expectations, they knowthat everyone in the school knowsthose same social expectations.

• Acknowledge appropriate behavior.Students should receive regular rec-ognition for appropriate behavior atrates that exceed rates of recognitionfor rule violations and problem be-haviors. Negative consequences alonewill not change problem behavior. In-stead of ignoring problem behavior,a continuum of consequences (e.g.,correction, warning, office disciplinereferral) for problem behavior shouldbe maintained and used to preventescalation and allow instruction tocontinue in class.

• Gather and use data about studentbehavior to guide behavior supportdecisions. Data on what problembehaviors are being observed andhow often, where and what time ofthe day they are occurring, and whois engaging in these problem behav-iors enable schools to develop themost effective, efficient, and relevantschool-wide behavior support plan.

• Invest in the systems (e.g., teams,policies, funding, administrative sup-port, data structures) that supportadults in their implementation ofeffective practices.

Over the past six years, the U.S.Department of Education’s Office ofSpecial Education Programs (OSEP) hasinvested in technical assistance to statesand districts choosing to implementSW-PBS. Over 2900 schools across 34states are now implementing or in theprocess of adopting SW-PBS. Imple-mentation is occurring primarily inelementary and middle schools, but theapproach is now being adapted, applied,and studied in over 200 high schools. A90-school study using a randomized,wait-list, control group design is cur-rently being funded by OSEP to assessthe a) impact of technical support onthe ability of schools to adopt SW-PBSpractices with high fidelity, b) impact ofSW-PBS practices on the social andacademic outcomes for students, andc) sustainability of SW-PBS practicesand outcomes over time. Evaluationsthat have accompanied implementationof SW-PBS efforts identify the followingseven key “lessons learned” that haverelevance for future policy and practice(Lewis & Sugai, 1999; Horner, Sugai,Todd & Lewis-Palmer, 2005; Center onPositive Behavioral Interventions andSupport, 2004):

• Most schools in the U.S. are notimplementing the evidence-basedpractices associated with SW-PBS. Aspart of the technical assistance pro-cess, schools have been assessedprior to adopting SW-PBS practices.On average, schools are using lessthan half the basic features, andnone of the schools evaluated havedemonstrated effective implementa-tion prior to receiving technicalassistance.

• When technical support is provided,schools are successful in adopting theevidence-based practices associatedwith SW-PBS. Typically, school teamscomposed of five to seven individuals


5Overview

receive three, one- to two-day train-ing events each year for two years.Schools throughout the countryhave documented the ability to adoptSW-PBS practices with high fidelitywhen they receive this level ofsupport.

• Once schools adopt SW-PBS prac-tices to criterion they are likely tosustain those practices over long timeperiods. Longitudinal studies indi-cate that SW-PBS practices havesustained up to 10 years followingimplementation, even with turn-overin administrators and core teammembers. In a recent evaluation ofschools in Illinois, 86% of schoolsadopting SW-PBS in 2002-03 sus-tained or improved their level ofimplementation in 2003-04.

• When SW-PBS is implemented tocriterion, results indicate the follow-ing improvements in academic andsocial behavior outcomes: a) 20-60%reduction in office discipline referralsfor students with and withoutIndividualized Education Programs(IEPs), b) increases in the timestudents spend in instruction,c) decreases in the amount of timeadministrators and teachers spendaddressing problem behaviors, andd) improvement in the perception ofschool safety and mental healththrough decreases in “risk factors”and increases in mental health“protective factors.” In addition,preliminary results indicate thatSW-PBS implementation is associ-ated with a decrease in the numberof students identified for tertiaryinterventions because of intensesupport needs (Eber, 2005).

• When investments are made in bothbehavior support and effective in-struction, improvements in academicperformance are experienced. During2002-03, 52 elementary schools inIllinois using SW-PBS to criterionwere compared with 69 schools thatwere just adopting SW-PBS and werenot at criterion. On average, 62.19%of third graders in schools using

SW-PBS met or exceeded the statereading standard. By comparison, anaverage of 46.6% of third graders inschools not using SW-PBS met thesame standard.

• Investing in development of localsystems is an effective strategy formoving from small “demonstrations”to larger-scale applications. Imple-mentation of SW-PBS involves notsimply training for school teams, buttraining of a) local coaches or facilita-tors who work closely with teams tobuild and sustain evidence-basedpractices, and b) local trainers whoare able to conduct team training ona distributed format within twoyears. By investing in building thecapacity of local states/districts totrain and evaluate SW-PBS, the costof training the third and fourth gen-erations of teams is reduced. Exter-nal trainers and national technicalassistance becomes less necessary.For example, in Illinois a state systemof trainers and coaches now supportsover 444 schools implementingSW-PBS. In Maryland, a state systemof trainers and coaches supports over321 schools implementing SW-PBS.

• Implementation of SW-PBS is costeffective. Schools are able to adoptSW-PBS and establish local coachingand training infrastructure withina two-year initiative process. Thecost to schools to sustain SW-PBSrequires no additional dollars. Thisapproach is about using existingresources better, not adding newcosts. The cost of problem behaviorin schools is a hidden drain onschool resources. For example, whenKennedy Middle School imple-mented SW-PBS they documentedimproved student behavior, with anannual reduction of 850 officediscipline referrals and 25 studentsuspensions from the pre-implemen-tation level. This change translatedinto a time savings of 30 administra-tor days and 121 student school days.

In summary, schools will not achievethe academic standards we now require

if they fail to build the positive socialculture needed for sustained academicengagement. Traditional punishmentand exclusionary strategies are not effec-tive practices for improving student be-havior. SW-PBS is an innovative combi-nation of evidence-based practices thatemphasize investing in a) prevention,b) teaching of basic social expectations,c) acknowledging appropriate behavior,d) preventing problem behavior from in-terrupting instruction, e) collecting andusing data for active decision-making,and f ) establishing the organizationaland policy structures that improve theeffectiveness, efficiency, and relevanceof practice adoption, implementation,and durability. SW-PBS is being used ona significant scale across the countrywith strong evaluation outcomes in bothbehavioral and academic domains.

Note: Preparation of this article was supported, in part, throughgrant #H326S030002 from the Office of Special Education Programs,U.S. Department of Education. However, opinions and recommenda-tions expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the positionsor policies of this federal agency, and no official endorsement shouldbe inferred.

References

Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (2004).Implementers’ blueprint and self-assessment. Eugene, OR: Center onPositive Behavioral Interventions and Supports, University of Oregon.

Eber, L. (2005). Illinois PBIS evaluation report. La Grange Park: IllinoisState Board of Education, PBIS/EBD Network.

Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., Todd, A. & Lewis-Palmer, T. (2005). School-widepositive behavior support: An alternative approach to discipline inschools. In L. Bambara & L. Kern (Eds.), Individualized support for stu-dents with problem behaviors: Designing positive behavior plans (pp.359-390). New York: Guilford Press.

Lewis, T. J., & Sugai, G. (1999). Effective behavior support: A systemsapproach to proactive school-wide management. Focus on ExceptionalChildren, 31(6), 1-24.

Panacek, L.J. & Dunlap, G. (2003). The social lives of children withemotional and behavioral disorders in self-contained classrooms: Adescriptive analysis. Exceptional Children 69(3), 333-348.

Robert Horner and George Sugai are bothprofessors of special education andco-directors of the Center on PositiveBehavioral Interventions and Supports,University of Oregon, Eugene. Dr. Hornermay be reached at 541/346-2462 [email protected]. Dr. Sugai may bereached at 541/346-1642 or [email protected]. Claudia Vincent is anadministrative assistant with thedepartment and center. For furtherinformation on SW-PBS see www.pbis.org.


6 Overview

Fostering Student Success: Five StrategiesYou Can (and Should) Do Starting Next Weekby Larry Kortering and Patricia Braziel

Youth with emotional/behavioraldisorders (EBD) have a difficult timecompleting a high school education.Specifically, a recent report from theOffice of Special Education Programs,U.S. Department of Education (2002),puts their school completion rate(including that of students with stan-dard diplomas and alternative certifi-cates) at less than 50%. The lack of ahigh school education, combined with

the nature of their disability, greatlyjeopardizes the likelihood they willbecome productive adults (Bullis, 2004).In addition, research shows that theseyouth seldom access services beyondthose offered in high school (Hight,1999), making their secondary specialeducation program their final opportu-nity to secure an education, services ortraining.

Fostering success in high school foryouth with EBD is challenging and com-plex. This article does not address thiscomplexity, but rather outlines five prac-tical strategies that should be a part ofany secondary education program: ac-cess to vocational assessments, explicitlinks between learning and adult life,opportunities to control their destinies,involvement in the non-academic side

of schooling, and engagement in thelearning process. These strategies arelow cost, ready for implementation, andcome from our research over the past 12years that has focused on improving sec-ondary programs from the perspectiveof students. The research has includedinterviews with hundreds of youth withlearning or behavior disabilities, surveyswith over 5,000 high school youth, andrelated experiences in high school gen-eral education classrooms and variousteacher workshops.

The strategies involve three assump-tions about youth with EBD. First,nearly all report a desire to get a highschool education (Kortering, Braziel &Tompkins, 2002). Second, they are in-formed consumers of high school ser-vices; they have a distinct perception ofwhat works, services that will help themsucceed, and what they want to learn(Kortering, Tompkins, & Braziel, 2002).Third, to help these youth become pro-ductive adults, we must help themaccess and succeed in the general educa-tion classroom. With these assumptionsin mind, the remainder of this articleoutlines the five strategies to foster stu-dent success.

Access to Vocational Assessments

The first strategy is use of vocational as-sessments. Their proper use provides abasis to understand youth with EBD interms of individual talents, weaknesses,and ambitions. Youth also enjoy partici-pating in these assessments because theyhave the opportunity to focus on anexploration of themselves and to knowthat a school professional is interested inhelping them. Generally, a minimal vo-cational assessment would include abackground survey about their family,personal interests and ambitions, an in-terest inventory to establish insight intotheir likes and dislikes relative to career

options, aptitude testing to determine ifthey have special talents that otherwisewould go unnoticed, and personalityassessment to better understand theirpreferences and personal style in schooland work settings (see Kortering,Sitlington, & Braziel, 2004 for a furtherdescription).

Links Between Learning and Life

Our research consistently shows that themost prominent motivation for wantingto be in school is youths’ perceptionsthat in some way it is preparing them forwhat they consider a productive adult-hood. This adulthood, in their view,could entail getting them ready forcollege or related training, entry-levelemployment or simply providing themwith the means to enjoy life as an adult.Teachers must nurture this motivationby providing direct links between in-school learning and their desire to havea productive life after high school. Theselinks must be convincing in the sensethat they leave school at the end of theday with the perception that what theydid in school enhanced the likelihood ofbecoming a productive adult. Youth whofail to see this connection often turn toother options, namely the decision todrop out of school.

Opportunities to Control Destiny

The easiest strategy is to help educatorslearn how to provide youth with EBDopportunities to control their destiny inthe classroom, a sort of self-determinedlearning if you will. Such opportunitiesrange from the freedom to simplychoose which problems to do (e.g., letthem chose to do even or odd or any 20)to having the freedom to select how todo an assignment (e.g., with peers ornot, alternative forms of test taking ordemonstrating knowledge). We rou-

Fostering success in high school for

youth with EBD is challenging

and complex. This article outlines

five practical strategies that

should be a part of any

secondary education program.


7Overview

tinely have high school teachers report-ing surprise at how responsive studentsbecome when given such opportunities.

Non-Academic Involvement

The most powerful low-cost strategy tokeep youth with EBD in school is to getthem involved in the non-academic sideof schooling including sports, clubs,Reserve Officers Training Cadets (ROTC)or related activities. The power of thisrecommendation comes from givingyouth a chance to participate (and oftensucceed) at something that, while non-academic, is school related. It also pro-vides youth with an opportunity to workwith adults and peers in an environmentthat generally proves less threatening.Participating in such activities helpsyouths to develop a sense of belongingand positive relationships, while contrib-uting to their personal development.

Engagement in the Learning Process

The final strategy focuses on helpinggeneral educators actively engage youthwith EBD. This recommendation is themost difficult to implement. Success ingeneral education is generally the onlymeans to obtain the level of educationthat allows access to suitable employ-ment (i.e., jobs with benefits, advance-ment, and adequate wages) or post-secondary training. Yet, these youthconsistently fail to access needed contentinformation in their high school aca-demic classes. Aside from the nature oftheir disability, these youth report thattheir engagement in learning hinges onaccess to supportive teachers who pro-vide interesting and relevant opportuni-ties to learn (Kortering, Braziel &Tompkins, 2002). The proper responserequires that special educators helpteachers move away from the traditional“talk and chalk” and “overhead”approach toward a Universal Design forLearning (UDL). This move, as it relatesto UDL by offering an accessible curricu-lum, enhances a youth’s ability to dem-onstrate knowledge while accessingcontent in a more engaged manner that

should evolve into usable learning strat-egies for post-school learning or workenvironments. With attention to UDL,teachers can reexamine their teachingwith a new focus on multiple representa-tions of course information (e.g., visualgraphics to display information), meansof student engagement (e.g., hands-onlearning opportunities for key con-cepts), and student expression (e.g.,allowing students options to demon-strate their learning).

Conclusion

In closing, we have learned that studentswith EBD who fail to get a basic educa-tion have very limited options as theyattempt to transition from school to aproductive adulthood. As teachers, weneed to appreciate their unique chal-lenges while working to do whatever ittakes to help them obtain an education,including doing the five fairly simplethings described in this article that canhelp engage them in learning.

References

Bullis, M. (2004). Hard questions and final thoughts regarding theschool to community transition of adolescents with emotional orbehavior disorders. In D. Cheney (Ed.), Transition of students with emo-tional or behavior disorders: Current approaches for positive outcome.Arlington, VA: Council for Children with Behavior Disorders andDivision on Career Development and Transition.

Hight, J. (1998). Young worker participation in post-school educationand training. Monthly Labor Review, 122, 14-21.

Kortering, L., Sitlington, P. & Braziel, P. (2004). The use of vocationalassessment and planning as a strategic intervention to help keepyouths with emotional or behavioral disorders in school. In D. Cheney(Ed.), Transition of students with emotional or behavior disorders: Cur-rent approaches for positive outcomes. Arlington, VA: Council forChildren with Behavior Disorders and Division on Career Developmentand Transition.

Kortering, L., Braziel, P., & Tompkins, J. (2002). The challenge of schoolcompletion among youth with behavior disorders: Another side to thestory. Behavioral Disorders, 27, 142-154.

Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education(2002). To ensure the free appropriate public education of all handi-capped children. Twenty-second annual report to Congress. Washington,DC: U.S. Department of Education.

Larry Kortering is a professor in theDepartment of Language, Reading andExceptionalities, Appalachian StateUniversity, Boone, North Carolina. Hemay be reached at 828/262-6060 [email protected]. Patricia Brazielis project coordinator for the UniversalDesign for Learning Project at theuniversity. She may be reached at 828/262-6060 or [email protected].

Resources of Interest

The following resources on topics relatedto this Impact issue may be of interest toreaders:

• Center for Effective Collaboration andPractice (www.air.org/cecp). The center’sWeb site has an extensive collection offree resources of use to teachers, mentalhealth practitioners, child welfare work-ers, juvenile justice personnel, and fami-lies involved with young people who haveserious emotional disturbance. Topics in-clude functional behavioral assessment,positive behavioral intervention plans,prevention and early intervention strate-gies, promising practice in children's men-tal health, strength-based assessment,wraparound planning, strengthening thesafety net, cultural competence, juvenilejustice, and more.

• Safe and Responsive Schools Project(www.indiana.edu/~safeschl). Theproject, funded by the U.S. Department ofEducation, is dedicated to enablingschools and school districts to develop abroader perspective on school safety andviolence prevention, stressing compre-hensive planning, prevention, and parent/community involvement.

• Teaching and Working with ChildrenWho Have Emotional and BehavioralChallenges (2000). By M. Quinn,D. Osher, C. Warger, T. Hanley, B. Bader, &C. Hoffman. A guidebook designed to aidteachers, school psychologists, counselors,social workers, nurses, principals,paraprofessionals, and parents in theirwork and interaction with children whohave emotional and behavioral problems.It promotes a strengths-based approachthat considers the whole child, andaddresses the needs of all students, notjust those with difficulties. Available fromSopris West (product code W24889) atwww.sopriswest.com and 303/651-2829or 800/547-6747.Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http://

ici.umn.edu). Citation: Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. & Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on FosteringSuccess in School and Beyond for Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, 18(2). Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota, Institute on Community Integration.

8 Overview

Creating Caring Schoolsby Howard S. Adelman and Linda Taylor

School systems are not responsible for meet-ing every need of their students. But whenthe need directly affects learning, the schoolmust meet the challenge. – CarnegieCouncil Task Force on Education ofYoung Adolescents (1989)

“Leave no child behind” is a statementof caring. Caring has moral, social, andpersonal facets, and when all facets arepresent and balanced, they can addressproblems, nurture individuals, andfacilitate the process of learning. Goodschools are ones where the staff workscohesively not only to teach effectively,but to provide supports that addressbarriers to student learning. Goodteaching paired with comprehensive,multifaceted, and cohesive learningsupports combine to prevent learning,behavior, and emotional problems;address problems quickly and effectivelywhen they arise; and ensure the promo-tion of positive social and emotionaldevelopment. Good schools do all thisin ways that create an atmosphere thatencourages mutual support, caring, anda sense of community. Schools whoseimprovement plans do not assign thesematters a high priority are unlikely to beexperienced as caring institutions.

While such a caring environmentenhances the outcomes for all students,staff, and families, it is especially impor-tant for students who need additionalsupport to succeed in school, such asstudents with emotional/behavioral dis-orders. A caring school anticipates therewill be students with such needs for sup-port by introducing programs designedto promote mental health and preventproblems, creating programs that areeasily accessible when students show thefirst signs of needing more assistance,and having interventions that maximizethe likelihood that students will besuccessful in their classrooms and out-of-class activities.

Fragmented and Marginalized Efforts

Looked at as a whole, most districtsoffer a wide range of programs andservices oriented to student needs andproblems. Some are provided through-out a district, others are carried out at orlinked to targeted schools. Some areowned and operated by schools; someare from community agencies. The inter-ventions may be for all students in aschool, those in specified grades, thoseidentified as “at risk,” and/or those need-ing compensatory or special education.

Student and teacher supports areprovided by various divisions in a dis-trict, each with a specialized focus suchas curriculum and instruction, studentsupport services, compensatory educa-tion, special education, languageacquisition, parent partnerships, andintergroup relations. Such divisions arecommonly organized and operate asrelatively independent entities. In largedistricts, this often is the case for counse-lors, psychologists, social workers, andother specialists. And, at the school level,there is currently a tendency for thesestudent support staff to function in rela-tive isolation from each other and otherstakeholders, with a great deal of thework oriented to discrete problems. Insome schools, a student identified asat-risk for grade retention, dropout, andemotional/behavior problems may beassigned to three counseling programsoperating independently of each other.Such fragmentation not only is costly, itworks against developing cohesivenessand maximizing results (Adelman &Taylor, 1997).

Although various divisions and sup-port staff usually must deal with thesame common barriers to learning (e.g.,poor instruction, weak parent partner-ships, violence and unsafe schools, inad-equate support for student transitionsand for students with disabilities), theytend to do so with little or no coordina-tion and sparse attention to movingtoward integrated efforts. Furthermore,

in every facet of a school district’s opera-tions, an unproductive separation oftenis manifested between those focuseddirectly on instruction and those con-cerned with student support. It is notsurprising, then, how often efforts toaddress students’ learning, behavioral,and emotional needs are planned,implemented, and evaluated in a frag-mented, piecemeal manner. Moreover,despite the variety of student supportactivities across a school district, it iscommon knowledge that many schoolsoffer only bare essentials.

Caring Requires Rethinking Supports

Policymakers have come to appreciatethe relationship between limited inter-vention efficacy and the widespreadtendency for programs to operate inisolation. Concern has focused on theplethora of piecemeal, categoricallyfunded approaches, such as those cre-ated to reduce learning, behavior, andemotional problems; substance abuse;violence; school dropouts; delinquency;and teen pregnancy. Some major initia-tives have been designed to reduce thefragmentation. However, policymakershave failed to deal with the overridingissue, namely that addressing barriers todevelopment and learning remains amarginalized aspect of school policyand practice.

The degree to which marginalizationis the case is seen in consolidated schoolimprovement plans and certification re-views. It is also seen in the lack of atten-tion to mapping, analyzing, and rethink-ing how the resources used to addressproblems are allocated. For example,educational reformers have virtuallyignored the need to reframe the work ofpupil services professionals and otherstudent support staff. Such reframingwould expand their roles to include lead-ership in developing a comprehensive,multifaceted, and cohesive componentforaddressing barriers to learning at


9Overview

school sites in a way that fully integrateslearning supports with instruction. Thislack of attention to rethinking resourceuse seriously hampers efforts to providethe caring assistance teachers and stu-dents so desperately need.

Needed: A Policy Shift

Clearly, current policies designed toenhance support for teachers andstudents are seriously flawed. And, thesituation is unlikely to improve in theabsence of concerted attention to end-ing the marginalized status of studentlearning supports (Adelman & Taylor,2000, 2002). Increasing awareness ofthe policy deficiencies has stimulatedanalyses that indicate current policy isdominated by a two-component modelof school improvement. That is, the pri-mary thrust is on improving instructionand school management. While thesetwo facets obviously are essential, effec-tively addressing problems requiresestablishing a third component that ad-dresses barriers to learning in ways thatenable students to learn and teachers toteach. Such an “enabling” componentprovides both a basis for combattingmarginalization and a focal point for de-veloping a comprehensive framework toguide policy and practice. To be effec-tive, however, it must be established asessential and fully integrated with theother two components.

Various states and localities are mov-ing in the direction of a three-compo-nent approach for school improvement(Center for Mental Health in Schools,2004a). In doing so, they are adoptingdifferent labels for their enabling com-ponent. For example, the Iowa and Cali-fornia Departments of Education call ita “learning supports” component. Thisis also the terminology used by the NewAmerican Schools’ Urban Learning Cen-ter comprehensive school reform model.Some states use the term “supportivelearning environment.” The HawaiiDepartment of Education calls it a“comprehensive student support system(CSSS).” In each case, policy shifts haverecognized that, over time, schools must

play a major role in establishing a con-tinuum of interventions ranging from abroad-based emphasis on promotinghealthy development and preventingproblems, through approaches forresponding to problems quickly afteronset, and extending on to narrowly-focused treatments for severe problems.

Reframing How Schools Address Barriers

School-wide approaches to address barri-ers to learning are especially importantwhere large numbers of students are notdoing well and at schools that are not yetpaying adequate attention to consider-ations related to equity and diversity.Leaving no child behind means address-ing the problems of the many who arenot benefitting from instructionalreforms. Because of the complexity ofensuring that all students have an equalopportunity to succeed at school, policy-makers and practitioners need an opera-tional framework to guide developmentof a comprehensive, multifaceted, andcohesive enabling or learning supportscomponent. Pioneering efforts haveoperationalized such a component intosix programmatic arenas (Adelman &Taylor, 1997, 2000, 2002; Center forMental Health in Schools, 2004a,2004b). Based on this work, the interven-tion arenas are conceived as:• Enhancing regular classroom strate-

gies to enable learning (i.e., improvinginstruction for students who havebecome disengaged from learning atschool and for those with learning,behavior, and emotional problems).

• Supporting transitions (i.e., assistingstudents and families as they negoti-ate school and grade changes andmany other transitions).

• Increasing home and school partner-ships (i.e., enhancing school capacityto provide families with opportunitiesfor learning, special assistance, andparticipation).

• Responding to and, where feasible,preventing crises (i.e., school-wide andclassroom efforts to prevent, respondto, and minimize the impact of crises).

• Increasing community involvementand support (i.e., outreach to developgreater community involvement andsupport, including enhanced use ofvolunteers).

• Facilitating student and family accessto effective services and special assis-tance as needed (i.e., providing spe-cial assistance as necessary, includingdirect services and referrals).

As a whole, this six-area frameworkprovides a unifying umbrella to guidethe reframing and restructuring of thedaily work of all staff who provide learn-ing supports at a school.

Conclusion

A caring school enables learning byaddressing barriers. Collaboration andcollegiality are key facets in all this. Theprograms that emerge from a well-designed and developed enabling com-ponent are fundamental to enhancing asupportive and caring context for learn-ing by all students. The implications forstudent and staff well-being, for learn-ing, and for the future of every studentare more than evident.

References

Adelman, H.S., & Taylor, L. (1997). Addressing barriers to learning:Beyond school-linked services and full service schools. American Jour-nal of Orthopsychiatry, 67, 408-421.

Adelman, H.S., & Taylor, L. (2000). Looking at school health and schoolreform policy through the lens of addressing barriers to learning.Children’s Services: Social Policy, Research, and Practice, 3, 117-132

Adelman, H.S., & Taylor, L. (2002). Building comprehensive, multifac-eted, and integrated approaches to address barriers to student learn-ing. Childhood Education, 78, 261-268.

Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development’s Task Force on Educa-tion of Young Adolescents (1989). Turning points: Preparing Americanyouth for the 21st century. Washington, DC: Author.

Center for Mental Health in Schools, University of California -Los Angeles (2004a). Where’s it happening? New directions for studentsupport and lessons learned. Retrieved 12/13/04 from http://smhp.psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/wheresithappening/wheresithappening.html

Center for Mental Health in Schools, University of California -Los Angeles (2004b). Addressing barriers to learning: A set of surveysto map what a school has and what it needs – A resource aid packet.Retrieved 12/13/04 from http://smhp.psych. ucla.edu)

Howard Adelman is a professor with theDepartment of Psychology and co-directorof the Center for School Mental Health,UCLA, Los Angeles, California. He may bereached at 310/825-1225 or [email protected]. Linda Taylor is co-directorof the center, and may be reached at310/825-3634 or [email protected].


10 Overview

Ten Alternatives to Suspensionby Reece L. Peterson

The suspension or expulsion of studentswith emotional/behavioral disorders(EBD) has been problematic and contro-versial. Requirements of IDEA, and caselaw before that, have indicated thatlong-term suspension or expulsion vio-late the Free Appropriate Public Educa-tion (FAPE) guarantee for students withdisabilities. Schools have struggled tomeet these requirements, but the prob-lems with suspension and expulsion arelarger than issues of EBD or disability.

Today, many schools are rightfullyconcerned about the numbers of alltypes of students who are being sus-pended or expelled for their behavior.This concern is driven by the over-representation of some minority groupsamong those who are suspended orexpelled from school (Wu, Pink, Crain &Moles, 1982; Townsend, 2000; Skiba,Michael, Nardo & Peterson, 2002).Equally important is the emergingresearch that indicates that these conse-quences are not likely to change theinappropriate behavior of the studentsinvolved, nor do they serve to deterother students from engaging in thesame behaviors (Skiba, Peterson & Will-iams, 1999, 1997). Instead, these conse-quences make the suspended student’sacademic progress more difficult, andthey may increase the likelihood of thestudent dropping out of school orhaving other negative outcomes.

As a result, many schools are begin-ning to examine their school disciplinepolicies with an eye to making themboth more effective and less reliant ontraditional exclusionary consequences.These changes may also help schools tobetter serve students with EBD. Schoolsthat try to improve their discipline sys-tem ask the questions “What do we usein place of exclusionary consequences inour discipline policies?” and “What aresome disciplinary consequences whichmight be more effective?” The examplesthat follow illustrate the kinds of actionsthat could be built into a school’s formal

disciplinary code of conduct as part ofan array of consequences for inappropri-ate behavior. Each of these examples hasat least some research demonstratingpositive behavioral-change outcomes forstudents, and is an opportunity to main-tain or re-engage students in schoolrather than pushing them out of school.While additional information beyondthat provided here will be needed forappropriate implementation, the ex-amples below describe multiple promis-ing alternatives to suspension:• Problem solving/contracting.

Negotiation and problem-solvingapproaches can be used to assiststudents in identifying alternativebehavior choices. The next stepshould involve developing a contractthat reminds the student to engage ina problem-solving process, and whichincludes reinforcers for success andconsequences for continuing problembehaviors.

• Restitution. In-kind restitution(rather than financial restitution,which often falls on the parents) per-mits the student to help to restore orimprove the school environmenteither by directly addressing theproblems caused by the student’sbehavior (e.g., in cases of vandalismstudents can work to repair thingsthey damaged), or by having the stu-dent improve the school environmentmore broadly (e.g., picking up trash,washing lockers).

• Mini-courses or skill modules. Shortcourses or self-study modules can beassigned as a disciplinary conse-quence. These should be on topicsrelated to the student’s inappropriatebehavior, and should be designed toteach the student to have increasedawareness or knowledge about thetopic, thus facilitating behaviorchange. These modules mightinclude readings, videos, workbooks,tests, and oral reports on a range of

topics such as alcohol/drug use orabuse, strategies for conflict resolu-tion, anger control strategies, socialskills (e.g., getting along with peers,making behavior appropriate for thesetting), and appropriate communi-cation skills (e.g., appropriate and in-appropriate language, how to expressdisagreement).

• Parent involvement/supervision.Parents should be invited to brain-storm ways they can provide closersupervision or be more involved intheir child’s schooling. Better com-munication and more frequent con-tacts between teachers and parents,as well as coordinated behavior-change approaches, are very usefuland could be formalized into a disci-plinary consequence.

• Counseling. Students may be re-quired to receive additional supportsor individual counseling from trainedhelping professionals (e.g., counselor,school psychologist) focused onproblem solving or personal issuesinterfering with learning.

• Community service. Programs thatpermit the student to perform a re-quired amount of time in supervisedcommunity service outside of schoolhours (e.g., volunteer at anotherschool or an organization) should becreated.

• Behavior monitoring. Closelymonitoring behavior and academicprogress (e.g., self-charting of behav-iors, feedback sessions for the stu-dent) will permit rewards to be pro-vided for successful performance.

• Coordinated behavior plans. Cre-ation of a structured, coordinatedbehavior support plan specific to thestudent and based on a hypothesisabout the function of the target be-havior to be reduced should be cre-ated. It should focus on increasingdesirable behavior, and replacinginappropriate behaviors.


11Overview

• Alternative programming. Provideshort- or long-term changes in thestudent schedule, classes or coursecontent or offer the option of partici-pating in an independent study orwork-experience program. Program-ming should be tailored to studentneeds, and permit appropriate creditaccrual and progress toward gradua-tion. Change of placement or pro-gramming must be made by the IEP(Individualized Education Program)team for students with EBD or otherdisabilities.

• Appropriate in-school suspension.In-school suspension should be pro-vided and include academic tutoring,instruction on skill-building relatedto the student behavior problem(e.g., social skills), and a clearly de-fined procedure for returning to classcontingent on student progress orbehavior. The environment should becarefully managed to guard againstusing in-school suspension as a wayto avoid attending classes.

Many of these will be familiar toteachers who have worked with studentswho have EBD and there is a promisingresearch base for these alternatives.Other alternatives might also be gener-ated. Some schools are already usingsome of these, but few are using verymany of these, and fewer yet use thesesystematically as a coordinated behaviorimprovement strategy built into theirdisciplinary codes of conduct.

To make these alternative optionswork as a disciplinary consequence,some “prerequisites” may also beneeded. A school climate supportive ofpositive behavior, efforts to build posi-tive interactions, appropriate instruc-tion, and ongoing close supervision mayprevent behavior problems from grow-ing to crisis proportions and requiringdisciplinary consequences. Here are sev-eral examples of programs that supportthe previous alternatives to suspension:• Creating a caring school community

and climate. Programs that attend topatterns of good communication andproblem solving, having clear pat-

terns of authority and decision mak-ing, procedures for developing andimplementing rules, helping stu-dents feel they belong and are wel-come, good curriculum and instruc-tional practices, and having a cleanand positive physical environment.

• Efforts to build adult-studentrelationships. Programs offeringopportunities for students to developindividual relationships with staff.

• Increased parent involvement.Programs that involve a variety ofparents and community members infunctions and activities within theschool, and maintain communica-tion about their children.

• Character education/ consistentschool values. School curriculum andorganization features that promotethe development of fundamentalvalues in children. Typically these listdesirable goals for student behavior.

• Early identification and intervention.Programs that permit systematicscreening of students for potentialbehavior problems, and which pro-vide interventions for the studentsidentified as at “risk.”

• Mediation programs. Programs thatteach students about non- violentconflict resolution and permit stu-dents to use and experience thesein school. Peer-mediation is oneexample.

• Bullying prevention and interven-tion. Programs that teach studentsabout bullying behaviors and howthey can be reported to teachers.Specific interventions are created forboth bullies and victims.

• Conflict de-escalation training.Programs that teach staff and stu-dents to recognize and to disengagefrom escalating conflict.

• School-wide discipline program.Programs that develop a commonterminology and consistent approachto discipline across school staff. Re-sponsibilities of students and staffare identified, consistency in ruleenforcement is increased, and conse-

quences are identified for positiveand negative behaviors occurringanywhere in school.

• Positive office referrals/recognition.Programs that “catch students beinggood” and identify, reward, and cel-ebrate individual students for appro-priate behavior (e.g., attendance,being on-time, improving grades,meeting behavior goals).

Each of these “prerequisites” is alsosupported by a body of research whichindicates positive, promising effects onstudent behavior in school. If they are tobe effective, these “foundations” mustbe implemented in such a way as to be-come a normal part of that school’s cul-ture. They enable the “disciplinary alter-natives” listed earlier to be effective byproviding the context and skills forappropriate behavior. They may permita substantial reduction in the use of sus-pension and expulsion as disciplinaryoptions, and have the side effect of de-creasing staff stress related to behavior,and increasing academic achievementfor all students. They may also providea way to reduce the involvement of stu-dents with emotional or behavioral dis-orders in the problems associated withsuspension and expulsion.

Note: The contributions of Russell Skiba and Courtney Miller towardthe ideas in this manuscript are gratefully acknowledged.

References

Skiba, R., Michael, R., Nardo, A., & Peterson, R.L. (December, 2002).The color of discipline: Sources of racial and genderdisproportionality in school punishment. The Urban Review, 34(4),317-342.

Skiba R. J., Peterson, R. L. & Williams, T. (January, 1999). The dark sideof zero tolerance: Can punishment lead to safe schools? Phi DeltaKappan, 80(5), 372-381.

Skiba R. J., Peterson, R. L. & Williams, T. (August, 1997). Office referralsand suspension: Disciplinary intervention in middle schools. Educa-tion and Treatment of Children, 20(3), 1-21.

Townsend, B. (2000). Disproportionate discipline of African Americanchildren and youth: Culturally-responsive strategies for reducingschool suspensions and expulsions. Exceptional Children, 66, 381-391.

Wu, S. C., Pink, W. T., Crain, R. L., & Moles, O. (1982). Student suspen-sion: A critical reappraisal. The Urban Review, 14, 245-303.

Reece L. Peterson is a professor in theDepartment of Special Education andCommunication Disorders, University ofNebraska, Lincoln. He may be reached at402/472-5480 or [email protected].


12 Overview

Using Self-Monitoring Strategies to AddressBehavior and Academic Issuesby Rachel L. Loftin, Ashley C. Gibb, and Russell Skiba

Students with behavioral and academicdifficulties typically have limited aware-ness and understanding of their ownbehavior and its effects on others. Self-monitoring interventions equip stu-dents to recognize and keep track oftheir own behavior (Hoff & DuPaul,1998; Rhode, Morgan, & Young, 1983).Using these strategies, students canlearn to identify and increase positive,pro-social behaviors, the behaviorsnecessary for success in general educa-tion settings. Self-monitoring interven-tions are among the most flexible, use-ful, and effective strategies for studentswith academic and behavioral difficul-ties (Mitchum, Young, West, & Benyo,2001). They have demonstrated efficacyfor targeting a range of academic abili-ties (Rock, 2005), self- help skills (Pierce& Schreibman, 1994), behavioral prob-lems (Todd, Horner, & Sugai, 1999), andsocial behaviors (Strain & Kohler, 1994).Self-monitoring is useful for studentsfrom preschool to adulthood and can betaught to individuals at a variety of lev-els of cognitive functioning. Self-moni-toring interventions foster independentfunctioning, which allows individualswith disabilities to rely less on promptsfrom others (Koegel, Koegel, Harrower,& Carter, 1999).

This article provides an overview ofthe five steps involved in planning a self-monitoring intervention:

1) Identify the target behavior.2) Select/design a self-monitoring

system.3) Choose reinforcers and how the

student will earn them.4) Teach the student to use the system.5) Fade the role of the adult in the

intervention.

The steps will be described through useof a case study that illustrates how self-monitoring techniques can increase

appropriate classroom behavior in ageneral education setting. In the casestudy, the self-monitoring interventionwas implemented with “Scott” (pseud-onym), an 11-year-old with an emo-tional/behavioral disorder (EBD). Priorto intervention, Scott required almostconstant verbal reminders to remainquiet and working. He disrupted theclass with frequent, off-topic commentsand never raised his hand before speak-ing. Scott seemed to enjoy the peer atten-tion he received for making such com-ments. His teacher decided to try a self-monitoring strategy to increase hand-raising and appropriate comments.

Identify Target Behavior

The initial step for developing a behaviorplan, such as a self-monitoring interven-tion, is to identify the target behavior. Itis helpful to identify a simple action tomeasure, such as behavior that occursduring a certain time of day or perfor-mance related to a specific subject and todefine the unit in observable, measur-able terms. Scott’s teacher decided totarget only appropriate hand-raising,even though disruptive comments werealso an issue. She defined appropriatehand-raising as any instance in whichScott raised his hand and, when calledon, offered a comment or question thatpertained to the topic currently underdiscussion. To start, she used the inter-vention during social studies class.

While undesired behaviors, such astalking out in class or hitting peers, canbe the target of successful interventions,the plan will have a more positive toneand may be more willingly accepted bythe student if positive behaviors areidentified. Teaching the student to en-gage in the desired behavior in place ofan undesirable one will provide a meansfor obtaining the result the studentwants (in Scott’s case, attention from

teacher and peers), while reducing oreliminating the undesired behavior(speaking out in class) (Marquis et al.,2000). Rather than having Scott keeptrack of days when he disrupted class,his teacher elected to have him monitorappropriate hand-raising. With thisapproach, she was able to reinforce, notpunish, his behavior.

Select the Self-Monitoring System

To fit seamlessly into a classroom,home, or work setting, self-monitoringinterventions may be structured in avariety of ways. The design of the self-monitoring device is largely determinedby the student’s needs and setting inwhich the intervention will occur.Checklists and charts are commonmaterials used to record behavior, whilegolfer’s wrist counters and othermechanical devices may also be used.For Scott, a simple chart was adopted.He kept the chart in his desk and made atally mark in the corresponding boxeach time he successfully raised his handand, when called on, offered an appro-priate comment in class.

Choose Reinforcers and Criteria

Once the target behavior is defined andthe system is selected, reinforcers andcriteria for earning them are deter-mined. Some students are very moti-vated by self-monitoring alone. Theyenjoy pushing the button on their wristcounter, giving themselves checks, orcrossing things off to-do lists. Manystudents, however, require extra teacherattention or other reinforcers to besuccessful with a self-monitoring inter-vention. To ensure success when firstbeginning an intervention, frequentreinforcement is recommended. Offer-ing a choice among preferred reinforcersincreases the likelihood of a successful


13Overview

intervention (Dyer, Dunlap, &Winterling, 1990). Scott enjoyed usingschool computers but rarely had anopportunity to do so because of a class-room policy about losing computer privi-leges for disruptive behavior. Scott andhis teacher decided that extra computertime with a peer would be an appropri-ate and motivating reinforcer for success-ful participation in class. Extra time witha friend also allowed Scott to receive peerattention that he tried to gain when talk-ing out in class.

Although it was not used for Scott’sintervention, many self-monitoringinterventions include self-recruitedpraise, or teaching the student to bringhis data to a teacher or other adult toearn positive attention or other rein-forcement. For example, in the class-room a student may use a system inwhich she gives herself a check for everyfive minutes she spends on-task. Whenshe has four checks, she brings the paperto her teacher and is complimented onwork well done. Self-recruited praise isespecially useful for students whose dis-ruptive behavior is used to gain attentionfrom teachers. However, it is importantto determine that a student finds praisereinforcing. Many students, particularlyadolescents, may prefer not to receiveovert teacher attention; using teacherattention in such a situation as a rewardcould actually worsen behavior.

Teach the Student to Use the System

Scott met with his teacher to discuss thetarget behavior and the self-monitoringsystem. After she defined the system, hehad an opportunity to ask questionsabout the new arrangements. Together,teacher and student discussed potentialproblems with the intervention andcame to an agreement about how tohandle problems that might arise. WhenScott’s teacher was confident that he un-derstood the intervention, she describedseveral examples and non-examples andasked Scott whether they would count asappropriate hand-raising. This collabora-tion in the planning stages helps preventpotential problems that can occur when

the adult and child disagree about useof the system. Student involvement inplanning may also increase studentinvestment in the intervention.

Once a system is in place, the teachercompares the student’s informationwith his or her own observations of thebehavior and provides feedback on theaccuracy of data collection. Practicesessions can provide an opportunity forteacher and student to gain reliabilitywith the system. When students consis-tently self-monitor with great accuracy,the teacher can end reliability checks.For Scott, practice checks with theteacher occurred daily for four days. Atthat time, he was over 90% reliable andbegan to use the system independently.

Fade Prompts and Reinforcers

Gradually, reinforcers should be fadedand the expectations for behaviorraised. As he was successful with inde-pendently and accurately recording be-havior, Scott’s teacher stopped remind-ing him to use his system and set highergoals for earning computer time withhis friends. By the end of the schoolyear, Scott was on the same computerplan as other students in the class, andhis teacher no longer checked his plan-ner to make sure he accurately self-monitored. When work becomes moredifficult or behavioral expectationsshift, it may be helpful to provide moreassistance or reinforcement. Promotingthe maximum level of independence atwhich the student can be successful isthe primary goal.

Conclusions

Self-monitoring strategies are individu-alized plans used to increase indepen-dent functioning in academic, behav-ioral, self-help, and social areas. Ratherthan focusing on reducing a student’sundesired behavior, self-monitoringstrategies develop skills that lead to anincrease in appropriate behavior. Whenself-monitoring skills increase, corre-sponding reductions in undesired be-haviors often occur, even without direct

intervention (Dunlap, Clarke, Jackson,Wright, 1995; Koegel, Koegel, Harrower,& Carter, 1999). This collateral behaviorchange allows teachers and parents toaddress multiple behaviors with oneefficient intervention.

For Scott, self-monitoring led to anincrease in hand-raising and appropriateclass participation and a decrease in talk-ing out in class. As a result, his teacherspent less time disciplining him. WhenScott’s class participation improved, hisacademic performance improved as well.This collateral gain is a clear illustrationof the efficiency of the self-monitoringintervention. Increasing the use of oneskill, Scott’s teacher was able to changemultiple behaviors: participation, talkingout, and academic performance.

References

Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., Jackson, M., & Wright, S. (1995). Self-monitoringof classroom behaviors with students exhibiting emotional and behav-ioral challenges. School Psychology Quarterly, 10, 165-177.

Dyer, K., Dunlap, G., & Winterling, V. (1990). Effects of choice making onthe serious problem behaviors of students with severe handicaps. Jour-nal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 515-524.

Hoff, K. E., & DuPaul, G. J. (1998). Reducing disruptive behavior in gen-eral education classrooms: The use of self-management strategies.School Psychology Review, 27, 290-303.

Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Harrower, J. K., & Carter, C.M. (1999). Pivotalresponse intervention 1: Overview of approach. The Journal of the Asso-ciation for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 175-185.

Marquis, J. G., Horner, R. H., Carr, E. G., Turnbull, A. P., Thompson, M.,Behrens, G. A., et al. (2000). A meta-analysis of positive behavioral sup-port. In R. Gersten, E. P. Schiller, & S. Vaughn (Eds.), Contemporary specialeducation research: Syntheses of the knowledge base on critical instruc-tional issues. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Mitchum, K. J., Young, K. R., West, R. P., & Benyo, J. (2001). CSPASM: Aclasswide peer assisted self-management program for general educa-tion classrooms. Education and Treatment of Children, 24, 111-140.

Pierce, K. L., & Schreibman, L. (1994). Teaching daily living skills tochildren with autism in unsupervised settings through pictorial self-management. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 471-481.

Rhode, G., Morgan, D. P., & Young, K. R. (1983). Generalization and main-tenance of treatment gains of behaviorally handicapped students fromresource rooms to regular classrooms using self-evaluation procedures.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 16, 171-188.

Rock, M. L. (2005). Use of strategic self-monitoring to enhance aca-demic engagement, productivity, and accuracy of students with andwithout exceptionalities. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7,3-17.

Strain, P. S., & Kohler, F. W. (1994). Teaching preschool students withautism to self monitor their social interactions: An analysis of results inhome and school settings. Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders,2, 78-89.

Todd, A. W., Horner, R. H., & Sugai, G. (1999). Effects of self-monitoringand self-recruited praise on problem behavior, academic engagement,and work completion in a typical classroom. Journal of Positive Behav-ior Interventions, 1, 66-76.

Rachel L. Loftin and Ashley C. Gibb aredoctoral students, and Russell J. Skiba is aprofessor, all in the Counseling and Educa-tional Psychology Department, IndianaUniversity, Bloomington. They may bereached at 812/856-8300 or [email protected].


14 Overview

Teaching for Generalization in Support ofStudents with Emotional and Behavior Disordersby Trevor Stokes

Sometimes, the goal of teachers in theirclassrooms is the children’s mastery ofacademic lessons and tasks, such asarithmetic completion, creative writing,developing knowledge, or learning anefficient problem-solving repertoire.Sometimes, the goal of teachers is thechildren’s mastery of personal lessonsand tasks, such as recruiting help appro-priately, developing self-control, beingsocially competent among peers, or

making appropriate personal decisions.In all of these endeavors, generalizationof learning is the guiding value becausethe effects of teaching must movebeyond the particular classroom andacross people, settings, behaviors, andtimes. Securing this carryover of theoutcomes of successful teaching isessential for the well-being of children.Facilitating this spread of effects is theaim of programming for generalization(Stokes & Baer, 1977). Principles oflearning provide guidelines on how ateacher may maximize positive effectsdirectly and insure productive generali-zation by children with emotional andbehavior disorders.

Emotional and Behavior Challenges

When presented with a range of emo-tional and behavior challenges withinthe classroom, it is natural that teachersmay be perplexed. What causes theseproblems? How can they be viewed orclassified? How can they be amelio-rated? The truth is that maladaptive anddysfunctional emotions and behaviorsdon’t just suddenly appear. They de-velop over time and spill over betweenenvironments such as home and schooland in reciprocity affect one another.

Contributing causes are often diffi-cult to determine and frequently thereare multiple factors that lead to the cur-rent presentations of disturbing emo-tions and behaviors in the classroom(Stokes, 2002). Some individual childfactors that influence the appearance ofclassroom problems are the occurrenceof mental health disorders such as anxi-ety and depression; the occurrence ofstressful life events, such as family tur-moil in divorce or moving homes; or theabsence of effective coping skills anddecision-making abilities. Within fami-lies, children are affected by factors suchas turbulent family lifestyles, violenthomes, inadequate supervision, andmaladaptive or extreme discipline prac-tices. Within the school and community,children are influenced by factors suchas being uninvolved with their availablecommunity of friends and teachers,being susceptible to negative peerinfluences, or being influenced byunmonitored contact with the media.

Many of these causes in a child’sdevelopment are outside of the school,yet they influence emotions and behav-ior in a generalized manner, showing upat school, and therefore becoming a real-ity for teachers in their classrooms.Understanding these influences thataffect a child can help a teacher deviseways of providing effective instructionwithin the context of a child’s history

and current circumstances. The teachercan also counterbalance maladaptiveinfluences by providing a safe, friendly,and exciting environment for learning.The positive effects of the teacher’s styleand instruction, and the supportivelearning environment, can then be seenin the classroom and also spread backinto the home and beyond, accomplish-ing generalization.

It is useful to be able to group or clas-sify disorders of emotion and behavior.Sometimes this is done formally by theassignment of a diagnosis consistentwith psychiatric and psychological stan-dards (DSM-IV-TR). Sometimes, a lessformal rubric is sufficient. Stokes,Mowery, Dean and Hoffman (1997)characterized some of the maladaptiverepertoires of children as displayingaggression toward self or others; depres-sion of activity engagement or mood;and regression in cognitive, social, andemotional behavior. Within the class-room, there are multiple examples ofthese repertoires. Aggression can beseen in coercive activity such as crying,screaming, hitting, self-abuse, and othertantrums and disruptive behavior.Depression and withdrawal may be seenwith or without indicators of emotionaldistress, such as mood change, sadness,pouting, and disorganized behavior.Regression is seen as children displayacademic skills at a level below estab-lished competency levels, showincreased anxiety and emotionaldistress, are confused or unable to con-centrate productively, engage in angryand emotional outbursts, have poorcommunication and social skills, exhibitlow levels of engagement and participa-tion in the classroom, and show depen-dency and immaturity.

Thus aggression, depression, andregression are indicators of psychologi-cal distress and are likely to present adedicated and nurturant teacher with

Generalization occurs when the

effects of educational or therapeutic

behavior-change programs are

shown across time, people, settings,

and related behavior without the

necessity of active interventions in

all of those circumstances.


15Overview

[Stokes, continued on page 38]

the need to be strategically supportiveof wellness and development even whileappreciating the adverse circumstancesof a child. Recognition of these emo-tional and behavior repertoires is a sig-nal for a teacher that there are problemsafoot and therefore there is a need forspecial attention to the goal of general-ized development.

Principles of Teaching forGeneralization

Generalization was characterized byStokes and Baer (1977) as occurringwhen the effects of educational or thera-peutic behavior-change programs areshown across time, people, settings, andrelated behavior without the necessityof active interventions in all of those cir-cumstances. The spread of effects is pur-posefully and efficiently obtained. Thisusually will not occur simply becausesuch an outcome is the hope of theteacher or therapist. As an importantgoal in any classroom, generalizationshould both be considered and activelyprogrammed from the beginning ofteaching. Three principles are pertinentin guiding the tactics of teaching forgeneralization: Contact natural commu-nities of reinforcement, teach diversely,and engage mediators of performance(Stokes & Baer, 1977; Stokes & Osnes,1989).

Contact Natural Communities ofReinforcement

The first principle advises that the bestaction is to directly reinforce relevantbehavior in the classroom by making thechild feel good following accomplish-ments and schoolwork completion. It isalso advantageous to ensure that pleas-ant consequences within the classroomoccur frequently and naturally for chil-dren. Generally, praise, approval,recognition, and interpersonal attentionwill suffice in this regard. These conse-quences of behavior typically operatewithin classrooms or can be made to beactive with minimal effort.

Any person’s environments are natu-

rally plentiful with consequences thatinfluence the occurrence of relevantbehaviors in the classroom and in thecommunity. For example, greetings,when appropriately presented, have ahigh probability of being returned witha pleasant reciprocal greeting that func-tions to reinforce the interaction initi-ated. There is little need to programsuch behavior change artificially,because certain behaviors are reliablyfollowed by certain consequences with-out any specific programming relevantto their occurrence. For example, at thepoint of evaluation of a child’s work,correct completion should routinelyreceive a positive evaluation by theteacher, and that feedback may serve asan effective reinforcer. Social behaviorand academic achievement are particu-larly relevant here because of the posi-tive natural reaction received fromteachers and childhood peers. Ofcourse, there may at times be a need to“seed” the environment with peoplewho respond appropriately.

Sometimes, however, a naturallyoccurring community of positive conse-quences lies dormant and needs to beacted upon to be effective. Teachers canhelp children learn how to activate andcome into contact with those functionalpositive consequences. An example ofthis is when students are concerned theyhave improved their work efficiency oroutput, yet teachers have not noticed.In this case, the student may activelyrecruit feedback, thereby initiating anevaluative interaction by asking a ques-tion such as “How did I do?” A child canlearn these techniques through simpledemonstration and role-playing with ateacher. Initiating this recruitment ofpositive feedback may be difficult forsome students whose reputation pre-cedes them, and whose teachers may notbe predisposed to positively evaluatetheir work because of the student’s his-tory of poor work completion or inap-propriate behaviors. However, in mostcircumstances, when the student’s workis of a high quality, the teacher when soprompted will naturally respond withpositive evaluations, as long as the

recruiting of attention does not occur atan excessive rate. In this case, the chil-dren become active agents of their ownbehavior change, taking initiative andresponsibility for themselves whenneglected.

Alternatively, when naturally occur-ring consequences support maladaptivebehavior, such as through peer support,then it is advisable for teachers to inter-rupt and prevent these natural conse-quences from their usual occurrence andfunction, thereby minimizing effects ofdysfunctional support of performancecounter to academic progress.

Thus, contacting natural communi-ties of reinforcement involves allowingthe natural consequences of emotionsand behavior to develop and maintainthem. In addition, it involves initiatingeffective functional contacts with main-taining consequences and decreasingcontact with maladaptive maintainingconsequences.

Teach Diversely

The second principle emphasizes teach-ing with a diverse curriculum incorpo-rating many examples of a lesson to fos-ter the development of a generalizedunderstanding, knowledge, and skilluseful in multiple settings. This practiceensures that learning is not too focusedand is accomplished by employing mul-tiple teachers, learning circumstances,and settings, as is often seen in schools.Similarly, academic tasks should betaught using multiple and diverse exem-plars, so that after a sufficient range ofproblems are successfully mastered,then the student is more able to solveany of the range of similar problemswithout direct teaching of all lesson con-cepts. Teaching should also incorporatedifferent presentations, sampling thearray of similar items and materialsemploying multiple concepts. There arealso advantages in making conditions ofteaching flexible and less predictable byallowing variation of teaching circum-stances, presentations, and the timingof positive consequences and feedback.


16

Functional Assessment of ClassroomBehavior Problemsby Robert A. Gable

Overview

Few educators would dispute the factthat not all children come to schoolready to learn. The reasons for the“readiness gap” are many and varied.For example, the school-age populationis becoming increasingly more hetero-geneous. Because of their diverse back-grounds and experiences, students differin their ability to respond to a traditionalclassroom milieu. The overall routine,student expectations, and/or the qualityof teacher/pupil relationships some-times are at odds with family patterns of

interaction or with community norms.Some children struggle with social/interpersonal or self-management skillsthat are prerequisite to performing suc-cessfully in school. Others may havebeen subjected to harsh parental disci-pline or suffered the consequences ofphysical abuse, marital conflicts, oreconomic hardships. Finally, student-specific stressors (e.g., anxiety ordepression) can exact a heavy toll as well.In sum, school personnel face numerouschallenges to ensuring positive educa-tional outcomes for students.

At its inception, our system of publicschooling was established to give chil-dren the opportunity to get an educa-tion, a task it has always performed well

(Van Acker, 2004). However, across timevarious forces have converged to dra-matically change that role. No longer isit enough simply to offer students educa-tional opportunity; today, the expecta-tion is that all students will benefit fromthat schooling and achieve positiveoutcomes (Van Acker, 2004). Amongthe most ubiquitous signs of that shift inresponsibility is the importance attachedto high-stakes testing and student aca-demic progress. Accordingly, bothadministrators and classroom personnelare focusing increased attention on theoverlapping relationship between class-room learning and student behaviorproblems.

Classroom Learning and BehaviorProblems

When a student manifests a learningproblem, teachers rely on a set of rela-tively straightforward strategies. Eitherindependently or in consultation withcolleagues, they attempt to preciselyidentify the problem. Teachers routinelyconduct either an informal or formalassessment, analyze carefully the accu-mulated data, and then make specificadjustments in the curriculum orinstruction, or both. For example, ifEllen is experiencing difficulty applyinga particular algorithm to solve a mathproblem, her teacher might conduct andiagnostic interview to pinpoint theexact nature of the problem – “Ellen,let’s look at these three problems; I’d likeyou to do each of them for me, thinkingaloud the steps you would take to solvethe problem.” With the knowledgegleaned from observing closely as Ellencompleted each problem, the teacher isable to plot a course of instruction de-signed to eliminate the error in learning.In contrast, when a behavior problemarises, such as when Ellen refuses tocomply with a request to “stop wasting

time and get back to work,” her teacheris more likely to impose some kind ofnegative consequence, such as a verbalreprimand or discipline referral. Moststudents respond positively to thesekinds of admonishments. However, forsome students, such actions fail toproduce the desired outcome and mayactually exacerbate an already difficultsituation (Gable et al., 2004).

Today, there is growing recognitionthat traditional disciplinary practicesoften do not result in positive changes inbehavior, especially for students who evi-dence major behavior problems. Indeed,there is compelling evidence that theimposition of negative sanctions forunacceptable behavior can triggerincreased levels of non-compliance,defiance of authority, or school vandal-ism – problems that school officials areworking hard to ameliorate. Increas-ingly, school personnel are finding that itis more effective to respond proactivelyto repeated bouts of student misbehav-ior by means of what is known asfunctional behavioral assessment (FBA).

The FBA process is predicated onthree simple propositions: we can’t fix ituntil we know why it’s broken, no onegives up something for nothing, and onesize does not fit all. In other words, wecan not determine how best to respondto a problem until we know the reason(s)behind it; we can not realistically expectstudents to stop engaging in a behaviorthat serves a particular function unlesswe give them an alternative response;and finally, since students engage in in-appropriate behavior for many differentreasons, it is shortsighted to assume thatthe same solution will apply equally toevery problem. Viewed together, theserelatively straightforward principles setthe stage for new ways to address thediverse needs of students with challeng-ing behavior.

Increasingly, school personnel are

finding that it is more effective to

respond proactively to repeated

bouts of student misbehavior

by means of what is known as

functional behavioral assessment.


17Overview

Functional Behavioral Assessmentin Schools

The 1997 Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Act (IDEA) stipulates thatunder certain conditions school person-nel must address student behavior bymeans of FBA and positive behavioralintervention plans and supports.Schools are obligated to initiate an FBAwhen drugs, weapons, or potentiallydangerous behaviors exist and when stu-dent misbehavior impedes the learningof the student or classmates. Recentchanges in IDEA (2005) reaffirm thatexpectation.

The logic behind functional behav-ioral assessment is disarmingly simple,namely that practically all studentbehavior satisfies a need or serves afunction (e.g., to avoid a difficult assign-ment, gain attention of classmates,express frustration), and is related to thecontext in which it occurs (e.g., English

or geography classrooms). It follows thatknowledge of student motivation isessential to determining the best way toeliminate behavior that hinders instruc-tion. If we can predict it, we can controlit (Gable et al., 2004).

The language of federal legislationimplies, if not specifies, that functionalbehavioral assessment is a team prob-lem-solving process. Its success hingeson the judicious use of various strategies(e.g., records review, direct observation,structured interviews) to identify thereason(s) behind student misbehavior

and the crafting of a two-fold interven-tion plan. The plan seeks to a) reduce oreliminate the inappropriate behaviorand b) promote a more acceptablereplacement behavior. Emphasis is onidentifying those variables that, singly orcollectively, are most predictably linkedto the occurrence (and nonconcurrence)of the behavior. By identifying the con-ditions under which the behavior mostlikely occurs, school personnel can takesteps to address the problem, such asremoving environmental triggers thatelicit the behavior (e.g., changinginstructional grouping), directly andsystematically teaching the student amore acceptable response (e.g., demon-strating and role-playing requestingassistance), and/or offering an incentivefor the student to respond more appro-priately (e.g., time on the computer).Whatever the plan, it must include largemeasures of patience and optimism.Most problems can be resolved, but fewwill go away quickly or easily.

Steps to Conducting a FunctionalBehavioral Assessment

The school-based team usually conductsthe functional behavioral assessmentaccording to the following 10 steps(Gable et al., 2004):• Determine that the severity of the

problem calls for a formal FBA.• Define the problem in measurable,

observable, and objective terms.• Collect data with which to identify

the likely function(s) of the behavior(e.g., to get attention, avoid an aver-sive social situation, express anger orfrustration).

• Pull together all the informationthey have compiled and subject it to athorough analysis.

• Generate a hypothesis (motivation)statement regarding the probablefunction(s) of the behavior – underconditions X (e.g., a difficult assign-ment), the student does Y (e.g., actsup), in order to Z (e.g., be sent out ofthe classroom).

• Test the accuracy of the hypothesis,usually by systematically manipulat-ing some aspect of the curriculum orinstruction (changing the instruc-tional assignment or subject matter).

• Develop and implement a behavioralintervention plan (BIP).

• Monitor the fidelity of implementa-tion of the plan (e.g., by means of achecklist).

• Evaluate the effectiveness of the plan.• Review critically the impact of the

original plan and make adjustments,as needed.

More information about FBA can befound on the Web site of the Center forEffective Collaboration and Practice(www.cecp.org).

Conclusion

In schools across the country, there ismounting pressure on education person-nel to achieve positive outcomes for allstudents. It is reassuring to know thereare numerous evidence-based practicesthat teachers can introduce to create aneffective teaching/learning environ-ment. On those few occasions that thesestrategies fail to produce the desiredeffect, one proven option is to conducta functional behavioral assessmentand develop a behavioral interventionplan and, in so doing, give students arenewed opportunity to obtain a mean-ingful education.

References

Gable, R.A., Quinn, M.M., Rutherford, R.B., Howell. K., Hoffman, K., &Butler, C.J. (2004). Conducting a functional behavioral assessment anddeveloping a positive behavioral intervention plan. Washington, DC:American Institutes for Research.

Van Acker, R. (2004). Current status of public education and likely fu-ture directions in teacher preparation in the area of emotional/behav-ioral disorders. (p. 79-93). In L.M. Bullock & R. A. Gable (Eds.), Qualitypersonnel preparation in emotional/behavioral disorders: Current per-spectives and future direction. Denton, TX: University of North TexasPress.

Robert A. Gable is Eminent Scholar andConstance and Colgate Darden Professorof Education, Darden College of Education,Old Dominion University, NorfolkVirginia. He may be reached at 757/683-3157 or [email protected].

The FBA process is predicated

on three simple propositions:

we can’t fix it until we know

why it’s broken, no one gives up

something for nothing, and

one size does not fit all.


18 Overview

Supporting Social Skill Development inStudents with Emotional/Behavioral Disordersby Kimberly C. Crawford and Howard Goldstein

Laughing with the other children at thelunch table. Collaborating on a class-room project. Discussing plans for theFriday night slumber party. As teachers,administrators, and service providers,we observe these interactions among stu-dents on a frequent basis. They are com-monplace for most children. Take amoment to ponder how our social inter-actions in school led up to our ability toexhibit social competence as adults.

This competence contributes to ourquality of life; our lives are built on posi-tive interactions and relationships withthe people around us. What about stu-dents who have not developed the skillsnecessary for successful social interac-tions? We may notice some students whosit alone at the lunch table, who areforced by peers to work alone, or whonever receive an invitation to the slum-ber party. What impact will this have ontheir school experience and overall qual-ity of life?

In this article, we describe theimportance of supporting the successof students with emotional/behavioraldisorders in school and life throughinterventions focusing on developmentof social skills. With appropriate assess-ment and intervention in this significantarea of development, students can learnhow to participate in positive interac-tions and build friendships. Thus, wemust make a conscious and defined ef-

fort to provide these services to studentswith emotional/behavioral disorders.

The Development of Social Skills

As infants and toddlers, children learnsocial communication primarilythrough interactions with caregivers.Their social interactions typically startwith recognizing and orienting to acaregiver’s voice. Although many chil-dren have opportunities to socialize withpeers at home or in childcare settings,friendships have yet to be formed(Goldstein & Morgan, 2002). However,by age three, they are often using theirexpansive vocabulary to have adult-likeconversations. This is when friendshipsbegin to be cultivated. Relationshipsbetween peers begin to develop duringthe preschool years as natural opportu-nities for socialization and communica-tion are readily available in the pre-school classroom and other settings(Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). Develop-ment of positive social relationships is atypical goal for programs that serveyoung children. By the time childrenenter kindergarten, there are certainwidely-held expectations for theirbehavior and social competence. By theend of the preschool period, there aregreat demands on children in terms oftheir ability to communicate verbally,inhibit negative behaviors, and take theperspective of others (Goldstein andMorgan, 2002). However, developmentof social communication skills is notautomatic for some children, particu-larly those with emotional/behavioraldisorders such as autism spectrumdisorders (ASD) (McConnell, 2002).

Children with emotional/behavioraldisorders, including children with ASD,interact in some fashion with theirpeers. However, children with ASDspend less time interacting, have low-quality interactions when they join

peers, and spend more time engaged inpurposeless or no activity and at greaterphysical distances from peers (Lord &Magill-Evans, 1995). Sigman and Ruskin(1999) found that children with ASDspend a larger proportion of timeengaged in nonsocial play and a smallerproportion of time in direct social playwith others. The social interactions ofchildren with other emotional/behav-ioral disorders also may exhibit thesecharacteristics, along with aggression orother socially unacceptable behaviors.Without explicit intervention insocial-communicative development,these children are likely to continuedemonstrating social skills deficitsthroughout their lifetime (Goldstein,Kaczmarek, & English, 2002;McConnell, 2002). There is a need toutilize current and develop new inter-ventions to increase the social compe-tence of children with emotional/behav-ioral disorders.

Social Competence Evaluation andIntervention

There is a vast list of skills that fallsunder the area of social competence.This list includes communicative behav-iors such as making requests, gainingthe attention of another, and comment-ing. It also involves other interactionalbehaviors such as sharing, taking turns,and playing cooperatively. Thus, a keyfactor in creating an intervention pro-gram tailored to the needs of a particu-lar student is assessment of social com-petence. Kaczmarek (2002) describes aninterdisciplinary model of assessmentand discusses a conceptual frameworkwithin which multiple measures can beused to assess a child’s social appropri-ateness, communicative appropriate-ness, and social-communicative effec-tiveness. This model involves directobservation in the child’s natural envi-

With the appropriate support,

children with emotional/behavioral

disorders will learn the necessary

skills to foster friendships.


19Overview

ronment and in analogue and role-playsituations, during which social skills andtask-coding taxonomies can be used torecord observed behaviors. Anothercomponent of this model is gatheringinformation about the child from familymembers, teachers, and peers; throughthis method, a comprehensive picture ofa child’s overall level of social compe-tence can be acquired. Other methodsof evaluation and assessment involvethe use of rating scales, such as theSocial Skills Rating System (Gresham &Elliot, 1990). Sociometric measures thatassess peers’ feelings of acceptance forother children (Foster, Inderbitzen, &Nangle, 1993) and other peer ratingscan be utilized. Through the evaluationprocess, appropriate goals and interven-tion strategies can be established.

An assortment of interventionstargeting social skills in children withemotional/behavioral disorders havebeen investigated, particularly with chil-dren with ASD (Rogers, 2000). Althoughmuch of this discussion involves strate-gies found to be effective with childrenwith ASD, these strategies have beenshown to be effective with children withother types of emotional/behavioraldisorders as well (Goldstein,Kaczmarek, & English, 2002). Over thepast 30 years, interventions with mul-tiple age groups have focused on variousstrategies, including adult instruction,peer-mediation, video modeling, self-monitoring, and combinations of thesestrategies. Adult-mediated interventioninvolves social skills training usingdirect instruction and/or naturalisticstrategies. Adult instruction methodshave taught children to initiate andmaintain interactions with typically-developing peers (Belchic & Harris,1994; Kohler, Anthony, Steighner, &Hoyson, 2001; Kamps et al., 1992). Peer-mediation strategies have addressed thesame skills, but have capitalized on so-cial responding on the part of the childwith ASD, as typical peers are taught toinitiate persistently (Goldstein, English,Shafer, & Kaczmarek, 1997; Odom &Strain, 1984; Gunter, Fox, Brady, Shores,& Cavanaugh, 1988; Oke & Schreibman,

1990). Self-monitoring techniques usingmethods such as monitoring responsesto initiations from peers also have shownpositive results (Strain, Kohler, Storey,& Danko, 1994). Other self-monitoringtechniques utilize video feedback (Kernet al., 1995; Wert & Neisworth, 2003),or a package of strategies such as peertraining, and use of pictures, written textcues, and video feedback (Thiemann &Goldstein, 2001).

There are numerous options availablefor social skills intervention. The type ofintervention strategy that is chosen for aparticular student should be based ontheir level of social competence, the spe-cific social skills that will be targeted, thesetting in which intervention will takeplace (e.g., inclusive classroom), andavailable participants (e.g., peers devel-oping typically).

When Should We Start?

The time to start providing support insocial skills development through ex-plicit instruction and intervention isnow. With the appropriate support, chil-dren with emotional/behavioral disor-ders can learn the necessary skills tobegin to foster friendships. Interactionswith their friends will allow them tolearn even more sophisticated socialskills, which, in turn, will enable them tocontinue to develop relationships. Thesechildren will then be able to have a morerewarding school experience and, overtime, a higher quality of life.

References

Belchic, J. K. & Harris, S. L. (1994). The use of multiple peer exemplarsto enhance the generalization of play skills to the siblings of childrenwith autism. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 16, 1-25.

Bredekamp, S. & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1997). Developmentally appropriatepractice in early childhood programs (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC:National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Foster, S.L., Inderbitzen, H. M., & Nangle, D. W. (1993). Assessing accep-tance and social skills with peers in childhood. Behavior Modification,17, 255-286.

Goldstein, H., English, K., Shafer, K., & Kaczmarek, L. (1997). Interactionamong preschoolers with and without disabilities: Effects of across-the-day peer intervention. Journal of Speech, Language, and HearingResearch, 40, 33-48.

Goldstein, H., Kaczmarek, L. A., & English, K.M. (Eds.) (2002). Promotingsocial communication: Children with developmental disabilities frombirth to adolescence. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.

Goldstein, H. & Morgan, L. (2002). Social interaction and models offriendship development. In H. Goldstein, L.A. Kaczmarek, & K. M. En-glish (Eds.), Promoting social communication: Children with develop-mental disabilities from birth to adolescence (pp. 5-26). Baltimore, MD:Brookes Publishing.

Gresham, F. M. & Elliot, S. N. (1990). Social skills rating system. CirclePines, MN: American Guidance Service.

Gunter, P., Fox, J. J., Brady, M. P., Shores, R. A., & Cavanaugh, K. (1988).Non-handicapped peers as multiple exemplars: A generalization tacticfor promoting autistic students’ social skills. Behavioral Disorders, 13,116-126.

Kaczmarek, L.A. (2002). Assessment of social-communicative compe-tence: An interdisciplinary model. In H. Goldstein, L.A. Kaczmarek, & K.M. English (Eds.), Promoting social communication: Children with de-velopmental disabilities from birth to adolescence (pp. 55-116). Balti-more, MD: Brookes Publishing.

Kamps, D., Leonard, B., Vernon, S., Dugan, E., Delquadri, J., Gershon, B.,et al. (1992). Teaching social skills to students with autism to increasepeer interactions in an integrated first grade classroom. Journal ofApplied Behavior Analysis, 25, 281-288.

Kern, L., Wacker, D. P., Mace, F. C., Falk, G. D., Dunlap, G., & Kromrey, J. D.(1995). Improving the peer interactions of students with emotionaland behavioral disorders through self-evaluation procedures: A com-ponent analysis and group application. Journal of Applied BehaviorAnalysis, 28, 47-59.

Kohler, F. W., Anthony, L .J., Steighner, S. A., & Hoyson, M. (2002).Teaching social interaction skills in the integrated preschool: Anexamination of naturalistic tactics. Topics in Early Childhood SpecialEducation, 21, 93-103.

Lord, C. & Magill-Evans, J. (1995). Peer interactions of autistic childrenand adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 252-263.

McConnell, S. (2002). Interventions to facilitate social interaction foryoung children with autism: Review of available research and recom-mendations for educational intervention and future research. Journalof Autism & Developmental Disorders, 32, 351-372.

Odom, S. L. & Strain, P.S. (1984). Peer-mediated approaches to pro-moting children’s social interaction: A review. American Journal ofOrthopsychiatry, 54, 544-557.

Oke, N. & Schreibman, L. (1990). Training social initiations to a highfunctioning autistic child: Assessment of collateral behavior changeand generalization in a case study. Journal of Autism and Developmen-tal Disabilities, 20, 479-497.

Rogers, S. (2000). Interventions that facilitate socialization in childrenwith autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 399-409.

Sigman, M. & Ruskin, E. (1999). Continuity and change in the socialcompetence of children with autism, Down syndrome, and develop-mental delays. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Devel-opment, 64, 1-130.

Strain, P.S., Kohler, F.W., Storey, K., & Danko, C.D. (1994). Teachingpreschoolers with autism to self-monitor their social interactions: Ananalysis of results in home and school settings. Journal of Emotionaland Behavioral Disorders, 2, 78-88.

Thiemann, K. & Goldstein, H. (2001). Social stories, written text cues,and video feedback: Effects on social communication of children withautism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 425-446.

Wert, B. Y. & Neisworth, J. T. (2003). Effects of video self-modeling onspontaneous requesting in children with autism. Journal of PositiveBehavior Interventions, 5, 30-34.

Kimberly C. Crawford is a clinicaleducation instructor and doctoral studentin the Department of CommunicationDisorders, Florida State University,Tallahassee. She may be reached at 850/645-2618 or [email protected] Goldstein is professor and chair inthe department. He may be reached at 850/644-6264 or [email protected].


20 Profile

Project SUPPORT: A Transition Program forIncarcerated Youth with Disabilities in Oregonby Deanne Unruh

Adjudicated youth face numerous diffi-culties and unique challenges in theirgrowth from adolescence into adulthoodwhen compared with their peers notinvolved in the juvenile justice system.Their transition outcomes demonstratedismal success for this high-risk popula-tion. These outcomes are highlighted byTRACS (Transition Research on Adoles-cents returning to Community Settings), arecently completed five-year longitudinalstudy that examined transition outcomesfor incarcerated youth after leavingOregon’s juvenile correctional facilitiesand returning to communities (Bullis,Yovanoff, Mueller, & Havel, 2002). Inthis sample, almost 60% of the youthreturned to the juvenile justice system orwere committed to the adult correctionalsystem. Only a quarter enrolled inschool, and fewer earned any high schoolcompletion document after exiting cus-tody. And employment rates were dis-turbingly low, averaging less than 30%.Those with a special education disability(58%) were three times more likely thanthose without a disability to return to thecorrectional system, and two times lesslikely to become involved in work orschool. On a positive note, formerly-incarcerated youth with disabilities whowere working or going to school duringthe first six months of release were 3.2times less likely to return to custody and2.5 times more likely to remain workingor in school 12 months after exiting thecorrectional facility. Youth engaged inwork and/or school fared better in theirtransition than those not so engaged – afinding with clear implications for devel-opment of a transition model for thispopulation.

Project Description

Motivated by the TRACS findings, threestate agencies – the Oregon YouthAuthority, which is Oregon’s juvenile jus-

tice agency, the Oregon Department ofEducation, and Oregon Vocational Reha-bilitation Services – along with stafffrom the University of Oregon workedto develop a statewide transition pro-gram for juvenile offenders with disabili-ties leaving the juvenile correctional sys-tem and returning to the community.The program, Project SUPPORT, beganin 1999.*

The purpose of Project SUPPORT isto provide incarcerated youth who haveeither a designated special educationdisability and/or mental health disorderwith pre-release training and coordi-nated planning to support their transi-tion into the community. Program goalsare to increase engagement in employ-ment and/or school enrollment (highschool/postsecondary) and decrease re-cidivism. Key characteristics of programparticipants are: a) average age at entryis 17.4 years; b) 80% are male; c) 31% aremembers of an ethnic/minority group;d) 92% have a DSM-IV diagnosis and45% have a combination of a DSM-IVand special education diagnosis; e) 78%have a history of school absenteeismand suspension; f ) 76% have a history ofsubstance abuse; and g) over 60% have ahistory of living in foster care or a grouphome, running away from home orplacements, and an anger managementdeficit.

A transition specialist (TS) is the keystaff person in Project SUPPORT. EachTS works directly with the youth andparole officer (PO) to develop a projecttransition plan that is coupled with theyouth’s parole plan. Vocational rehabili-tation counselors, facility treatment andeducation staff, and community-basedagencies are key partners to assist in thesuccessful community reintegration pro-cess. The transition plan is developedfrom each youth’s strengths, barriers,interests, and life goals. Services are nota prescriptive set of activities provided

each youth, but rely on the TS’s ability tomake decisions and connections witheach youth based on information andguidance provided by the youth, PO,family or guardians, and other commu-nity agency staff.

Services typically occur in threephases: In-facility services, immediatepre/post-release activities, and ongoingcommunity support. The in-facilityphase activities completed by the TS are:• Build positive relationship between

TS and youth• Define youth’s interests, needs, and

life goals• Develop transition plan• Initiate pre-employment skill building• Ensure appropriate assessments and

ID are available for immediate accessto services in community

• Liaison with PO and facility treatmentand education staff

In the immediate pre/post release phase,the most intensive service phase, TSactivities are:• Prepare and transfer IEP to commu-

nity education placement• Develop and implement employment

options for youth in community• Set up needed social services in com-

munity (e.g., mental health, AODA)• Support youth to access services once

released (e.g., transportation training)• Develop youth’s independent living

skills (e.g., budgeting, finding hous-ing)

• Support and follow parole plan• Liaison with PO and other commu-

nity support staff

Ongoing support phase activities are:• Support youth to maintain engage-

ment activities (e.g., employment,education, hobbies)


21Profile

• Further develop youth’s independentliving skills (e.g., taxes, driving)

• Assess youth for return of formernegative behaviors (e.g., drugs,gangs)

• Continue to liaison with PO andother community support staff

(For a further project services descrip-tion see Unruh, et al., 2004 ,2005.)

Participant Outcomes

Project SUPPORT participants havedemonstrated positive results. At two,four, and six months after release from ayouth correctional facility, approxi-mately 68% of all participants are posi-tively engaged in school and/or employ-ment and have not returned to youth oradult corrections. This rate demon-strates a much higher rate of engage-ment than the TRACS sample, whichshowed an engagement rate of 35% byjuvenile offenders not receiving thesespecialized services (Bullis, et al., 2002).

In addition to overall outcomes, thestory of Anthony, a composite casestudy of a “typical” project participant’sexperiences, serves to illustrate out-comes on an individual level. Anthonyentered Project SUPPORT a month priorto leaving the youth correctional facility.He began working with a TS to help himdesign a plan for his release from cus-tody. Anthony was incarcerated for mul-tiple crimes including theft, stealing acar, and assault. Most of the crimes werecommitted while he was under the influ-ence. He identifies his main transitionneeds as learning how to do everydaythings, staying away from friends thatuse drugs, and controlling his anger.

Upon release Anthony’s transitionwas not smooth. The TS helped himmaintain his health insurance and alsoapply for food stamps. He began work-ing with Vocational Rehabilitation,which helped him find a landscaping joband purchased his tools for the job. But,he was soon fired because of an argu-ment with his boss. He revealed that hehas stopped attending his AlcoholicsAnonymous meetings, had been hang-

ing out with some of his old friends, andhad been under the influence of drugsprior to this incident. The PO and TSrequired that he start attending alcoholand drug treatment sessions.

It has been nine months since hisrelease and Anthony is working in aplant nursery. The TS assisted him witha financial aid application and he wasable to get assistance to attend a com-munity college landscape design pro-gram. Anthony is struggling with stay-ing clean, but has met new friendsthrough work that help him stay awayfrom his drug-involved friends. Anthonydescribed the TS support in this way:“When you get out you’re like now whatdo I do? [The TS] will give you infinitepossibilities. I certainly couldn’t havestarted college without her. I wouldn’tknow the slightest thing to do. Shehelped me, [but] it’s also you help your-self ” (Project SUPPORT participant).

Lessons Learned

Lessons were learned both at a systems-level and targeted population-levelduring project implementation:• Facilitate ongoing self-directed plan-

ning and decision-making. The inter-ests, aptitudes, and needs of youthdefine specific employment, furthereducation, and independent livingsupports. Services need to begin inthe facility, for example by exploringvarious employment and career inter-ests with the youth, and continue inthe community to assist the youth inmaking positive choices aligned withthe youth’s strengths and needs.

• Employability skill training goes be-yond the youth being employed. TheTS needs to work collaboratively withemployment support services (e.g.,vocational rehabilitation or Work-force Investment Act) to developemployment and training opportuni-ties. Once the youth is employed,continued monitoring and skilldevelopment is a requisite to ensurethe youth maintains employmentacross jobs over time.

• Additional support services areneeded for successful communityreintegration. Basic needs (e.g., food,shelter, positive social network) arerequisite to maintain a youth’s stableemployment or school engagement.Services to support these basic needsare necessary to sustain a youth’s suc-cessful community transition.

• Develop systems-change collabora-tions to access the available commu-nity resources. Project participantsneed diverse supports. Communityagencies, juvenile justice, vocationalrehabilitation, and local schools needto work together to develop systemsto share information and ensureimmediate access to services uponrelease from correctional facilities.

Conclusion

Project SUPPORT is a promising modelfor working with juvenile offenders withdisabilities. The role of the TS is criticalto this model, but just as essential is thedevelopment and maintenance of col-laborative services across agencies. Theimplementation of this service model is adifficult task, but when long-termcollaborative relationships are main-tained lifelong positive outcomes for thishigh-risk population can be achieved.

* Note: In June 2004, the Oregon Department of Education terminatedthe statewide project. Currently the project operates in two Oregoncounties and is funded through an Office of Special Education Pro-grams Model Demonstration Project awarded to the University ofOregon in collaboration with the Oregon Youth Authority.

References

Bullis, M., Yovanoff, P., Mueller, G., & Havel, E. (2002). Life on the “outs.”Examination of the facility-to-community transition of incarceratedyouth. Exceptional Children, 69, 7-22.

Unruh, D., Bullis, M., Booth, C., & Pendergrass, J., (2005). Project SUP-PORT: A description and evaluation for a transition project of formerlyincarcerated adolescents with special education and mental healthdisorders. In M. Epstein, K. Kutash, & A. Duchnowski (Eds.), Outcomes forchildren and youth with emotional and behavioral disorders and theirfamilies: Programs and evaluation best practices. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed, Inc.

Unruh, D., Bullis, M., Pendergrass, J., Booth, C., Waintrup, M., &Montesano, D. (2004). Project SUPPORT: A transition project of formerlyincarcerated adolescents with special education and mental healthdisorders. In D. Cheney (Ed.), Transition of students with emotional orbehavioral disabilities from school to community: Current approaches forpositive outcomes. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children, Divi-sion of Career Development and Transition.

Deanne Unruh is a research associate inthe Secondary Special Education andTransition research unit, University ofOregon, Eugene. She may be reached at541/346-1424 or [email protected].


22 Profile

Successful Living is Healing: Cleveland’sPositive Education Programby Thomas G. Valore

Positive Education Program (PEP) inCleveland, Ohio, was established in 1971to provide special education and mentalhealth services to students with severeemotional and/or behavioral challenges.Today, PEP annually serves more than3,000 children, birth through 21 yearsof age, and their families through anarray of services. PEP’s model of servicedelivery is effective. For all four years todate where Child and Adolescent Func-tional Assessment Scale measures wereadministered to all PEP Day TreatmentCenter students, scores showed statisti-cally significant improvements fromentry to most recent testing at a highlevel of confidence.

Articles discussing program effective-ness usually address classroom structureand behavior management techniques,both of which are critical componentsof PEP programs. The purpose of thisarticle, however, is to highlight elementsthat are not typically discussed, but areessential to building success in students:beliefs, people, and a strength-basedapproach. Given the complexities of thetopic, this article can only provide abrief overview highlighting some of thesalient points on each.

Beliefs

Beliefs are the way we think about ourcolleagues, kids, and families, andbeliefs determine how we will behavetoward them. PEP is grounded in theRe-ED (Re-education of EmotionallyDisturbed Children) philosophy devel-oped by Dr. Nicholas Hobbs in the early1960s and refined continually since.Re-ED is ecologically based. Re-EDer’sbelieve that a child experiencing prob-lems within their home, school, or com-munity is seen to have an imbalance intheir ecology or ecosystem. The ecologi-cal approach requires that professionalspartner with the child, family, and other

significant people to build on and fortifystrengths and employ solutions to prob-lems in order to restore the ecology to a“tolerable level of discord.” PEP is com-mitted to and is guided by the 12 Re-EDprinciples (Hobbs, 1982, 1994), whichcan be categorized under three basicbelief statements (Cantrell, Cantrell,Valore, Jones, & Fecser, 1999, p. 9):• We are emotional beings who need

each other.TRUST is essential….FEELINGS should be nurtured….GROUPS are a major source ofinstruction….COMMUNITIES’ benefits must beexperienced….

• Growth can be enhanced.INTELLIGENCE can be taught….COMPETENCE makes a difference….SELF-CONTROL can be learned….PHYSICAL experiences help usdefine ourselves….

• Today can be used to build health.NOW is when life is to be lived….TIME is an ally when used to makepositive changes….CEREMONY gives stability….JOY should be built into each day….

The Re-ED principles are taught anddisseminated to staff, students, and fami-lies, as well as shared with agencies withwhom PEP collaborates. The principlesprovide guidance, and fuel the compas-sion and passion of staff to help childrenand families improve their lives.

People

People are our most important andvaluable resource. Troubled and trou-bling children can benefit from decentand trustworthy adults in their lives tohelp them grow and learn. In Re-ED, this

person is the teacher-counselor, a title sovalued by Re-EDer’s that it is respectfulfor staff to recognize each other withthat title regardless of their formal posi-tion (a Re-ED aphorism quoted fre-quently is “We are all teacher-counse-lors”). Hobbs wrote extensively aboutthe teacher-counselor. He believed thatprofessional training was important, butalso speculated that there were naturalqualities certain individuals possessed,based on subtle learning that occurredearly in life. This subtle learning mani-fests itself in the presence of kids. Thisadult appears to have a natural affinitytoward kids, who respond in kind.Although this natural connection is animportant ingredient for working withkids, skill development is necessary forprevention or action when problemsarise. Hobbs summarized the role:

But most of all, a teacher-counseloris a decent adult; educated, welltrained; able to give and receive affec-tion, to live relaxed, and to be firm; aperson with private resources for thenourishment and refreshment of hisown life; not an itinerant worker buta professional through and through;a person with a sense of the signifi-cance of time, of the usefulness oftoday and the promise of tomorrow;a person of hope, quiet confidence,and joy; one who has committedhimself to children and to the propo-sition that children who are dis-turbed can be helped by the processof reeducation. (1966, p.1106)

In Re-ED, interdisciplinary teamwork isparamount. Parents and professionalconsultants empower and support theteacher-counselor by sharing theirknowledge and expertise about a childthrough collaborating in formal treat-ment staffings, IEP planning and evalua-tion meetings, and other means of com-munication.


23Profile

Strength-Based Approach

Attention to strengths builds success.Although building successful therapeu-tic relationships is a staff goal for allmembers of the child’s ecology, it iscritical with the student. PEP staffcarefully cultivate trusting and caringrelationships with students. The Re-EDprinciple, “Trust is essential,” resonateswith the four components necessary forsuccess that are identified in the resil-iency literature (Seita, Mitchell, &Tobin, 1996). Staff work hard to build ashared and caring relationship (connect-edness), and help students know thatstaff will be there every step of the way(continuity). Staff also ensure that stu-dents feel very respected (dignity) andprovide them with multiple successfulexperiences (opportunity).

Often considered our most powerfulbehavior support strategy, academicprogramming is significant in buildingsuccess in students. PEP staff do notwait for the student’s behavior toimprove so they can teach, they teach sothat the student’s behavior improves.Accurate assessment and goal setting,precise planning, active instruction, pur-poseful engagement, and continuousevaluation can almost guarantee studentsuccess and increase their motivation tofurther engage in the learning process.Hobbs believed that school is the “busi-ness of children,” and that we need toengineer their success.

Group work in Re-ED programs hasbeen a foundation of intervention since1962 when the first two Re-ED schoolsopened their doors. Hobbs placedstrong emphasis on the power of thegroup “in helping each member of thegroup grow in competence, confidence,self-esteem, and ability to meet the de-mands of living in home, school, andcommunity” (1982, p. 332). At PEP,classrooms function as a unit through-out the day, meeting, playing, eating,and learning together. To develop a posi-tive cohesive group culture, the teacher-counselor is keenly aware of group pro-cess and uses 12 cohesion-buildingstrategies (Valore, 1992) to cultivatethose processes throughout the day. The

use of group meetings is probably themost powerful of these strategies. Dur-ing meetings students remind eachother of their goals, share successes,discuss existing challenges, and exploresolutions, including how each membercan help one another. Once this cultureis established, it becomes an ongoingforce that continually helps to guide andmaintain the group’s therapeutic cul-ture. It is this cohesive, positive, andhealthy culture that influences groupmembers to change their behavior andinteractions in their ecologies.

Conclusion

Implementing these important elementswill have a powerful effect on the stu-dent and his or her ecology. Hobbs chal-lenges us to create a healthy and success-ful helping ecology:

The constant challenge is to design adaily program so engaging, so variedand new yet orderly and stable…someshed with the growth of thechild’s mind, so rich in humaninterchange…so joyous, so aware…that the [troubled] child finds him-self immediately committed to a newway of living at once more satisfyingto himself and more satisfactory tothe people in his life. (1982, pp. 88-89)

References

Cantrell, M. L., Cantrell, R. P., Valore, T. G., Jones, J. M., & Fecser, F. A.(1999). A revisitation of the ecological perspectives on emotional/behavioral disorders. In L. M. Bullock & R. A. Gable (Eds.), The thirdmini-library series: What works for children and youth with E/BD: Link-ing yesterday and today with tomorrow. Reston, VA: Council for Chil-dren With Behavioral Disorders.

Hobbs, N. (1994). The troubled and troubling child: Re-Education inmental health, education and human services programs for childrenand youth. Cleveland OH: American Re-ED Association.

Hobbs, N. (1982). The troubled and troubling child: Re-Education inmental health, education and human services programs for childrenand youth. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Hobbs, N. (1966). Helping disturbed children: Psychological and eco-logical strategies. American Psychologist, 21, 1105-1115.

Seita, J., Mitchell, M., & Tobin, C. (1996). In whose best interest?Elizabethtown, PA: Continental Press.

Valore, T. G. (1992). Group process in Re-ED. Unpublished manuscript,Cleveland, OH: Positive Education Program.

Thomas G. Valore is staff developmentdirector with the Positive EducationProgram, Cleveland, Ohio. He may bereached at 216/361-4400, x127 or [email protected]

Hi, my name is Josh Goldner. I am 19years old and a senior at PEP’s MidtownCenter for Youth in Transition. At Midtown,I have been able to focus on my voca-tional and transitional skills whileearning my high school credit. Since I was eight years old I bouncedfrom one foster home to another. Mybehaviors in school prevented me fromexperiencing any success and led to myplacement at many different schools.After several unsuccessful placements, Iwas enrolled in PEP’s Midtown. Here, Ilearned to manage my behaviors so that Ican work towards my goal of becomingan independent adult. I believe I have been successful atMidtown because my teacher-counselorstook the time to listen and understandme. Trust in adults has always been anissue with me, but I quickly realized thatthe staff had my best interest in mind,even when I didn’t see it that way. Ilearned to work my program and fullyparticipate in my education, whichmainly focused on my strengths. Myacademic workload was tough butmanageable. My teacher-counselorsstood by me, always reinforcing theirbelief that I could be successful. Afterawhile, I just started believing it. I am set to graduate this year andenroll in a post-graduate auto body-techtraining program. Also, my former fosterdad recently adopted me. Overall, myexperience at PEP has been life changing.My goals that once seemed impossibleare now within my reach.

Meet Josh

Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http://ici.umn.edu). Citation: Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. & Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on FosteringSuccess in School and Beyond for Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, 18(2). Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota, Institute on Community Integration.

24 Profile

Turning Around a Minnesota School At-Risk:Dayton’s Bluff Elementaryby Jennifer McComas

Walking through the school buildingtoday, it is hard to believe that in 2000Dayton’s Bluff Elementary School wasrated among the worst elementaryschools in the St. Paul Public Schools(SPPS) district. Blatant disrespecttoward adults and aggression towardpeers was rampant, and chaos ruled thehallways and classrooms. Test scores at

Dayton’s Bluff were the lowest in the dis-trict and teacher morale was so low thaton any given day up to 80% of the teach-ing staff might call in sick. The school islocated in an extremely impoverishedneighborhood in the capitol city of Min-nesota. Over 90% of the student popula-tion (365 students, grades K-6) qualifiesfor free or reduced price meals becausetheir family income is near or below thefederal poverty standard. Affordablehousing in the city is scarce and the largecontingent of low-income families ishighly mobile, perpetually searching forcheaper housing. Such mobility meansthat nearly 50% of the students do notattend the same school for the full schoolyear. This staggering level of povertyand mobility, coupled with the lack ofteacher stability, necessary instructionalcontrol, and effective behavior manage-ment put essentially the entire studentpopulation at risk for developing emo-tional or behavioral disorders.

During the summer of 2001, the dis-trict redesigned the school by replacing

the principal, other building administra-tors, and about 80% of the teachers. Theschool building was rejuvenated and anarray of student- and family-centeredsupport services were aligned andlocated in the school. Within just twoyears, students worked collaborativelyin classrooms, and greeted each otherwith smiles and handshakes and theteachers and administrators with hugs.Dayton’s Bluff students, as a whole,showed the largest year-to-year gains inthe district. Today, teachers not onlycome to work every day, but they arriveearly and stay late, pouring their energyinto creating a fun and rigorous learningenvironment where respect for all isevident everywhere.

In addition to the structural andpersonnel changes, a combination offundamental components aimed atprogramming for student academic andsocial, emotional, and behavioral suc-cess was implemented to bring aboutthe astounding transformation. Thesecomponents include:• Use of the Responsive Classroom®

model, an approach that brings to-gether social and academic learningand “fosters safe, challenging, andjoyful classrooms and schools” (seewww.responsiveclassroom.org).

• Collaboration between regular andspecial education staff.

• Assessments of student instructionallevels and use of instructional strate-gies tailored to those levels.

• Positive relationships between adultsand students.

• A common language and ethicthroughout the school of equity,justice, and success for every student.

Adoption of the Responsive Class-room® principles throughout the entireschool, including in the special educa-tion classes, is reportedly responsible for

a large portion of the transformation.The Responsive Classroom® modelprovides a structure that helps childrenlearn social skills along with academiccontent. The day begins with the Morn-ing Meeting during which the childrensit in a circle to hear a message about theday’s events or topics of study and theyhold an informal conversation in whicheveryone participates. A set of rules forbehavior is posted in every room andhallway along with the systematic anduniversal steps for regaining self-controland turning around problem behavior.The seven steps consist of a series ofconsequences for misbehavior that sys-tematically escalate in severity from“take a break,” to “fix it” plans, to dis-missal from school. The consistency withwhich the system is implemented byevery adult in the school is remarkable. Ithas produced demonstrable changes instudent behavior and conduct, with stu-dents taking responsibility for their be-havior, and dismissal from school a rar-ity. The model also involves “buddyclassrooms.” Experienced teachers aretypically paired with less-experiencedteachers. Teachers work together toassess and reflect on their performanceand provide each other with constructivefeedback regarding their interactionswith students. For example, if a teacherexperiences frequent conflict with a par-ticular student, the teacher’s buddyteacher might observe the teacher andpoint out the types of behaviors theteacher exhibits that reliably precede thestudent’s outbursts. Then the two teach-ers work together to identify alternativestrategies for interacting with the stu-dent and monitor progress in terms ofreducing conflict and strengthening therelationship between the teacher andstudent.

This transformation has positivelyaffected the entire student body atDayton’s Bluff, including students identi-

The transformation at Dayton’s

Bluff provides a ray of hope for

promoting success for students at

risk for and identified with EBD.


25Profile

fied as having an emotional/behavioraldisorder (EBD). All staff members in theschool receive intensive training in theprinciples and procedures associatedwith the Responsive Classroom® model.“Collaboration is key to our teachersfinding creative ways to grow at theircraft and help our students exceed thestandards” says Von Sheppard, principalof Dayton’s Bluff Elementary School.The EBD teacher collaborates withregular education teachers who teachstudents on her caseload, and she co-teaches in regular education classrooms.The uniformly high expectations foracademic performance and standards ofbehavior are held for all students,regardless of whether they are identifiedas having EBD. Students with EBD haveresponded with the same academic andbehavioral improvements demonstratedby the general student population. Thecommon policies and procedures usedacross regular and special educationclassrooms promote academic andbehavioral success for all students.

The importance of social skillsinstruction is equal to that of academicsuccess for all students. The academicsuccess that regular and specialeducation students at Dayton’s Bluffexperience is largely a product of theindividualized instruction all studentsreceive. Individualized assessments areconducted with each student to deter-mine the specific instructional needs ofeach across the content areas. Instruc-tion in reading, writing, and math isconducted in “workshop” style that in-volves a “mini-lesson” of approximately5-10 minutes followed by a period oftime during which students receiveguided practice and feedback on appli-cations of the mini-lesson. Data areregularly collected and analyzed to de-termine students’ growth and to identifyareas in need of individualized instruc-tional strategies. Students with EBDrespond particularly well to the briefinstructional periods followed by oppor-tunities to practice what they’ve learnedand experience success in school.

The common language of respectthat is spoken throughout the entire

school, with the same high expectationsfor academic performance and pro-social behavior held for all students,demonstrates a cohesiveness that con-tributes to the success of all students inthe school. All students experience thesame consequences for misbehavior,including those students who have a his-tory of significant behavioral problemsin school, and all students are providedmultiple opportunities to correct theirown behavior within the systematizedprogram. Rob O’Hara-Graff, an EBDteacher who joined the staff this year,explains, “Our students who have lowesteem and/or make poor choices have achance to see fairness in how everyone istreated alike, that they will not be con-demned for making a mistake, and willbe encouraged to succeed by everyone.”Mr. O’Hara-Graff has also commentedthat the first thing he noticed atDayton’s Bluff was the common lan-guage throughout the building. He findsthat the consistent joint efforts betweenregular and special education staff rep-resent a strong united front in the devel-opment of appropriate behavior of allstudents.

The equity and fairness that is ahallmark of the Responsive Classroom®model contributes to the developmentof positive relationships between stu-dents and staff. The high level of consis-tency with which the staff membersimplement the program builds trustingrelationships between students andadults in the building. It is much morecommon for students to be sent to theprincipal’s office to read somethingthey’ve written or share an accomplish-ment in math than to face disciplinaryaction. When disciplinary action isnecessary, the staff members approachthe problem as a partner with thestudent to understand and solve theproblem rather than as heavy-handed,controlling, punitive authority figures.This approach promotes mutual respect,responsibility, and pride, and reducesthe incidence of learned helplessness.

Strong leadership from the principaland ample opportunities for profes-sional development are also critical

elements for the type of widespreadsuccess observed at Dayton’s Bluff. Theprincipal holds high expectations forteacher performance and provides con-stant guidance and feedback for effectiveimplementation of the essential compo-nents of the program. Teachers areprovided with intensive training as wellas ongoing “booster” sessions tailored totheir individual needs. The model isworking so well that most students,including students with the most severeEBD, are experiencing academic successand are able to turn their behavioraround within one or two opportunitiesto regain control. Given the focus onteaching social skills along with academ-ics, and the resultant improvementsobserved, there is every reason to believethat these students will stand alongsidetheir regular education peers in leadingproductive, successful lives.

The transformation at Dayton’s Bluffprovides a ray of hope for promotingacademic and behavioral success for alarge population of students at risk fordeveloping, and identified with, EBD.The investment in “people-power” thatprioritizes small class sizes and strongprofessional development programs overcutting-edge technology has resulted insuccessful primary and secondaryprevention that supports the tertiaryprevention resources provided by thedistrict for students identified with EBD.The comprehensive, multi-dimensionalprogram addresses needs across domainsfor all students, including those withEBD, increasing the likelihood that theywill experience success in school, remainin school through graduation, and suc-cessfully transition into adulthood.

Jennifer McComas is associate professor inthe Department of Educational Psychology,University of Minnesota. She may bereached at 612/624-5854 or [email protected]. The article was authored incollaboration with Von Sheppard, principalat Dayton’s Bluff Elementary School,St. Paul, Minnesota. He may be reached at651/293-8915 or [email protected].


26 Profile

Implementing School-wide PositiveBehavior Supportsby Timothy J. Lewis

The challenges students with emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) present toschools and communities have been welldocumented (Lockwood, 1997; Myers &Holland, 2000; U.S. Department of Edu-cation, 1998). The impact of EBD on thestudents themselves paints a bleak pic-ture, with poor academic and social out-comes (U.S. Department of Education,1998; Wagner, 1991). The literature isclear that our best hope of helping stu-dents with EBD is effective preventionand early intervention practices (Kamps,Kravits, Rauch, Kamps, & Chung, 2000;Kamps, Kravits, Stolze, & Swaggart,1999). Unfortunately, to date, schoolsystems have not built the capacityto implement prevention efforts(Kauffman, 1999) and, at the oppositeextreme, many engage in disciplinarypractices such as “zero tolerance” thatactually exacerbate the problem (Mayer,1995; Skiba & Peterson, 2000). One ap-proach to prevention and early interven-tion that’s proving successful is school-wide positive behavior support(SW-PBS).

Teamwork in SW-PBS

One of the central strategies of SW-PBSis the use of school teams to build aneffective schoolwide system that imple-ments practices the literature has identi-fied as effective to provide preventionand early intervention for all students,particularly those who may be at-risk(Sugai & Horner, 1999; Sugai, Sprague,Horner, & Walker, 2000; Sugai et al.,1999). Schools must have administratorsas part of the teams, in addition to repre-sentatives of grade levels, curriculumdepartments or other school teams, andspecialists. The teams’ primary functionis to draft policy and discuss all materialsand actions with their respective con-stituencies to increase “buy-in” and makesure developed policy reflects buildingfaculty and staff values.

The teams work within a three-tieredcontinuum of behavioral and academicsupports:

• First tier: Universal supports for allstudents within a school or district.This is the primary level, and itsessential features include positivelystated expectations, strategies toteach expectations, high rates of rein-forcement for complying with expec-tations, and clear routines to increasethe likelihood of success (Lewis &Sugai, 1999).

• Second tier: Secondary or smallgroup/targeted level of supportsfocusing on students who requireadditional intervention to achieveoutcomes. This level uses strategiessuch as small group instruction inself-management and social skilldevelopment as well as academicsupport in groups.

• Third tier: Individual supports imple-mented with students who havechronic patterns of problem behav-ior. The focus is on the completion ofa functional behavioral assessmentthat leads to an individualized posi-tive behavior support plan.

Across the three tiers of support,SW-PBS emphasizes a common set ofpractices, language, and processes to in-crease maintenance and generalizationof each level of support. School teamsapply a problem-solving process acrossall the levels that emphasizes three es-sential features. First, teams use data toguide decision-making and to evaluatetheir efforts to impact student behavior.That data indicates where problemsoccur, which students account for themajority of behavioral issues, and whatmeans of addressing them are presentlyis in place. Second, teams identifyempirically-validated practices to matchneed. Finally, school teams work to

develop comprehensive systems of sup-port to insure all adults are aware of andfluent in implementing targeted prac-tices. The systems of support includefaculty and staff training, resource allo-cation, development of routines, andcodifying all procedures into schoolpolicy. The basic building blocks ofschool-wide universal supports to indi-vidual student plans include a) teachingpro-social behaviors that will replaceproblem behavior, b) multiple opportu-nities to practice expected pro-socialbehaviors, and c) specific and positivefeedback upon instances of studentmastery and use of the appropriate skill.

While the essential features ofSW-PBS are drawn from previouslyresearch-validated practices, the abilityto “measure” the impact of preventionefforts remains difficult in that if univer-sal efforts are effective, students do notcome to the attention of school staff.Currently, research is under way track-ing students who enter school “at-risk”and examining the long-term impact ofSW-PBS efforts.

The following case study provides anillustration of how one school used thelogic and process of SW-PBS to addressa kindergarten student who was display-ing a common pattern among studentsultimately identified as having EBD –high rates and high intensity of problembehavior.

Case Study in SW-PBS at theIndividual Level

“Moesha” (pseudonym) was a five-year-old kindergarten student who was re-ceiving no specialized services. She wasreferred to the SW-PBS team by herclassroom teacher and the assistantprincipal based on an escalating patternof non-compliance, aggressive behaviordirected toward peers and adults, andtantrums that escalated, on one occa-


27Profile

sion, to the point of necessitating policeintervention. At the time of her referralto the support team, Moesha was alsoreferred for preliminary assessment todetermine the appropriateness of a spe-cial education referral, for case review bythe district mental health coordinator,and, as a result of police involvement onthat prior occasion, for informal conver-sations with juvenile justice. All of thereferrals are common in the pathway toidentifying a student as having an EBD.

Moesha’s elementary school had beenimplementing SW-PBS for three yearsprior to this case study. The school had auniversal set of expectations, social skilllesson plans to teach the expectations,clear routines, and evidence to show anoverall impact on student behaviorthrough a decrease in behavioral inci-dent reports. The school also had begunto implement secondary/small groupinterventions such as targeted social skillgroups and mentoring. At the start ofthe current school year the school haddeveloped a process for identifying andsupporting individual students.

In Moesha’s case, behavioral inci-dence data, assistant principal andteacher interviews, and a classroom ob-servation were conducted to determinepatterns and maintaining variables ofthe problem behavior. Based on data itwas hypothesized that Moesha engagedin minor problem behavior to accessteacher and peer attention, and tan-truming to escape “disciplinary action”(i.e., going to timeout room near theprincipal’s office). Moesha’s planconsisted of two principle components.First, a self-management chart was devel-oped for Moesha to provide a visual rep-resentation of her compliance with theschool-wide expectations. Teachers andother faculty and staff also providedhigh rates of praise and attention if theyobserved Moesha engaging in behaviorsrelated to the school-wide expectations.All of these efforts were designed tomeet Moesha’s need for teacher atten-tion, while providing multiple instancesof specific feedback related to theschool-wide social skills.

The second component of the inter-

vention involved Moesha reporting tothe assistant principal’s office when shehad earned a pre-determined number ofpoints on her self-management card.This visit was to provide additional at-tention and celebration for Moesha andan opportunity to visit the office underpositive versus punitive circumstances.In addition to visits for mastery, theprincipal and assistant principal pro-vided practice opportunities to be es-corted to the office in case her behaviorescalated to the point of her needing tobe removed from the classroom. Clearand consistent instructions were givenduring times Moesha was on-task andengaging in appropriate behavior re-garding expected behavior while theadministrator escorted Moesha to theoffice. Once in the office, Moesha was tosit down and review what she needed todo if she was asked to leave the class-room and what would happen once shearrived in the office (i.e., sit down, relaxfor awhile, and then they would talkabout what happened and create a planso it won’t happen in the future).

At the time of the initial meeting,Moesha was averaging three to five visitsto the office per week for major behav-ioral problems. The teacher also re-ported daily instances of minor problembehavior. At the time of the writing ofthis article, the school reported Moeshadid not have a single office visit for prob-lem behavior in over three months. Allreferral inquiries for additional serviceshave also been withdrawn, except ongo-ing support for the family that consistsof regular contact and updates onMoesha’s progress, as well as sharing oftechniques to reduce the likelihood ofproblem behavior and increase structurein the home.

Conclusion

While it is certainly too soon to stateunequivocally that this school has effec-tively prevented the development of amore severe and chronic pattern ofbehavior in Moesha, it has built the ca-pacity to implement what the literatureindicates are best practices. At present,

the school is fading the self-manage-ment plan, has enrolled her in a smallsocial-skill group to work on peer inter-action skills, and continues to teach,practice, and celebrate Moesha’s and allstudents’ mastery of pro-social skills.

Empirical studies are clearly war-ranted before the field can unequivo-cally point to SW-PBS as effective in theprevention and intervention with stu-dents who have EBD. However, studentslike Moesha can ill afford to wait for theresearch outcomes. What SW- PBS doesprovide is a mechanism for schools toadopt already validated prevention/intervention practices in a comprehen-sive and systemic way.

References

Kamps, D., Kravits, T., Rauch, J., Kamps, J. L., & Chung, N. (2000). A pre-vention program for students with or at risk of ED: Moderating effectsof variation in treatment and classroom structure. Journal of Emo-tional and Behavioral Disorders, 8(3), 141-154.

Kamps, D., Kravits, T., Stolze, J., & Swaggart, B. (1999). Preventionstrategies for at-risk students and students with EBD in urban el-ementary schools. Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, 7(3),178-189.

Kauffman, J, M. (1999). How we prevent the prevention of emotionaland behavioral disorders. Exceptional Children, 65, 448-468.

Lewis, T. J., & Sugai, G. (1999). Effective behavior support: A systemsapproach to proactive schoolwide management. Focus on ExceptionalChildren, 31(6), 1-24.

Lockwood, D. (1997). Violence among middle school and high schoolstudents: Analysis and implications for prevention. Washington, DC: U.S.Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute ofJustice.

Mayer, G. R. (1995). Preventing antisocial behavior in the schools.Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 467-478.

Myers, C. L., & Holland, K. L. (2000). Classroom behavioral interven-tions: Do teachers consider the function of the behavior? Psychologyin the Schools, 37(3), 271-280.

Skiba, R.J., & Peterson, R. L. (2000). School discipline at a crossroads:From zero tolerance to early response. Exceptional Children, 66, 335-347

Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (1999). Discipline and behavioral support: Prac-tices, pitfalls, and promises. Effective School Practices, 17, 10-22.

Sugai, G., Horner, R. H., Dunlap, G., Hieneman, M., Lewis, T. J., Nelson,C. M. et al. (1999). Applying positive behavior support and functionalbehavioral assessment in schools. Eugene, OR: OSEP Center on PositiveBehavioral Interventions and Supports.

Sugai, G. , Sprague, J. R., Horner, R. R., & Walker, H. M. (2000). Prevent-ing school violence: The use of office discipline referrals to assess andmonitor school-wide discipline interventions. Journal of Emotionaland Behavioral Disorders, 8, 94-101.

U.S. Department of Education (1998). Violence and discipline problemsin U.S. public schools: 1996-97. Washington, DC: U.S. Department ofEducation, National Center for Educational Statistics.

Wagner, M. (1991). Dropouts with disabilities: What do we know? Whatcan be done? Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

Timothy J. Lewis is professor and chair inthe Department of Special Education,University of Missouri, Columbia. He maybe reached at 573/882-3742 or [email protected].


28

Improving Social Development School-Wide:The BASE Programby J. Ron Nelson

Profile

The large number of students withemotional and behavioral disorders(EBD) has been a long-standing concernto school psychologists, educators, par-ents, and the public at large (Achenbach,Levent, & Rescorla, 2002). Estimates pro-vided in the Surgeon General’s Report onStudent and Mental Health (U.S. Depart-ment of Health and Human Services,1999) indicate that 21% of youth withinthe general population have a mentalhealth related disorder that manifestsinto a range of problem behaviors. Fur-ther, demographic characteristics such associoeconomic status, geographic loca-tion, and community size (e.g., rural vs.urban) appear to have little influence onbase rates and types of problem behavior(McDermott & Schaefer, 1996). Withinthis context, the Center for At-RiskChildren’s Services at the University ofNebraska – Lincoln has worked withK-12 schools across the country tocreate a school-wide social developmentprogram called Behavior and AcademicSupport and Enhancement Program(BASE), which is designed to improvethe social and academic outcomes ofstudents with or at risk of EBD. Theremainder of this article describes BASE,outcomes for students, and lessonslearned along the way.

Description of BASE

BASE, rooted in social learning theory(Bandura, 1997), is implemented by allstaff and students in a school. It uses along-term, consensus-based, participa-tory approach to alter the climate andculture of the entire school. The goal isto increase and reinforce the number ofprosocial cues and models in the school,to increase student social and academiccompetence, and to decrease the fre-quency and severity of problem behaviorover time. Specifically, BASE has fiveprimary activities:

• Adjust ecological arrangements ofthe common areas of the school.

• Teach all students and staff threesimple skills/rules.

• Actively supervise the common arearoutines.

• Use the Think Time Strategy.• Develop a continuum of administra-

tive disciplinary responses.

Activity 1: Adjust EcologicalArrangements

Adjustments are made to the ecologicalarrangements of the common areas ofthe school (e.g., hallways, cafeteria,restrooms, playground) to eliminate orreduce social cues or situations thatmight increase problem behavior (set-ting events, antecedents). The followingguidelines are used to improve the sched-uling and use of space:• The density of students is reduced by

using all entrances and exits to agiven area; the space between groups,lines, and classes is increased; and theage-range of students is increased asthe density of students increases.

• Wait time (e.g., time standing in thelunch line) is kept at a minimum.

• Travel time/distance are decreased asmuch as possible (e.g., all entrancesare used during morning arrival).

• Physical signs are used to mark transi-tion zones that indicate movementfrom less to more controlled space orindicate behavioral expectations forthe common areas of the school.

• The sequence of events in the com-mon areas is designed to facilitatethe type of behavioral momentumdesired (e.g., going to recess beforerather than after lunch may result instudents being better prepared forinstruction).

Activity 2: Teach Three Skills/Rules

All students and staff in the school learnthree simple, contextually-relevantsocial skills or rules via a commonlanguage that is applied school-wide(setting events, antecedent): a) be safe,b) be responsible, and c) be respectful.These social skills are operationalized forall major aspects of school (e.g., hallwaybehavior). A three-phase process is usedto teach students the social skills. In thefirst phase, students are taught the socialskills with high levels of supervision.This supervision continues through thefirst two to three weeks of school, andincludes high rates of social reinforce-ment and corrective feedback if neces-sary. The second phase involves conduct-ing periodic reviews during the first twomonths of the school session, withreduced levels of supervision. In thethird phase, “booster sessions” are con-ducted throughout the remainder of theyear as needed (e.g., after holidays).

Activity 3: Actively SuperviseCommon Areas

Active supervision of the common arearoutines is used to prevent problembehavior and to respond effectively whenit occurs (setting event, antecedent).Established patterns of supervision aredeveloped to enable staff to provide amore complete and balanced coverage ofthe common areas. Staff are trained inthe supervision of common areas and inthe implementation of responses toproblem behavior to promote studentself-regulation skills. These responsesreplicate the Think Time Strategy in thecommon areas (see below).

Activity 4: Use the Think Time Strategy

The Think Time Strategy (Nelson & Carr,2000) is a cognitive-behavioral timeoutstrategy designed to enable the teacher


29Profile

and student to stop a negative socialexchange, and provide the student feed-back and an opportunity to plan. Usedin the classroom and common areas forminor deportment problems, it cana) reduce the intra- and interpersonaleffects of student-teacher interactions,b) deliver a stable response to problembehavior across all staff, c) provide thestudent a quiet period to enable thestudent to “save face” and regain self-composure, d) provide the student withfeedback and an opportunity to plan forsubsequent performance, and e) enablethe teacher and student to cut off anegative social exchange and initiate apositive one. The U.S. Department ofEducation’s Expert Panel on Safe, Disci-plined, and Drug-Free Schools has desig-nated the Think Time Strategy as apromising program.

Activity 5: Develop a Continuum ofAdministrative Responses

A continuum of administrative disci-plinary responses is developed toincrease student self-regulation, per-spective taking, and problem-solvingskills (i.e., antecedent, consequence).The continuum of responses addresseschallenging problem behavior that isreferred to the administrative team.

Student Outcomes with BASE

Elementary, middle, and high schoolsacross the country have adopted BASEin an effort to improve the social behav-ior and academic outcomes of allstudents, including those with EBD.Schools adopting BASE have experi-enced decreases in problem behavior,increases in prosocial behavior, andimprovements in academic achievement(Nelson, 1996; Nelson, Martella, &Marchand-Martella, 2002). For ex-ample, Nelson and colleagues (2002)used a quasi-experimental design toassess the effects of BASE over a two-year period in seven elementary schools.Comparisons with the remaining 28elementary schools in the district indi-cated consistently moderate to strong

positive effects on the formal adminis-trative disciplinary actions (i.e., de-creased office discipline referrals, sus-pensions, and emergency removals)and academic achievement (i.e., increasein reading, spelling, mathematics, lan-guage arts, science, and social studies)of the participating schools. Compari-sons between a sample of studentswith or at risk of EBD (n = 207) and amatched (age and grade) group ofcriterion students indicated small tomoderate positive effects on the socialcompetence and academic performanceof the target students.

Staff responses to the program havebeen positive. They are perhaps bestsummed up by Dr. DeAnn Currin, prin-cipal of Elliott Elementary School inLincoln, Nebraska, when she observed:

If children with behavior disordersare able to focus on learning in theclassroom, everyone else can too. The social development programwhich leads to clear expectations,positive behavior instruction, consis-tency, and non-confrontational sig-nals for attention keeps all childrenon track. The program enables chil-dren with emotional and behavioraldisorders to focus on learning in theclassroom and the teacher to focuson teaching.

Lessons Learned Over the Years

We have learned a great deal over theyears implementing BASE in elemen-tary, middle, and high schools. On thesurface, it appears that implementinga school-wide social developmentprogram such as BASE would be quitesimple. However, there are a number ofcommon obstacles that arise that mustbe overcome. First, problems with inap-propriate instructional materials, learn-ing environments, or a school culturethat is unwilling to accept the diversityand individuality of the students (espe-cially those who exhibit problem behav-ior) and families all take precedenceover high-level discussions about creat-ing a school-wide social development

program. Second, the problem behaviorand associated discipline-related issuesaddressed by a school-wide social devel-opment program are often difficultbecause staff have different levels ofexpertise, perspectives, and commit-ment. Third, many school staff fail tounderstand the importance of teachingstudents the social skills specific to theschool setting (e.g., arrival procedures).We have found that staff may often beunaware of the social skills specific totheir school setting and the associateddiscipline policies and practices. Finally,the amount of staff developmentrequired to implement and sustain aschool-wide social development programis often under-estimated. The life expect-ancy of a school-wide program will beapproximately two years unless ongoingprofessional development occurs.

Note: Preparation of this article was supported in part by grants fromthe U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Pro-grams (No. H324X010010, H324D010013, and H325D990035). Opinionsexpressed do not necessarily reflect the position of the U.S. Depart-ment of Education, and no endorsement should be inferred.

References

Achenbach, T. M., Levent, D., & Rescorla, L. A. (2002). Is American stu-dent behavior getting worse? Teacher ratings over an 18-year period.School Psychology Review, 31, 428-442.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York:Freeman.

McDermott, P. A., & Schaefer, B. A. (1996). A demographic survey of rareand common problem behaviors among American students. Journal ofClinical Child Psychology, 25(3), 352-362.

Nelson, J. R. (1996). Designing schools to meet the needs of studentswho exhibit disruptive behavior. Journal of Emotional and BehavioralDisorders, 4, 147-161.

Nelson, J.R. & Carr, B.A. (2000). The Think Time strategy for schools.Denver, CO: Sopris West.

Nelson, J. R., Martella, R. M., Marchand-Martella, N. (2002). Maximizingstudent learning: The effects of a comprehensive school-based pro-gram for preventing problem behaviors. Journal of Emotional & Behav-ioral Disorders, 10(3), 136-148.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Mental health:A report of the Surgeon General: Children and mental health (pp. 123-220). Washington, DC: Public Health Service.

J. Ron Nelson is co-director of the Center forAt-Risk Children’s Services, University ofNebraska, Lincoln. He may be reached at402/472-0283 or [email protected].


30

The Impact of Explicit Reading Instruction onStudent Achievement: Study Findingsby Katherine B. Falk and Joseph H. Wehby

Profile

Students identified with emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) typicallyexhibit learning difficulties that furtherimpede their success in school andcontribute to dismal school and post-school outcomes. In fact, rates of studentdisengagement in school, absenteeism,course failure, and dropout are highestfor students with EBD when comparedto students with other kinds of disabili-ties (Wagner et al., 2003). More specifi-cally, students with EBD often encounterdifficulties in the area of reading(Maughan, Pickles, Hagell, Rutter, &

Yule, 1996; Rock, Fessler, & Church,1997). Deficits in phonological aware-ness, decoding, fluency, and comprehen-sion become increasingly difficult toremediate as students progress throughschool and, as a result, inhibit studentswith EBD from experiencing school suc-cess. Unfortunately, there is an insuffi-cient research base investigating strate-gies to improve the reading achievementof students with EBD. In a review of theliterature, Coleman and Vaughn (2000)identified only eight studies that focusedon reading interventions with studentswith EBD. While several studies havebeen added to that list since then, the re-search on this issue remains limited.

Information regarding effective read-ing strategies is necessary to preventstudents with EBD from falling even fur-ther behind their peers in the most basicof reading skills. In addition, there hasbeen some evidence that improvementsin reading achievement effect decreasesin problem behavior in the school setting(DuPaul, Ervin, Hook & McGoey, 1998;Locke & Fuchs, 1995). While no generali-zations can be made about this associa-tion due to the limited research base, thefact that some findings reveal collateralimprovements in behavior due to readingintervention suggests that effective aca-demic instruction may be a vital compo-nent to addressing behavioral problemsin school settings. Given the degree ofnegative school outcomes for this popu-lation of students, extending empiricalinvestigations to focus on the readingand academic needs of students withEBD is essential.

In spite of the limited research base,the studies that have investigated readinginterventions with students with EBDhave yielded promising results (Babyak,Koorland, & Mathes, 2000; Falk &Wehby, 2001; Wehby, Falk, Barton-Arwood, Lane, & Cooley, 2003; Wehby,Lane, & Falk, 2005). Although the smallnumber of studies and methodologicalissues associated with them make it diffi-cult to generalize the findings for recom-mendation, it appears that, at the veryleast, students with EBD respond to read-ing instruction that is explicit and sys-tematic. In addition, the National Read-ing Panel (National Institute of ChildHealth and Human Development, 2000)has established that effective readingprograms for all learners should includeinstruction in phonemic awareness,phonics, fluency, and comprehension.Studies that have incorporated explicitmethods of teaching skills in these areashave demonstrated increases in readingachievement for students with EBD.

One instructional method that isexplicit in nature and has proven effec-tive with diverse learners is DirectInstruction (Adams & Englemann, 1996;Carnine, Silbert, & Kameenui, 1997).Direct Instruction is a highly scriptedteaching method that includes frequentquestioning by the teacher, enablingstudents to constantly interact and beengaged with the lesson and allowingteachers to provide immediate correc-tive feedback. In particular, DirectInstruction has evidenced significantstatistical improvement with studentswith disabilities (Lloyd, Forness, &Kavale, 1998), although specific workwith students with EBD remains sparse.

In an attempt to extend the researchin this area, one particular study(Barton-Arwood, Wehby, & Falk, inpress) examined the effect of the SRAHorizons reading program supple-mented with the PALS (Peer AssistedLearning Strategies) (Fuchs, Fuchs,Mathew, & Simmons, 1997; Mathes,Grek, Howard, Babyak, & Allen, 1999)peer-tutoring intervention on a group ofthird grade students with EBD. Horizonsis a Direct Instruction program thatfocuses on the areas of phonemic aware-ness, explicit phonics, comprehension,fluency, and spelling. The lessons arefast-paced and include materials andstories that are both colorful and engag-ing. Visual prompts that highlightatypical word spellings as well as lettercombinations and silent letters in thetext are heavily included in the begin-ning of the program yet are graduallyfaded out. Additionally, the PALS read-ing program is a peer-tutoring programin which higher and lower functioningreaders are paired together to lead oneanother through various reading activi-ties. These activities focus on letter-sound correspondence, blendingsounds, sight words, and reading sto-ries. The lessons are initially scripted

[Falk, continued on page 39]

Students with emotional/behavioral

disorders typically exhibit learning

difficulties that further impede

their success in school and

contribute to dismal school and

postschool outcomes.

Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http://ici.umn.edu). Citation:Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. & Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on Fostering Success in School and Beyond for Studentswith Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, 18(2). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Institute on Community Integration.

31Profile

My name is Wes Goodson. I am a juniorat Madison Special Education School inNashville, Tennessee. School has been verychallenging for me because I have dyslexiaand other learning disabilities. I do lovelearning, and my favorite classes are readingand writing. I really enjoy the classics, and Ihave listened to the audio recordings ofmany classic stories and novels. Poetry is mygreatest interest, and I have written dozensof poems using a digital recorder and ateacher as a scribe. My poem “The Candle”has been published in a collection of poetrycalled “Breaking Ground.” I am inspired bythe writing of Edgar Allen Poe, and I think heis one of the greatest writers of all time. I have always been interested in readingand writing, but it has always been verydifficult for me. During the last two years atmy school, I have been involved in a readingprogram called SRA Corrective Reading. Inthis reading program, I have learned torecognize words by learning the skill ofdecoding them. The first section of SRA is allabout decoding, and I have learned the skillof breaking unfamiliar words down into

The Candleby Wes Goodson

Love is as a living candlethat lights one’s very soul.The candle can never be blown outbut as hatred takes its toll,the candle runs the risk of fallinginto the darker side of the soul.

The hateful half of the human soul,is like a horrid, pitch black hole.Where demons dwelland wait to take controlof the lovely light within your soul.

But there is luck without luckin the candle of your soul.For it will never be extinguishedbut it may turn cold.

For if it fall among the hallsof the demons from within,they will keep it for themselvesand let the heat grow dim.

For within the hole inside your soulit is chilling, icy cold.And this dark ice will never be niceto a light so bright and warm.For the ice does not wish to meltand the darkness will hold its own.

For the lovely light of lovewith beauty bright and warmwill not keep its brilliant lightin a realm so miserable and glum.

It will not go out, of this I am sure.But the brilliant light will suffermuch worse askewer.

For the lovely light of beauty trueshall suffer in ways its owner never knew.For the once white, hot light of loveis now a bonfire in a tub.Flaring dark and evil flamesand hating the world above.

So keep hate far from your souland your candle will not fall to the demon’s goal.

So love your life and live it with love,and keep your candle warm and snug.

parts and sounds. This makes words easier towork with, and it has made my vocabularyget much bigger and better. In the fall of2004, I tested out of the decoding program,and I am now working in the SRA compre-hension program. This takes the decodingskills a step further, because now I have tocomprehend short passages, and answerquestions about what I have read. In SRAcomprehension we do really fun skill-building drills like deductions and analogies.Since I have been involved in SRA correctivereading, I have learned to enjoy reading andwriting even more. I am now getting theskills I need to read and write independently.This is something I have not been able to doin the past, and I look forward to being ableto put my new skills to use. All in all, SRA corrective reading has helpedme to become a better reader and a betterwriter. Since becoming a writer is a dreamthat I have, I hope that I will be able tocontinue to improve my skills. Here is a copyof my best poem. It is called “The Candle,”and I believe it shows how far I have come.

Supporting the Dream of Becoming a Poet

Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http://ici.umn.edu). Citation: Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. & Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue onFostering Success in School and Beyond for Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, 18(2). Minneapolis:University of Minnesota, Institute on Community Integration.

32 Profile

Planning Behavior Improvementat Nebraska’s Beatrice High Schoolby Reece L. Peterson, Courtney Miller, and Russell Skiba

Seven years ago Beatrice High School inBeatrice, Nebraska, became one of thefield sites for the Safe and ResponsiveSchools Project (SRS), a project develop-ing a process by which schools woulduse data to plan and implement school-wide student behavior improvementand violence prevention activities. The

federally-funded project was a collabora-tion of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln and Indiana University, in part-nership with several field site schools inthose two states. At Beatrice, a school ina rural community of about 13,000, theeffort has focused on improving thebehavior and safety of its students byemploying a school-wide team to planand implement specific activities.

The SRS project started with a work-ing plan and a framework for planningrelated to behavior using three levels ofaction: Creating a Positive Climate (ac-tivities designed to promote good behav-ior and prevent problems), Early Identi-fication and Intervention (efforts tointervene early and quickly when signsof problem behavior were detected),and Effective Responses to ChronicBehavior Problems (efforts to managethe behavior of students with chronicbehavior problems). As plans were de-veloped they were usually coordinatedwith or incorporated into specific

schools’ comprehensive school improve-ment planning. While the focus of plan-ning was not specifically on studentswith emotional or behavioral disorders(EBD), more effective ways to meet theneeds of students with EBD were con-sidered and addressed at all three levelsof action. An emphasis on establishing apositive behavioral environment wasseen as supporting these students andpossibly preventing some of the alterca-tions they had with classroom teachers.Because there was concern about sus-pending students with EBD too fre-quently, earlier and alternative interven-tion options that did not interrupt theirschooling were desired by participatingschools.

At Beatrice High School, a SRS teamwas formed which included the princi-pal, assistant principal, counselor, spe-cial education teacher, school psycholo-gist, and several other teachers. Theteam immediately started to gather datafrom existing sources (office referral,and suspension and expulsion data) andmade plans to gather survey data aswell. Three safety questionnaires (onefor students, one for school staff, andone for parents) were administered. Theteam completed and discussed a needsassessment which identified compo-nents that were in place or lacking ateach of the three framework levels: Cre-ating a Positive Climate, Early Identifica-tion and Intervention, and Effective Re-sponses. The team then prioritized itsconcerns or areas in which they wantedto improve, and began to formulate theplans to address each level of action.

The Beatrice High School teamidentified two top areas to address:increasing parental involvement (Creat-ing a Positive Climate), and establishinga building-wide behavior/disciplineprogram (Effective Responses). Theteam wanted to involve parents more inthe daily workings of school life and

explored two possible avenues to achievethis. These avenues were the creation ofa Parent Coordination Council throughwhich parents may serve as volunteersto monitor students during facultymeetings, before/after school, in thegym at lunch time, and during the dayin the student lounge; additionally theteam hoped to train parents to use aWeb-based communication module toimprove teacher communication withparents. Both were implemented andhave had varying degrees of success.Overall, all staff have felt that havingparents more visible around school hasbeen a strong benefit to the school. Ithas extended the level of adult supervi-sion of students in school, and spreadresponsibility for maintaining good stu-dent behavior beyond administratorsand teachers. Although the Web-basedcommunication was used effectively bysome parents, others did not find ithelpful. Nevertheless, it did provide analternative means of parent-educatorcommunication, and everyone feels thatimproved communication with parentshelped students both academically andwith behavior.

The team also wished to address abuilding-wide behavior/discipline pro-gram, evaluating and possibly revamp-ing the high school’s current disciplinesystem. The plan involved the imple-mentation of an “after-school school” inlieu of out-of-school suspension, andchanges to the building’s in-schoolsuspension program. The team imple-mented a revision of the office referraldiscipline procedures, which attempts tomore appropriately match the conse-quence with the student’s offense, andthe use of a “time-out” strategy, allowingstudents to problem solve in a differentenvironment and resolve the conflictwithout an office referral. The resultingnew time-out procedure (referred to asOut-of-Classroom Intervention; OCI)

Seven years ago Beatrice High School

became one of the field sites for the

Safe and Responsive Schools Project.

Beatrice focused on improving the

behavior and safety of its students.


33Profile

became operational the next school year.The purpose was to afford students andteachers a break from the situation andto allow for a brief cool-down period forinstances that did not warrant an officereferral. Teachers were allowed to send astudent to OCI if the classroom educa-tional process was being interrupted be-cause of the student’s actions and pres-ence in the classroom, and if the teacherdeemed that no administrative involve-ment was necessary. Students sent to thedesignated OCI room then completed aproblem-solving form with a paraeduca-tor. Students who successfully com-pleted the problem-solving form andcomplied with the OCI rules were thenallowed to return to their next scheduledclass. In an effort to evaluate the effec-tiveness of this procedure, the com-pleted problem-solving forms were ana-lyzed and the frequency of referrals perteacher and per student, referring stu-

dent behaviors, and whether the formswere filled out appropriately by the stu-dents. In addition, teachers were given asurvey in an effort to assess their knowl-edge of the OCI procedure, their use ofit, and their feedback regarding itsimplementation. After reviewing thedata obtained from the problem-solvingforms as well as from a teacher surveyabout the program, the team has contin-ued to further improve and “tweak” theeffectiveness of the OCI procedure.

The team also implemented a pro-gram called BASE (Beatrice After-SchoolEducation). BASE is a student manage-ment program that works with studentswho chronically violate school policyand have not been able to adjust appro-priately to basic behavior guidelines asset forth in district policies. BASE isused as a program assignment for stu-dents who have received an out-of-school suspension, as a tutoring pro-gram for students who are behind inclass assignments, and as an alternativeprogram for students who do not regu-larly attend school or have been as-signed a long-term suspension. BASEbegins at 4:00 p.m. and ends at 6:00p.m., Monday through Thursdays. Theteam continues to evaluate the effective-ness of the BASE program by monitor-ing the numbers, sources, and types ofreferrals, and has made several minormodifications. So far the BASE programhas been useful particularly for out-of-school suspended students, includingstudents with EBD or other disabilities,as an alternative to suspension or expul-sion. It has provided a vehicle to main-tain school ties and to continue educa-tional services on the one hand, but onthe other hand has made a BASE “sus-pension” more aversive, interrupting thestudent’s social time with peers afterschool and ending the often unsuper-vised, “free time” of a traditional out ofschool suspension.

Subsequently, while continuing torefine the Parent Council, OCI, andBASE, the team focused on improvingclimate issues in the school as a result ofthe data from the safety questionnaire.The team was particularly concernedabout how well students were being ap-preciated for their positive behavior, anddecided to implement celebration eventsfor students with perfect attendance, forstudents with no tardiness, and for stu-dents whose grades or behavior hadimproved during the semester. Thesecelebration events included a half-daypizza party to recognize these deservingstudents and other forms of recognitionat the end of each semester. These havealso brought recognition by all staff of

positive student behavior in a range ofways throughout the school day andyear.

While Beatrice High School contin-ues to refine its own planning process tobetter meet the needs of all of its stu-dents, a couple of lessons have beenlearned. Improving climate and behav-ior are a process, not a one-time event.And good local ideas can emerge and areenhanced when placed within the struc-ture of a comprehensive planningframework.

An outgrowth of this project was thedevelopment of the Safe and ResponsiveSchools Guide, materials created in partas a result of the Beatrice High Schoolexperience that are now available for useby other schools. The guide, as well as avariety of checklists, forms and factsheets addressing many of the topicscovered above can be found on the Safeand Responsive Schools Web sites athttp://www.unl.edu/srs and http://www.indiana.edu/~safeschl.

Note: The activities described in this article were funded in part by agrant from the Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Departmentof Education, #H324N990009. The article was prepared with assis-tance from Jason Sutter, Principal, John Jerosh, Assistant Principal,and members of the planning team at Beatrice High School.

Reece L. Peterson is a professor in theDepartment of Special Education andCommunication Disorders, and CourtneyMiller is a doctoral student in schoolpsychology, University of Nebraska,Lincoln. Dr. Peterson may be reached at402/472-5480 or [email protected] Skiba is a professor in the Depart-ment of Counseling and EducationalPsychology at Indiana University,Bloomington.

A outgrowth of this project was

the development of the Safe and

Responsive Schools Guide,

materials created in part as a

result of the Beatrice High School

experience that are now available

for use by other schools.


34 Profile

Implementing Problem-Solving in Colorado:Wellington Junior Highby Suzanne E. Kemp

One of the most important social tasksfacing children is for them to developproblem-solving skills. The inability toresolve conflicts and understand andnegotiate successfully the complexity ofan expanding social world often resultsin social isolation, aggression, andschool failure. Training in problem solv-ing is a way to enhance children’s rela-tionships and adjustment. These inter-

ventions typically involve three steps:a) conceptualizing conflict situations,b) developing solutions, and c) imple-menting selected strategies. Examplesof conflicts include reacting to a bully’sthreats, entering an ongoing conversa-tion, making friends, being falselyaccused of misbehaving, wanting tospend time with someone, suspecting aclassmate of stealing, and being teased.Children’s ability to resolve these typesof conflicts appropriately and success-fully helps them shape their feelingsabout themselves and the school experi-ence as well as enhance the quality oftheir peer relationships. This articledescribes one school’s experience with aproblem-solving model for addressingproblem behavior.

Wellington Junior High School islocated in north central Colorado andhas a student population of 350. It is a“multi-categorical” school, which meansthat it serves all students with disabili-ties in all settings. Students with dis-abilities are included in the general edu-cation classroom and curriculum and, ifnecessary, receive modified instructionin reading, math, and social skills. Theteachers, students, and administratorsat the school fully embrace a problem-solving approach as consistent with theschool’s inclusionary philosophy andpractices. The decision to implement aformal problem-solving model began asan intervention for a few students whowere identified as having emotional dis-orders (ED), and now, five years later, allof the student body are actively engagedin this process. All staff teach problemsolving to every student, not just thosewith ED. The use of school-wide prob-lem solving functions as a commonapproach for all staff across all environ-ments, thus eliminating confusionbetween teachers and students andenhancing consistency.

The school does not adhere to aspecific problem-solving curriculum.Rather, it bases its program loosely onthe social problem-solving trainingframework described by Gesten,Weissberg, Amish, and Smith (1987).This framework provides a structure forthe staff to use when deciding on whatproblem-solving components may bestfit their student population and schoolcommunity. The framework providesguidance in the areas of program designand structure, assessment issues andstrategies, and teacher training andselection. General education teachersare the primary staff to engage studentsin problem solving. The multi-categori-cal teachers are the secondary staff whoprovide more intensive problem-solvingtraining for students with the most

challenging behaviors. A referral to anadministrator would only occur as a lastresort if these two levels failed to pro-duce changes in a particular student’sbehavior.

Teachers agree to be flexible in thespecific language they use to communi-cate with students during problem solv-ing so as to best capitalize on the per-sonalized rapport they have establishedwith particular students. However, allstaff consistently follow some basicsteps. The first step of problem solvingis often the most difficult to complete:early identification of the potentialproblem. Jennifer Highstreet, a multi-categorical teacher at Wellington JuniorHigh, explains that one of the areas inwhich general education teachers re-quire the most training is identifyingearly warning signs before a student’sinappropriate behavior escalates. Earlyidentification is important because stu-dents are more responsive to followingdirections when they still have somecontrol over their behavior. The secondstep is to move the student to an estab-lished “safe” spot. The goal here is toprovide the student with a quiet placewhere he or she can regain control be-fore returning and problem solving withthe teacher. Students are instructed tore-enter the classroom silently, take aseat, and resume engaging in the currentactivity. As soon as the teacher is avail-able, he or she begins the problem solv-ing dialogue by asking the student twoquestions: a) What was going on thatcaused you to go to the safe spot and b)how are you going to address the issue inthe future? The wording, length, anddetail of the discussion are flexible andbased on teacher discretion. However,all teachers spend time helping the stu-dent identify their own frustration trig-gers. The goal is to have students recog-nize when they are experiencingincreased frustration and be able to

Students feel more in control of their

behaviors and are better able to

manage themselves. Through these

proactive behavioral and academic

interventions many previously

failing students are experiencing

success in school.


35Profile

remove themselves before staff need tointervene. According to Ms. Highstreet,the goal is to have the entire problemsolving process last 10 minutes or less.The majority of students, includingmany identified with ED, are able tomeet this goal.

The inability of some students tobenefit from this process – either be-cause they are repeat offenders orexceeding the 10-minute timeframe –results in a more formal collaborativeprocess between the general educationteacher and one of the multi-categoricalteachers. This discussion focuses onidentifying possible antecedents to theproblem, what occurs during the prob-lem-solving process, outside issues, andother pertinent topics. A new behaviorintervention plan is collaborativelydeveloped to address the student’s prob-lems. It may also be determined at thismeeting that an assessment of the be-havior and situation is warranted. Theassessment answers the question of whya child behaves a certain way, so thateducators can modify some aspect of thecurriculum (e.g., instruction, materials,tasks) or environment (e.g., providingcues for students to engage in appropri-ate behaviors and reinforcing them). Itresults in positive, rather than punitive,techniques to resolve student problems.It is possible to identify what purpose astudent’s behavior serves by observingand recording events that precede thebehavior (antecedents) and events thatfollow the behavior (consequences). Forexample, a teacher tells Mary to stoptalking to Judy (antecedent), Marywhistles (behavior), and the teacher tellsher to stop whistling (consequence). It isreasonable to assume that Mary’s whis-tling serves the function (or purpose) ofgetting her teacher’s attention. Themore Mary misbehaves, the more atten-tion she gets from her teacher. As thisexample illustrates, some children find itpreferable to get negative attentionrather than no attention. Based on thisinformation, the teacher can make im-mediate changes in the environment orcurriculum to remedy the misbehavior.

Ms. Highstreet has conducted a vari-

ety of inservice training sessions helpinggeneral education teachers to indepen-dently conduct this type of informalassessment. As a result, the general edu-cation teachers have learned to identifyantecedents, describe consequences theyare employing, manipulate the curricu-lum or environment, and understandthe most common functions of behavior(e.g., attention and escape). Therefore,they are often the ones who collect thisinformation and process it with a multi-categorical teacher in order to develop abehavior intervention plan that allowsthe student to experience increased suc-cess in their classrooms.

The general education teachers atWellington Junior High School have suc-cessfully implemented this school-wideproblem-solving model with collabora-tion from the multi-categorical teachers.This approach has resulted in teachersspending more time teaching academicsand less time managing students’ inap-propriate behaviors. The inclusion of allteachers learning how to identify ante-cedents, consequences, and purposes ofbehavior for students with particularlychallenging behaviors has prevented theneed for specialists conducting formalmulti-faceted functional assessmentsand reduced the need for involvingschool administrators in the disciplinaryprocess. Students have indicated thatthey feel more in control of their behav-iors and are better able to manage them-selves. Through these proactive behav-ioral and academic interventions manypreviously failing students are experi-encing success in school.

Reference

Gesten, E. L., Weissberg, R. P., Amish, P. L., & Smith, J. K. (1987). Prob-lem solving training: A skills-based approach to prevention and treat-ment. In C. A. Maher & J. E. Zins (Eds.), Psychoeducational interventionsin the schools: Methods and procedures for enhancing student compe-tence (pp. 26-45). New York: Pergamon.

Suzanne Kemp is a lecturer in theDepartment of Special Education andCommunication Disorders at theUniversity of Nebraska, Lincoln. She maybe reached at 402/472-0084 or [email protected].



• National Technical Assistance Centeron Positive Behavioral Interventionsand Supports (www.pbis.org). The cen-ter has been established by the Office ofSpecial Education Programs, U.S. Depart-ment of Education, to give schools capac-ity-building information and technicalassistance for identifying, adapting, andsustaining effective school-wide disciplin-ary practices. The Web site includes infor-mation on school-wide positive behaviorsupport at primary, secondary, district-wide, and state-wide levels, as well as inrelation to families and the law.

• Check & Connect Model (http://ici.umn. edu/checkandconnect). TheCheck & Connect model promotes studentengagement with school, reduces drop-out, and increases school completion. It isdata-driven and grounded in research onresiliency and home-school collaboration.The Web site offers information regardingthe model, current projects and initiatives,related publications, and upcoming pre-sentations and workshops.

• Suspending Disbelief: Moving BeyondPunishment to Promote Effective Inter-ventions for Children with Mental orEmotional Disorders (2003). By T. Seltzer,J. Bliss, P. Tantamjarik, and J. Duda. Apaper examining congressional intent inthe IDEA regarding children with behaviorproblems, specifically in relation to theprovisions on functional behavioralassessment and positive behavioral inter-ventions and supports. The report com-pares that intent with actual implemen-tation of the mandate. Available from theBazelon Center for Mental Health Lawonline at www. bazelon.org/publicationsor at 202/467-5730 x 110.


36 Continuation

[Ernie, continued from page 1]A student receiving special education

services at Robertson High, he was diag-nosed with emotional disorders. But hehad one special teacher who he lookedup to, Gloria Pacheco. “She was alwaysmotivating me,” says Ernie. “I love thatlady. She pulled me through. She helpedme through everything. Even today, sheacknowledges me in town.”

Pacheco introduced Ernie to theSelf-Directed IEP/ITP, an individualizededucation and transition planningprogram that encourages students toactively participate in decision-makingand self-advocacy to help make a suc-cessful transition into the adult world.“When he did this, it made a big impacton his life,” says Darlean. His bad habitsstarted tapering off and eventually hegraduated from Robertson High Schoolin 2004. “In my opinion it was the Self-Directed IEP that empowered Ernie totake control of his life. The way he didthat was by looking at where he was andrealizing where he wanted to go. Hedefined the steps he had to take,” saysPacheco. As Ernie says of the plan, “Inmy opinion, the Self-Directed IEP/ITP isabout exactly that, taking responsibilityand accepting responsibility. It is myplan, so I work hard at doing the best Ican.”

Dr. James Alarid, the dean of theSchool of Education at New MexicoHighlands University in Las Vegas, alongwith Ginger Blalock, a professor ofspecial education at the University of

New Mexico; Carole Brito, a researchassociate at the Center for the Educationand Study of Diverse Populations;Paula Kohler, an associate professor atWestern Michigan University; SueGronewold, an education administratorfor the New Mexico Public EducationDepartment; and Marilyn D’Ottatavio,the transition coordinator for the Albu-querque Public Schools, help in trainingteachers across New Mexico to use theSelf-Directed IEP/ITP. “I think this is theanswer. We need to empower kids tocarve out their own direction,” saysAlarid. “The good transition ages arebetween 16 and 22 years of age. We canhelp facilitate choices regarding post-secondary experiences and communitycollege placement. It is important tohelp transition individuals from highschool to the real world with the ideathat they have an opportunity to be-come as independent as possible and berewarded with a much better life. Wehave to be able to support them throughthe process.”

In April of 2004, Ernie and Darleangave a presentation for educators at aNational Center on Secondary Educa-tion and Transition meeting in NewOrleans explaining how he was able tomake it through school by focusing andbecoming independent. They’re invitedto present this June in Washington, D.C.at the 2005 National Leadership Sum-mit on Improving Results.

Pacheco says there was always some-thing special about Ernie. “He was a dif-ficult young person,” says Pacheco. “Buthe had a spark in his eye. As with all mystudents, I do not give up on them. Thelittle baby boy that he has is his shiningstar. It gives purpose to his life. Godworks in mysterious ways.”

As a senior in high school, Ernie tooka basic math class at Luna CommunityCollege in Las Vegas and he intends toattend that school in the fall in hopes ofreceiving his mechanic’s certificate. “I’ma hands-on guy. I’m always working onmy truck. I do my own work on it, ex-cept for painting it. I’ve already changedmy engine on it around ten times. WhatI don’t know about mechanics, I’m will-

ing to learn. I want to own my own busi-ness some day. It’s better to run yourown show.” He says school is one of hispriorities. “I will go back to school nomatter what,” says Ernie. “But I wouldprefer to get a full-time job and go toschool at the same time.” He alreadyproved he could juggle both school andwork. At the end of his senior year heworked at a plumbing company in LasVegas as a tech helper for six monthsbefore being laid off during the wintermonths. Today, he has gotten a full-timejob at an auto parts store. He also saysthat taking care of his son is on the topof his list. “My little boy is my numberone priority. I get to see him aroundthree times a month. He throws a fit

until he calls me on the phone. It killsme when I have to take him back orhang up the phone with him,” saysErnie. While everything is not exactly ashe’d like it to be, Ernie has made a startin the right direction. And like mostpeople, he looks forward to even betterthings to come, one day at a time.

Jesse Gallegos is an editorial assistant atNew Mexico Highlands University, LasVegas, New Mexico. For more informationabout the Self-Directed IEP/ITP processand teacher training, contact James Alarid,School of Education, New MexicoHighlands University, at 505/454-3509 [email protected].

As Ernie says of the plan,

“In my opinion, the Self-Directed

IEP/ITP is about exactly that,

taking responsibility and accepting

responsibility. It is my plan, so I

work hard at doing the best I can.” “I think this is the answer. We

need to empower kids to carve out

their own direction,” says Alarid.


37Continuation

• Primary prevention. Includes strate-gies and programs that are designedto prevent the development of prob-lems, target all students, providestudents and school staff with astrong foundation for teaching ap-propriate behaviors, and have a lowcost per individual. Examples includeschool-wide positive behavioral sup-ports, school climate improvementprojects, and collaboration betweenfamily, school and community.

• Secondary prevention. Includes pro-grams that decrease the frequency orintensity of problems, are designedto address alterable factors that placestudents at risk (e.g., angry or violentbehavior), and have a moderate costper individual. About 10-15% ofstudents may need more intensivesupports at this level. Examplesinclude conflict-resolution lessons,peer-tutoring programs, and social-skills instruction.

• Tertiary prevention. Includes pro-grams designed to remediate estab-lished problems, reduce the duration,and preclude negative outcomes. Pro-grams are highly individualized andstudent centered, provide an effectiveand efficient response to studentsmost in need, and have a higher costper individual. About 1-5% of stu-dents will have chronic problems thatrequire more intensive supports.Examples include wrap-around ser-vices, individual functional behavioranalysis, and individualized behaviormanagement plans.

Educators and administrators at elemen-tary, middle, and high schools can usethis model to guide prevention and in-tervention efforts.

Building Competence AcrossDomains

In addition to offering interventionsacross different levels, interventionsmust address relevant domains of com-petence for students with EBD. Effectiveinterventions not only prevent prob-lems, but also assist in building skills

[Lehr, continued from page 3]and competencies. Skill areas andexamples of interventions especiallyrelevant to students with EBD are listedbelow:• Academic. Using effective strategies

to promote academic achievement,including explicit and systematicinstruction in reading; using alterna-tives to out-of-school suspension toincrease opportunities for learning.

• Social/behavioral. Implementingschool-wide social developmentprograms; using functional behaviorassessment to understand andchange behavior.

• Emotional. Implementing school-wide and individual strategies topromote mental health; providinginstruction and opportunities forself-advocacy, counseling.

• Vocational. Providing access tovocational assessments; providingrelevant opportunities to learn out-side of school (e.g., work programs,extracurricular opportunities).

• Transition. Providing mentoring sup-ports to facilitate transition and ad-justment to school; using orientationand welcoming procedures to easetransition between schools; incor-porating self-determination skills fortransition from school to work.

Conclusion

Complex problems such as facilitatingsuccess for students with EBD are rarelysolved with simple, uni-dimensionalstrategies. One issue critical to the selec-tion and program planning process in-volves examining the resources availablefor program implementation. Sustained,cohesive programming is essential, incontrast to offering isolated programsthat do not reach out to include collabo-rative efforts with others throughout theschool, or with parents and communitymembers. Students with EBD havemany strengths, and their teachers aretalented individuals. Nonetheless, effec-tive, cohesive, programming is neces-sary and presents specific challenges

that require understanding the issuesfaced by students with EBD, advancedskills in program implementation, anda comprehensive approach that is cohe-sive, multi-faceted, and multi-tiered.

References

Losen, D.J. & Orfield, G. (2002). Racial inequity in special education.Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Publishing Group.

National Association of School Psychologists (2004). Positionstatement on students with emotional and behavioral disorders.Retrieved 11/8/04 from www.nasponline.org/information/pospaper_sebd.html.

Quinn, M.M., Rutherford, R.B., & Leone, P.E. (2001). Students with dis-abilities in correctional facilities. ERIC EC Digest #E621. Arlington, VA:ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education.

Sugai, G. & Horner, R. H. (2002). Introduction to the special series onpositive behavior support in schools. Journal of Emotional & Behav-ioral Disorders, 10(3), 130-135.

Wagner, M. & Cameto, R. (2004). The characteristics, experiences, andoutcomes of youth with emotional disturbances. NLTS-2 Data Brief,3(2). Minneapolis, MN: National Center on Secondary Education andTransition, University of Minnesota.

Wagner, M., Newman, L., D’Amico, R., Jay, E.D., Butler-Nalin, P. &Marder, C. (1991). Youth with disabilities: How are they doing? MenloPark, CA: SRI International.

U.S. Department of Education (2002). Twenty-fourth annual report toCongress on the implementation of the Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Act (IDEA). Washington D.C.: Author

U.S. Public Health Service (2000). Report of the Surgeon General’s Con-ference on Children’s Mental Health: A national action agenda. Wash-ington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services.

Camilla A. Lehr is a research associatewith the Institute on Community Integra-tion, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.She may be reached at 612/624-0722 [email protected]. Jennifer McComas isan associate professor in the Department ofEducational Psychology at the University ofMinnesota. She may be reached at 612/624-5854 or [email protected].


38 Continuation

[Stokes, continued from page 15]Thus, teaching diversely involves

sampling the diversity and depth of ex-emplars of lessons within the multiplesituations that a child is likely to comeinto contact with, so that the wide-ranging generalized repertoires ofemotion and behavior are supported.

Engage Mediators of Performance

The third principle recommends teach-ing to enable personal repertoires thattake advantage of children’s abilities totransfer and carry skills across environ-ments, allowing for later production inthe classroom or at a different time andplace. Some of these techniques arevariations of the memory enhancementprovided by “a string on the finger” as acue to remember to do something inparticular. The difference here is that theskill carried and produced across timesand settings is usually more complex(e.g., problem-solving rules) and readilyinfluenced by being in circumstancessimilar to original learning (e.g., a testgiven in another though similar class-room can be completed by using a set ofguiding rules for problem solutioninstructed by a teacher). In this strategy,the skill is transported in the child’srepertoire and the performance isfacilitated by the cues already present innew circumstances.

Many of these mediated generaliza-tion techniques relate to self-control andcognitively-recalled self-instructionalstrategies taught with a general purposeof moving them between settings as thenew environment cues the child both bythe commonality of the circumstancesand by signaling that it is now advanta-geous to produce that skill under thosegeneralized circumstances. For example,a child actively participating in theirown education can practice evaluatingand recording their own performance,and can practice guiding self-instruc-tions about the sequence of componentsof the task in their original learning en-vironment. These techniques can thenbe carried within the child’s repertoireacross settings for production at a latertime under other circumstances when

appropriate. Similarly, social skills andproblem solving in difficult or aggressivecircumstances can be taught and prac-ticed with peers who are also likely to bepresent in other situations requiringthose skills. The presence of those peersin generalization circumstances maysignal or cue performance of an effectivede-escalating or coping repertoire.

Thus, engaging mediators of perfor-mance involves teaching a repertoire ofskill that can be carried by the student.This teaching is in a manner that insuresthat emotions and behaviors arestrongly influenced by what a child no-tices and does later in those other situa-tions. That repertoire mediates a gener-alized outcome.

Conclusion

Improved academic, emotional, andbehavioral repertoires of children thatresult from effective classroom teachingshould be durable and widespread. Itshould never be assumed that what isseen in one environment will automati-cally be present in another situation ortime, although sometimes that happens.To ensure that generalization occurs,teaching should incorporate tactics thathave been shown to enhance generalizedperformance. Generalization should beattended to actively as a teachable andessential goal of procedures facilitatingpositive change, from the outset ratherthan as an afterthought with minimalaction (Stokes & Baer, 2003).

References

Stokes, T. (2002). Terror and violence perpetrated by children. In C.E.Stout (Ed.). The psychology of terrorism, volume IV: Programs and prac-tices in response and prevention (pp 77-90). Westport, CT: Praeger.

Stokes, T.F. & Baer, D.M. (1977). An implicit technology of generaliza-tion. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 349-367.

Stokes, T. & Baer, D.M. (2003). Mediated generalization: An unfinishedportrait. In K.S. Budd & T. Stokes (Eds). A small matter of proof: Thelegacy of Donald M. Baer (pp. 125-138). Reno, NV: Context Press.

Stokes, T., Mowery, D., Dean, K.R., & Hoffman, S.J. (1997). Nurturancetraps of aggression, depression, and regression affecting childhoodillness. In D.M. Baer & E.M. Pinkston (Eds). Environment and behavior(pp 147-154). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Stokes, T.F. & Osnes, P.G. (1989). An operant pursuit of generalization.Behavior Therapy, 20, 337-355.

Trevor Stokes is a professor with the Louisde la Parte Florida Mental HealthInstitute, University of South Florida,Tampa. He may be reached at 813/974-6189 or [email protected].



• On a Collision Course? Standards, Dis-cipline and Students with Disabilities.Policy Research Brief 8(4), (1996). By M.Sinclair, M. Thurlow, S. Christenson, & D.Evelo. A review of educational reformsemphasizing the need for higher aca-demic standards for all students and zerotolerance policies, the ways in whichthese reforms may challenge youth athigh risk for school failure, and strategiesfor policy implementation that can helphigh risk students remain in school andmeet these higher standards. Availablefrom the Institute on Community Integra-tion, University of Minnesota, 612/624-4512 or [email protected].

• The Characteristics, Experiences, andOutcomes of Youth with Emotional Dis-turbances: NLTS2 Data Brief (2004). ByM. Wagner and R. Cameto. This NLTS2Data Brief takes a fresh look at selectedcharacteristics of youth with emotionaldisturbances and their households thatdistinguish them from other youth withdisabilities and/or from youth in the gen-eral population. It also describes aspectsof their school histories, indicators of theiracademic performance and social adjust-ment at school, and activities outside ofschool. Available from the National Cen-ter on Secondary Education and Transi-tion, Institute on Community Integration,at http://www.ncset.org/publications/viewdesc. asp?id=1687.

• Pacer Center (www.pacer.org, 952/838-9000). PACER Center works to en-hance the quality of life of children andyoung adults with disabilities and theirfamilies, based on the concept of parentshelping parents. Their Web site has practi-cal resources on parenting children withemotional/behavioral disorders.Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http://

ici.umn.edu). Citation: Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. & Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on FosteringSuccess in School and Beyond for Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, 18(2). Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota, Institute on Community Integration.

39Continuation

and teacher-guided until students growcomfortable enough with the routine ofthe lessons to lead each other throughindependently. The combined interven-tion lasted for an hour of instructionaltime each day and was implementedacross pairs of students over a 27-weekperiod. Throughout the course of thestudy, students demonstrated increasesin phoneme blending, phoneme segmen-tation, nonsense word fluency, sightword reading, and oral reading fluency.Moderate to significant gains were alsonoted in percentile scores between pre-and post-test on subtests of the WoodcockJohnson Reading Mastery Tests-Revised andthe Comprehensive Test of PhonologicalProcessing. Such findings indicate that ex-plicit instruction targeting a variety ofreading skills is beneficial for studentswith learning and behavioral deficits.

While the research is limited in thisarea, even less is known about readingpractices that are effective with olderstudents with EBD who have a history ofacademic failure. There have been severalstudies, however, that have evidencedincreases in reading achievement witholder students with EBD with a programknown as SRA Corrective Reading (Engel-mann et al., 1999). SRA Corrective Read-ing is a Direct Instruction program devel-oped particularly for older students whodisplay significant difficulties in readingand who have not responded to otherreading programs. The program includesscripted lessons focusing on two strandsof decoding and comprehension as wellas the materials and instructions for con-ducting ongoing assessment with the stu-dents. Students are placed into variouslevels of the program based on an initialplacement assessment and may practicea range of reading skills from letter-sound correspondence and blending, toreading expository text, to more ad-vanced comprehension and reasoningstrategies.

Strong, Wehby, Falk, and Lane (2004)implemented SRA Corrective Reading withsix junior high students attending a self-contained school for students with EBD.Based on the placement assessments, theB1 level of the SRA Corrective Reading De-

coding Series was selected. This particularstrand focuses on practicing a variety ofword-attack skills as well as leadingstudents in group reading in which theyread stories out loud and answer a seriesof comprehension questions after shortsections of the text. This instruction wasimplemented for 30-40 minutes each day.In this intervention, SRA Corrective Read-ing was also supplemented with arepeated reading strategy in order toprovide students with additional fluencypractice in text. With repeated reading,students read aloud short passages oftext several times through in order toimprove oral reading fluency. In this par-ticular intervention, students were pairedwith a research assistant to read passagestaken from the Great Leaps Reading Stories(Campbell, 1999). For the first reading,the students read the passage aloud withthe research assistant. For subsequentreadings, the students took turns readingaloud and providing corrective feedbackto one another. After four readings, thestudents were given a new passage of thesame difficulty level; these readings weretimed in order to get a measure of bothoral reading rate and accuracy. This por-tion of the intervention required 20-30minutes of instructional time. After 19weeks of intervention, the results of theintervention revealed that students ex-hibited growth in fluency and compre-hension during the SRA Corrective Read-ing intervention and that the addition ofthe repeated readings effected furtherincreases in these two areas.

As evidenced in these various studies,Direct Instruction offers a promisingapproach to increasing the readingachievement – and potentially the behav-ioral outcomes – of students with EBD.Although limited in scope, the researchthat does exist in this area has demon-strated that the type of explicit andsystematic instruction found in Direct In-struction can improve the poor academicand school outcomes that this populationof students so often experiences.

References

Adams, G. L., & Engelmann, S. (1996). Research on Direct Instruction: 25years beyond DISTAR. Seattle: Educational Achievement Systems.

[Falk, continued from page 30]Babyak, A.E., Koorland, M., & Mathes, P.G. (2000). The effects of storymapping instruction on the reading comprehension of students withbehavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 25, 239-258.

Barton-Arwood, S.M., Wehby, J.H., & Falk, K.B. (in␣ press). Reading in-struction for elementary-age students with emotional and behavioraldisorders: Academic and behavioral outcomes. Exceptional Children.

Campbell, K.U. (1999). Great leaps reading program. Micanopy, FL:Diarmuid, Inc.

Carnine, D.W., Silbert, J., & Kameenui, E.J. (1997). Direct Instructionreading (3rd edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Coleman, M., & Vaughn, S. (2000). Reading interventions for studentswith emotional/behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 25, 93-104.

DuPaul, G.J., Ervin, R.A., Hook, C.L. & McGoey, K.E. (1998). Peer tutoringfor children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Effects onclassroom behavior and academic performance. Journal of AppliedBehavior Analysis, 31, 579-92.

Engelmann, S., Engelmann, O., & Davis, K.L.S. (1997). Horizons.Columbus, OH: SRA/McGraw-Hill.

Engelmann, S., Meyer, L., Carnine, L., Becker, W., Eisele, J., & Johnson, G.(1999). Decoding strategies. Columbus, OH: SRA/McGraw-Hill.

Falk, K.B., & Wehby, J.H. (2001). The effects of peer-assisted learningstrategies on the beginning reading skills of young children withemotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 344-359.

Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L.S., Mathes, P.G., & Simmons, D.C. (1997). Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies: Making classrooms more responsive todiversity. American Educational Research Journal, 34, 174-206.

Lloyd, J.W., Forness, S.R., & Kavale, K.A. (1998). Some methods aremore effective than others. Intervention in School and Clinic, 33, 195-200.

Locke, W.R. & Fuchs, L.S. (1995). Effects of peer-mediated reading in-struction on the on-task behavior and social interaction of childrenwith behavior disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders,3, 92-99.

Mathes, P.G., Grek, M.L., Howard, J.K., Babyak, A.E., & Allen, S.H. (1999).Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies for first-grade readers: A tool forpreventing early reading failure. Learning Disabilities Research andPractice, 14, 50-60.

Maughan, B., Pickles, A., Hagell, A., Rutter, M., & Yule, W. (1996). Read-ing problems and antisocial behavior: Developmental trends incomorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 405-418.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000).Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: Anevidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on read-ing and its implications for reading instruction. (NIH Publication No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Rock, E.E., Fessler, M.A., & Church, R.P. (1997). The concomitance oflearning disabilities and emotional/behavioral disorders: A conceptualmodel. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 245-263.

Strong, A.C., Wehby, J.H., Falk, K.B., & Lane, K.L. (2004). The impact of astructured reading curriculum and repeated reading on the perfor-mance of junior high students with emotional and behavioral disor-ders. School Psychology Review, 33, 561-581.

Wagner, M., Marder, C., Blackorby, J., Cameto, R., Newman, L., Levine, P.,& Davies-Mercier, E. (with Chorost, M., Garza, N., Guzman, A., & Sumi,C.) (2003). The achievements of youth with disabilities during secondaryschool. A report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2(NLTS2) . Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Available atwww.nlts2.org/reports/pdfs/achievements_ywd_sec_school.pdf.

Wehby, J.H., Falk, K.B., Barton-Arwood, S., Lane, K.L., & Cooley, C.(2003). The impact of comprehensive reading instruction on the aca-demic and social behavior of students with emotional and behavioraldisorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 11, 225-238.

Wehby, J.H., Lane, K.L, & Falk, K.B. (2005). An inclusive approach toimproving early literacy skills of students with emotional and behav-ioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 30, 155-170.

Katherine Falk is a project coordinator forthe Vanderbilt Behavior Research Center,Peabody College of Vanderbilt University,Nashville, Tennessee. She may be reached at615/322-8167 or [email protected]. Joseph Wehby is anassociate professor at Peabody College ofVanderbilt University. He may be reachedat 615/322-8186 or at [email protected].


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Feature Issue on Fostering Success inSchool and Beyond for Students withEmotional/Behavioral Disorders

Volume 18 · Number 2 · Spring 2005

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Choosing a Better Road: Ernie’s Storyici.umn.edu/products/impact/182/182.pdf · EBD (e.g., characteristics, numbers, factors placing them at increased risk of school failure, where