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Early China: A Survey of Cultures ~

Neolithic period c. 6000 1600 BCHongshan culture c. 4000 2200 BCDawenkou culture c. 4500 2300 BCHenan Longshan culture c. 2800 1900 BCShandong Longshan culture c. 2300 1700 BCLiangzhu culture c. 3400 2250 BCMajiabang Songze culture c. 5000 2900 BC

Xia dynasty c. 2100 1600 BCErlitou culture c. 1900 1600 BC

Shang dynasty c. 1600 1100 BCZhou dynasty 1100 220 BCWestern Zhou 1100 771 BCEastern Zhou 770 220 BCSpring and Autumn period 770 481 BCWarring States period 480 220 BC

Qin dynasty 221 207 BCHan dynasty 206 BC AD 220Three Kingdoms 221 265S k Dynasties 265 589Sui dynasty 589 618

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Taste Technique in ollecting Jade

C llecting Chinese jade is a continuous tradition which extends in time to the beginning of this formof art itself. The reasons for collecting jade are as varied as the many individuals who pursue anacquire w orks of a rt. Amon g its desirable qualities, Chinese jade is tactile, which a delicate porcelain vasis not. Ja de works o f art are sculptura l and three-dim ensional, features the s urface of a painting lackAlso, the material itself may have great value regardless of indifferent workmanship.

As for myself, was introduced to Chinese and Japanese antiqu ities at a very early age. My parentwere collectors of Oriental works of art, and they instilled in me a dee p respect fo r the a ncient cu lture anrich artistic trad ition of Asian people. I acquired my first Chinese jade w ork of a rt fr om a gallery in NewOrleans when I was eleven years old, thus igniting my personal passion for collecting.

Upon graduation fro m universit -, ioined n~ . fan~il:,'s Or ien tal a rt b usine ss in D allas. Th en in1978, I accepted a position with a leading San Francisco Oriental art gallery wh ich specialized in C hinesjade, before establishing S. Bernstein r Co. Jade 8- Oriental Art in July 1991.

Y ailer features Chinese iade works of art from the Neolithic period (7000-1600RC) throughthe K ineteenth century. An inaugural catalogue, Clti~icsc adr froln Dl sta ~ltCcrltrrrics was published in1997. Th e collector of jade to day has mo re factual inform ation available tha n d ur in g an , prelviougeneration. Literature from the 1930's and 1940's is viewed with so me skepticism based o n m ore recenarchaeological finds. The reporting and printed documentation of these remarkable discoveries hasaccelerated in the past decade. Of particular interest to collectors of early iades is the literatureregarding the Neolithic Liangzhu (circa 3400-2350 BC) and Hongs han (5000 -2200 BC) cultures. For thefirst time, the im porta nce and use of ritual iades in Neolithic culture a re graphically explaine d. Axe bladesand beads have been discovered intact and exactly as the . w7ereoriginally placed with the tom b oc cupants

Th e discovery of the H an period (302 BC-AD 330) tomb of the \Western King of Nanyue in 1983and subsequen t publication of Jades fro171 tlte t on lb o f tlic King o f Nar-tyue in 1991, is an exciting exam pleof the short time period between a discovery and printed doc umen tation of the find. This tom b containedmany remark able jade objects which were previously believed to da te from later periods. In particular, a

Figure One Wa ter Purification Bowl

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well-preserved jade rhyton vessel, a subjecttraditionally thought to be of the Tang dynasty(618-907AD), was discovered in s t t ~ n thisimp01recent

Han tomb..ications has

The avresulted

.ilabilityn a re-ev

ofalu

such.ation

of the dating of jade objects already cataloguedand held in public and private collections.Taste in Jade C o l l e c t r n ~

In America and Europe taste in jadecollectthe tui

as evolved s~the century

:eadily. Aadmired itute colh:he finely

spinach green jades of the Eighteenth century.Through the early 1950's, white nephrite jaderenderin gs of the Ming Dynasty 1368- 1644) to Figure Two Hafi Bi Discthe end of the Eighteenth century were highlv sought after. The 1980's saw an increased interest inbrilliantly colored renderings of Burmese jadeite and a corresponding increase in prices. These lateNineteenth and Twentieth centurv works were bringing world-record prices at the auction houses. Thedominant buyers in this market were collectors from Hong Kong and Taiwan. While this trend hascontinued, the focus is now on exceptional jadeite pieces, rather than examples of lower to middlequality.

Recently, fine white neph rite jade w orks have again c aptu red the eves of.4sian collectors who valueit very highly. Th e material of an E ighteenth ce nturv water purification bowl (figure on e) intended toadorn a scholar's table is a warm white color. The design ~llo \\isight to easily pass through the body othe bowl. Presently. rvhite iades of this perio d w hich are clssociated \\.ith sc ho la rl\ ~pursuits arecommanding significant values.

It has been said that on e high price realized for a work of art is a record, two record prices beco mea trend, and three record prices represent a mark et. Since the late 1980's, auction salesro oms have beenthe m ost visible indication of this emerging phe nom eno n which has become eLren more Jpp are nt d urin gthe past two years.

Since the mid-198O's, jade collecting has become worldwide ac tivity. .Asian collectors watch w ithinterest the jade collecting trends in America and Europe. As most economic reports of manufacturingactivities show, the growth of wealth is increasingly centered in a handful of -Asian countries. With thisnew wealth comes the urge to collect and acquire that which is special and unique. There is no questionthat th e flow of Oriental works of art to Am erican an d European collections has reversed, with a rt objectsno w m ovin g back toward Asia.

W ho is collecting jade w orks of art at the t op level? Reviews of the past two years of C hristie's an dSotheby's sales in London, New York and Hong Kong would indicate that collectors from Taiwan, HongKong, Singapore, Japan an d T haila nd a re emerging as prim ary buyers. As values rise, there is little dou btthis trend will continue. In everyday terms, this means that as jade works of art in Western collectionschange hands, it is likely these works will find their way into private and public collections in Asia.Technique in Jad e Collecting

One of the most frequently asked questions is, How do you date a jade work? There are several,l~ pr oa ch es . owever, these may be simplified into two main methods. The first is a physical inspection,.ad the second is a stvlistic examination of the jade as a work of art. There have been two malor- . . -,..-- . . - . - , , . 1 , 1 , 4 , ~ . , \ . r T1. - n -3 hl :prTrrlT .?l;Dtl l r ? t n r E r T p r ; t l l S7 f + b e A - \ T ~ ~ T T

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fifteen years. M r. Shangraw places great emp hasis o n the ph ysiccondition of a work of art, an d his meth od has been a valuabltool in arrivin g at accurate evaluations. Dr Jam es C.Y. W att, of thMetropolitan Museum of Art, New York, has emphasized stylist ic examinat ion of jade an d th e in ~p or tan ce f knowing eacperiod of Chinese history as a context in w hich to interpret a jadwork.

The physical approach to dating jade involves a carefuexam ination of the appearance o f the object no t just a perusabut really concentrating on a nd looking at the condit ion of thpiece. One should look carefully at the texture and color of thstone for evidence of age, usually app earing as alteration of thsurface. Tool marks left by the artist in making the piece arano the r clue to authenticitv.

The Han period pi disc (f igure t~ v o i s an example of thFigure Three Liangzhu Axe Blade rand om coloration and alteration of jades when buried for lonperiods of time. This coloration results from contact with minerals in the jade's natural environmentArtificial coloration looks just as the nam e implies (th e coloration is m anip ulat ed so that is app ears "tooperfect"). A piece with very neat discoloration may be contrived to look old by sub jectins it to ch en ~i cato alter its appearanc e. These pieces are obviou s and may be identified with experience.

Neolithic blades with holes invariably show some signs of encrustation along the interior wall othe hole which ei7en a good cleaning ma no [ remove. I i surface ~l te ra t io n s present , another 1 1; at thtexture an d pattern is in order. If so me edges on early blades are beyeled, carefully inspect the bevelingitself. Does it continu e to the edge of the blade? Is it rendered with o ne co nti nu ou s line? Is the ang le othe bevel consistent, without hesitation? Th e magnificent Liangzhu blade sh own (figure thre e) is anexample with this consistency of line and delicate surface polish. Note the slight tool marks toward thetop of the blade which are the result of the original working. Recent archaeological evidence wouldsuggest that great care was taken in th e ma king of blades since they were inten ded to be purely ritualisticand burial was regarded with great importance to the community. A physical examination of the pieceshou ld reveal a consistent in~ pre ssio n f correctness.

The stylistic approach to dating jades is more subjective and requires a greater understanding othe approac h of each period to the m a h n g of jades. It has been said that the Chinese have prod uced a fewperiods of artistic inspiration and originality, while during many periods they have emulated andreinterpreted, Hence, a collector first has to look at a piece with fresh eyes and decide what the piecesuggests. Is it 'from the Han dynasty or is it a Song dynasty (960-1279 AD) revival of a popular subjectwhich originated in Ha n? As early as the Shang perio d (circa 1600-1100 BC) artists were copyin g an dreinterpreting early periods. This author has encountered Eighteenth century jades emulating Mingworks. which in tu rn emulate Song works.

The key to deciding on a date is to understand the peculiarities of each period's approach toworking. Bear in min d that when a style is first introduced it is in its mos t poten t an d pu re for m . Weindicate this by saying a work of ar t has originality and pow erful rendering style. Later periods w hich copythese original forms invariably inject their own distinctive, stylistic shorthand into the composition.Therefore, Eighteenth century brushwashers w ith bats m ay be equally as powerfully or naturalisticallyrendered as Ming examples. The collector must isolate stylistic elements from the work of art andconcentrate on evaluating each a nd every one.

believe that in a n effort to date a jade object, use of both physical an d stylistic exam ination is the. best and most reliable approach possible. Each method acts as a check and balance on the other.

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~f a collector en coun ters an inc onsisten cy in his review, this will require so m e resolution. F urtherm ore,one s hou ld keep in min d the po werful tool of comparison with similar objects in other media. Forexample, the shape of a jade vessel from the Song dynasty may bear similarities to the same subject inporcelains of the same dynasty. T he ewer w ith dragon ha ndle illustrated (figure fou r) is an exam ple of thissimilarity between jades and porcelain. Note the gently tapering mouth of the ewer which tlares ratherthan merely protrudes. The surface rendering is delicate, archaistic and understated. The foot of thevessel flares slightly outward and is neatly indented on the underside. These are characteristics seen inSong porcelains. Based o n this com parison, the sum of these factors would d ate the piece to the Songdynasty, rather than Ming or later.

Datin? a jade is always a challenge and a bit like detective work or solving a riddle. It is useful toapproach dating from the perspective of the culture that proau cca [he work of ar t . Under sc~nc i in~hecontex t of the object an d its im po rta nc e to that culture increases the enjoym ent of collecting.Evaluation of a Jade

Ho w does one begin t o evaluate a Chinese jade? The answer is im porta nt because the price o f ajade work of art rests upon the significance and rarity of the object within its cultural context. Thefollowing discussion is intended only as a rough guide and each collector will emphasize some pointsmore than others. This is natural and desirable since collecting is a very personal experience for mostof us.

The subject matte r of Chinese jade w ork of art is probablyof greatest impo rtance since this determ ines how we will interpre tthe work. Jade wedding bowls, mountains , brushpots and rhytonshave ~ lw a y s een highlv adm ired by the Chinese themselves aswell as Western collectors. The very first piece collected by theHeber Bishop, the first maior American collector of jade, was anEighteenth century brushpot which is now in the lLIetropolitanA,luseuin in New Tiork City. Some subjects 3re more difficult torender th an others. Th e delicately rendered jades of th e Liangzhuperiod w ith depictions of faces sometim es have nine distinct lineswithin only one-siuteenth of an inch of surface. For a Neolithicwork, th is is d is tinct ~ n demarkable achievement.

Workmanship is the next element in the evaluation of ajade. Again, the quality of workmanship will, of necessity, reflectthe thinking of the period. Superbly refined renderings of theEighteenth century demonstrate a strong attention to technicalFigureFour EwerwithDragon perfection. Song renderings are refined in workmanship and

design and have strong archaistic flavor which was highly prized in the period. Yuan dynasty works aresimple, direct and powerfully rendere d in a style of workmanship that is not hesitant. Perhaps this is areflection of the political and economic times of the Thirteenth century.

An archaistic phoenix head ed htl ng or pe nda nt of large, powerful size is a very good example ofhe Yuan dynasty jade artist s app roa ch (figure five). There is a strong archaic feel to th e design and form

that is reminiscent of Zhou 1100-256 BC) and later H an dynasty works. In fact, in the late 1970 s thispiece was exhibited and pu blished as a Zhou w ork. The blunt, etched pattern, c ham fered edges, large sizeand archaistic approach are the clues to establish a Yuan date. The age of a jade object is of someimporta nce to a collector, thou gh it is not the most impo rtant concern in eva luating jade Come collectonly very early jades a nd forgo an y example later than th e Warring States period (480-220 BC). There is,no doubt, a premium to be paid for an outstanding early jade or rare subject matter and excellent

-rkm ans hip. However, merely being of great age does not make a poorly rende red piece better. Passage

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of time does not reward common or poorly executedworks. The age and period are factors in placing thework in the correct historical context.

In evaluating Chinese jade there are two finalfactors to consider which may be less significant, butremain important to identify: the quality of the jadematerial and the provenance of the work of art.Presently, Asian collectors place great empha sis on thequality of the jade stone. Extremely white nephritejades a re bringing very high prices a t~a uc tio n,n-d thistrend is extending into dealer 's showrooms. The Figure Five Phoenix Headed Huangperfection of white jade is perceived to be an Eighteenth century peculiarity. However, it is my opinithat Eighteenth century collectors prized white jade in part because of the rarity of a fine white nephrseen in som e earlier Song jades. The archaistic subject matter of m an y Eighteenth century jades su pp o-this theory . An extremel . white nephrite So ng dynasty cup (figu re six) shows unde rstated refin em entthe placement of the dragons. There are numerous examples of Ming and Qins 1644-191 1 ) jademulating Song style and material. Invariably the technical aspects of these later pieces override taesthetic elegance of the material.

The provenance of a jade refers to form er ownership an d any history of publication or ex hibitioAltho ugh this is an extrinsic factor in ev aluating a work of art , so m e collectors feel m ore co nfiden t wha piece has been published o r has been a part o f an imp ortan t collection. Bear in m ind that everyomakes m istakes in collect in^, and a famo us nam e does no t gu arantee the d ate or quality of the work itseOne must evaluate each work of art on its own merits and failings.Suggestions to the J ade Collector

Th e trends described earlier in this chapter will most likely con tinu e well into the next cen tury.collector of jade should al~%.ayseep priorities in m ind . Collect wha t speaks ~ vi th loquence to you, anbuy the best quality you can afford. Choose subjects which intrigue the imagination and are mopleasant to touch . Jades were mea nt to be hand led an d caressed. Learn the characteristics o f eaperiod, and tr) . to e\~aluateade w ithin this context, along with its inte nde d use.

Ask yourself how well the artist achieved what he set out to do. Does the rendering stydem ons trate an elegance and confidence? Does the com position flow masterfully and is it consistenThe se are questions of aesthetics which each collector mu st answer.

There are many resources which can provide furthinformation to co ntinue the inquiry into taste and techniquin the collection of Chin ese jade. The best resources are othcollectors. I have never met a collector who did not enjo,,,,,.,.;:;; I - : ,,.. **..l A. .,. ,.. jndes tc :: i ?tt ~p ste c t. n\*- ro l x t oMuseums and their curatorial staffs are another source o

valuable information. Dealers who specialize in jades aalways happy to spend time with collectors who seek increase their know ledge. Indeed, I believe it is the obligatioof dealers to assist in educat ing col lectors. Onlknowledgeable collectors may fully appreciate and enjoy thworks of ar t which they acquire. Various internat ionamagazines are also useful in providing timely reporting o- . - -Figure Six Song Dynasty Cup auction sales and market trends, as well as informativarticles.

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ive avorite Pieces

D ring the past twenty years I have been fortunate to pursue my love of Oriental art and to earnliving doiiig ivliat n o s t enjoy. U lli:L :I;c ;dllccting Inndscape has changed and evolved d~ir in i . i qperiod , the basic m otivations have remained cons tant. My friend Raymond Bushell, the noted collector ofJapanese netsu ke, snuff bottles an d Chinese jade, succinctly described in his volume, Netsuke Familiar an dUnfamiliar, the differences between the motivations of the investor, the dealer and the collector. Theinvestor buys at a low price with the expectation of holding the work of art for a period of time andrealizing a profit at the time of sale. Aesthetic considerations play a m inor role, only becoming significantduring the selection process. The collector buys art fo r the enjoyment of ow ning an artifact. Gains mad eat the time of selling the collector's objects are not a primary consideration, although at leastma intaining the price paid for a work of art is desired. Th e dealer acquires an object with the expectationof selling it at a pro fit to cover the cost of doing business.

The dealer must choose carefully and fully research the artifact under consideration to avoidmaking a costly mistake. Dealers with integrity and a high level of connoisseurship often add to theknowledge of the marketplace by sharing their research w ith collectors and the academic comm unity. Thenecessary flow of information, which is the lifeblood of the art market, is therefore enhanced. Theacademic com m unity provides an im portan t contribution in this process through seminars, publicationsan d articles which a re the intellectual by-pr oduc t of often long, arduous , years of research and study. Inthe everyday world of han dling great works of art, the collector, dealer, academ ic and a rt historian enjoyan im por tant sym biotic relationship.

During my career I have handled, examined andstudied more than 20 000 jade works of art. I amcommonly asked which objects I consider to be my mostfavorite of those that I have handled as a specialist dealer.I would like to sha re with you five of my favorites am on gthe favored that I have been privileged to have passthroug h my hands . Like every collector I have met duringmy career, I too can remember vividly the first encounterwith a sup erior work of art. Minute details such as time ofday, season o f the year and the thrill of acquisition remainclearly in my m emory.

Ind eed , of the five pieces I will share with you, onlyone was purch ased to keep for myself. have steadfastlyobserved an unwritten rule among dealers that it is aconflict to collect what you are engaged in selling. Thec~ l l ec to r lways wonders if he is being offered the best tha tthe dealer has to offer. My own interests have tended tofocus on related areas such as rare books and building athree thousand volume reference library over the pasttwenty years. Figure I Crystal uddha

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Each of these objects is significant because they embody the three criteria which I prize above alothers. Th e first criteria simply stated, is it a work of fine art? Secondly, is the ob ject rare? Rarity sim plrefers to scarcity.Am I likely to encounter an other example equal to or better than the object at hand ? Andlastly, is the object historically significant? Does it reflect, for example, the best of a particular period ihistory? It is my own determ ination that an object which is beautiful, rare and historically im po rta ncombines the best of all worlds. It sometimes may be hard to elucidate, but an experienced collectordealer or academ ic knows it instinctively when they see it. In th e words of th e collector Foster Go ldstr om"if it speaks to you, jum p on it "

The qua rtz crystal figure of Budd ha (Figure 1 ) stands fifteeninches tall and is rendered from a solid boulder of material. I firsencountered this remarkable scu lpture in 1986 whe n it waacquired by an heir to a manufacturing fortune. It evidently hadsold at auction in Lo ndon dur ing the 1980's catalogued as Indianand of the Eighteenth century. In the center of the forehead w as anatural speck of black inclusion suspended at the midpoinsuggesting the third eye of Buddha. I grasped at the opportunityto discreetl . ha nd le this remarkable objec t. Therese Bartholo mewCurator of Indian and Himalayan Art and Patricia Berger, thenCurator of Chinese Art, both at the Asian Art Museum of SanFrancisco, served as a beginning point in reaching adetermination of the origin of the workmanship. Patriciaremembered seeing something related in a volume cataloguingthe Dalai Lama's collection of Tibetan artifacts. Stylistic analysisstrongly suggested a twelfth centur). date and a Tibetan originThe production of small images of Buddha rendered in quartz

Figure 2 C Shaped ragorz crystal (considered a healing s tone in A sia) was centered alo ng t heSino-Tibetan border area. The object in the Dalai Lama'scollection was remarkably similar to this examp le and was given atwelfth century date.

Durin g my exhibition, ndtlring Imager in 1993, the qua rtz crystal Bud dha quickly fou nd a newhome in the collection of a first rate collector with eclectic taste. At the time, I had the realization that Iwould never have the opportunity to handle such a breathtaking example of Tibetan art again. To haveenjoyed th e feel and allure of this remarkable statue, if only for a short time, was satisfaction en oug h.

Occasionally in my career I have encountered an object which has o pen ed my eyes to a whole newdirection of inquiry a nd study. The "C" shaped jade dragon (Figure 3 is just such a piece. I first saw thi sremarkable Neolithic c ulture (4000-2200 BCE) jade while on a trip t o the Far East. Having had a rat herdismal trip, I decided to rest poolside at my hotel for the afternoon the day before departure. A hotelpor ter ap proach ed m e carrying a small wrap ped box saying that an a cquain tance had left it with the ho telconcierge for mv attention.

I carefully open ed t he box a nd my eyes took in the beau ty of this sensuous jade fro m pre-history.Th e soft, delicate surface polish an d gentle curving lines with rou nde d edges instinctively told me that thiswas the real thing. There were no inconsistencies or ambiguities whatsoever. Th e natural sunlight dan cedon the surface of th e jade showing a creamy surface iridescence which shimm ered. The translucency, everso slightly affected by water an d soil minerals, was unm istakable.

There was a slight area of exceptional shiny smooth ness near the to p fin of the dragon w hich w ascurious. raced to the ph one to call a highly respected local collector and invited h im to my hotel. Fro mthe so und of my voice he sensed my urgency. Within half an ho ur my friend joined me by the poo lside.

. As I placed the dragon into his hands, he pulled a pocket magnifier from his jacket. I was struck by the

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ncongru y t at was n sw mm ng trun s an ro e w e my r en was wear ng t e usua us nessmansu m m er a ttire in Asia of a navy blue suit, white shirt a nd sm art English public school tie. We were bothmes me rized by the delicacy of th e jade and the elegant simplicity. My friend quietly suggested tha t thepiece had been cleaned with mercury to improve the appearance. Otherwise, the piece was correct andconsistent with kn own excavated examples.

D ur in g the next several weeks, I had the op po rtu nit y to study the C shaped dragon carefully. Inmy min d's eye 1 remember the delicacy of the etched lines on the sn out of the dragon and on theund ersid e of the chin. The tail ended in a delicate, deliciously rendered kickup or curve. The placemen tof the s uspe nsio n hole towards the top edge of the piece was perfectly balanced when a string was placedthro ugh the hole and held in the air. I con tinue to be enchan ted by the exquisite attention to m inu tedetail. can imagine the artist's excitement when t he draao n was completed 6,000 years ago. It is truly aprestige object made for an individual of high status. To have owned the dragon, if only brietly, was anadventure.

I first saw the gilt bronze mythical beast (Figure 3), hereafter referred to as simply the beast inthe h om e o f a world fam ous lover of Oriental art almost a decade ago. At the time, the object was no t forsale, hav ing been given pride of place in an outs tand ing collection of Chinese bronzes. This remarkable

0 research this s tunning object. Myinqu iries focused o n related archaeologicalexamples published in Chinese scientificjournals, Wenwtl and K~logu s well as a Figure 3 Gilt Bronze mythic l Beastsurvey of Western references.

Photography was made for advertisement and an image of the object was placed by computer:nhancem ent into miniature handm ade pottery version of a Han period tomb complete with metaldoors and wall texture. The idea was to suggest the historical context in which to present the object.Meanwhile, I sought opinions from curators and art historians familiar with Han period metalwork.The re app eared to be a consensus of opinion by the scholars consulted that the object was consistent withan early date. However, on e cautious ar t historian, Em ma Bunker, was bothered by the app earance of th eformation of cuprite on the surface. This historian recommended a scientific lab at one of America'sleadin g museu ms to review the object. The next day I dispatched my gallery director to the lab with th eobject in han d.

After a careful visual exam ination of th e surface und er high power magnification, the scientificop ini on c am e back that the surface alteration an d evidence of cuprite build-up were consistent with a Hanperio d d ate. To my amazem ent, that was not'all we learned from this object. Du ring the Ha n period, th ecasting of larger objects was executed in an inverted manne r. Final chasing of the metal was done as a laterstep in the process of creating the cast image. The gold itself was a heavy mercury and gold applicationwhich ha d great d epth of color. The surface affect evident was the result of the interaction of the surfaceof the bronze rathe r than the gold gilding itself.

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Th e feet of the beast were the last pa rt to be cast and, as was usual, there were repa irs to the fewell as the body at th e time the object was made. In s hort, this beast was a case study of th e techn ologmetal casting during the Han period. W ith this knowledge in ha nd a nd a certainty of da ting, the owas then published and offered for sale. I shall always remember my first impression of this noble bthe first time I placed it in my hands. Subsequently, the beast was auctioned at Sotheby's in L ond oJune 1998 and reached a winning bid of US$389,600. Perhaps someday I will have the op po rtu nihandle this wonderful beast again.Only once i n m y career have I sold a jade object which I could trace from the raw boulder t

creation as a work of art by Imperial order. Its passage through two hundred years of wars, revolutieconom ic upheavals an d the curious cycles of the O riental art m arket was well docu me nted. In 1774Qianlong Em peror received a boulder of n ephrite jade as tribute from the Xinjiang region inhabitenative Muslim tribes. The Emp eror examined the b oulder and suggested to his court artists tha t a cov

Figure 4 Qianlong ase

vase be made in an archaistic Cfanggu design which he prefe(Figure 4). A year later the vase was completed an d w as prepfor review by the Emperor. He was so pleased with the result opalace workshop that the Emperor ordered a poem he compto be adde d to the vase. Fortunately, the inscription is date d 1The archives of the Qianlong Emperor survive, and this with description is contained within this ten thousand document.In 1860, the jade vase was removed from the Sum me r Paby British troops and made its way to London. After pasthrough several collections, the vase was sold by S pink a nd SoJuly 1940 to a n American collector in Los Angeles. Fro m the hof this collector the vase eventually made its way into my haTo my knowledge, as incredible as it seems, no on e in recen t tibothered to translate the remarkable inscription. The QianlEm peror reveals his inner though ts by admiring th is treasu

tribute from Khotan with its body covered with den se ancpatterns.This Em peror, arguably the greatest collector in history, rediscovers his love of the an cie nt liteclassics. Today this outstanding vase which has survived so much is now in the collection of a jcollector living n China. It ha s, in fact, traveled full circle.I learned a lot from having this stately vase pass through my hands. Art follows wealth, andwealthiest nation sets the taste in collecting. In the E ighteenth century, China with its Imp eria l wealth power dictated the working of this vase. In the Nineteenth century, the British Empire grewprom inence an d the a rt wo rld revolved aro un d London. After World War 11, Am erican collectors eag

acquired Chinese art. American museu ms actively scoured the world looking for marv elous objects totheir galleries. Today, wh en stand in the ceiltrai hail o i h new Shanghai hl us eu n~ , see thc futurcollecting in my field. Perhaps in my lifetime, many of the best works of a rt will return to th coun trtheir origin. This jade vase speaks volumes ab out th e foibles of history which a re reflected in art.

The fifth an d last object of virtue is a relatively small but exquisitely rende red op en -w ork yeljade pend ant (Figure 5) which has been exhibited in four American museum exhibitions this pas t decaFormerly in the collection of my colleague, the H ong K ong based ar t dealer Gerald Godfrey, it was offein O ctobe r of 1995 at auction. When I received my catalogue, I had it in m ind to acq uire a fond ling pifor myself. Although I knew I was breaking my rule of no t collecting in my area of busine ss, I decidedgo for it. I remem ber waking up at a.m. in the mornin g and bidding from my hom e in San Franciby telephone.

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The bidding on the previous lots of interest went wellabove the pre-sale estimates. I had not been successful in anyother bidding before the dragon penda nt came up toward the endof the sale. I suspe cted that the local Hong Kong collectors werein a bidding frenzy to buy up as much of Gerald's collection ofjades as possible. I was frustrated and sure that the yellow dragonpen dan t would go fo r several times the high estimate. The auctionhouse representative asked me if I wanted to bid. The rapid firebidding on the previous lots had moved faster than my tired,sleepy brain could keep up with, but I said, "yes, bid the next;llirenlent." The piece w s aobv at ;ta high ~ 5 t i 1 l l ~ t ~ ,nC t ,vL~ :n y 7bid. Suddenly, she said, "Cong ratulations, the lot is yours." I wasspeechless. I ow ne d the yellow pendant It was hard to go to sleepafter that experience.

In a few days the pendant arrived safely and I eagerlyopened the box. y first impression was that it was larger andmore powerful in person than in the photography. I was totally Figure 5. YellowJade ragon Pendantdelighted with my acquisition, piece number one in my personalcollection of jade.

A month later a good friend and client from the South Seas came to visit in San Francisco. Helooked around the gallery and as he began to take his leave, I pulled the yellow dragon pendant frominside my pocket to show to him . The m ome nt I placed it in his hand, I knew that I had made a terriblemistake. He had to ow n this remarkable object. Next, I heard the words that I dreaded . He wanted to givethis pend an t to h is wife who, like myself, was bor n in the year of the drago n. As a dealer, it is hard to sayno, as my good friend kindly pointed out.Reluctantly, I agreed and qu oted price and shoo k hands. heartbroken. Four years went by an d at:ach opportunity 1 would mention to my client that I wanted to buy back my good luck piece. He wouldpolitely shake his head an d sho ulde rs saying, "But my wife, she likes the dragon very much . It is no tpossible."One afternoon in February 1999, I saw my client's wife waiting in the lobby of my building for ataxi. I walked over to her to say hello. She an d her husb and had just arrived from P aris and wou ld be inSan Francisco for a week. I invited her to visit my gallery in the Fairmont Hotel. Then, thinking I had

nothing to loose, I asked h er if I might re-acquire the dragon pendant. She replied that she would comewith her hus ban d t o m y gallery. The following week my clients called to m ake an ap poin tme nt to d rop by.I was nervous as the a ppointed time approached. On time, they came in ho lding a distinctive smallgreen box with my company name on it. My client's wife opened the box and took out the pendant andplaced it in my ha nd . "Perhaps you have someth ing for me to choose and I will retu rn your good luck to

YOU." I said, "You may pick o ut a nything you wish fro m my gallery. I will agree to anything." After an hou r,my client and his wife selected a Han period wooden tom b figure. As they left, she turn ed to m e an d said,YOU can now relax. You have you r goo d luck drag on again."

How rig ht she was in h er observation. Dealers are often collectors and co llectors sometim es fancythemselves as dealers. However, whatever color hat you wear, we are all human s with needs to be m et a ndexpectations to be fulfilled. I am honored to have handled these five remarkable works of art. Each isunique in its own way. Each has taught me much about myself, my business and about human nature ingeneral. I am especially pleased to sh are these objects and my experiences with you.

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ook at Scientific Testing of ade

P rhaps it is symptom atic of the age in which we live that we look t o science and th e technology thpropels to find answers to our questions about art. Recently, there have been attempts to apscientifically derived techniques to the dating an d evaluation o f ancient Chinese jade. In 1999, a E uropauction house mounted a sale of jade objects in which it is claimed that t w o years of research winvested int o confirming the auth enti city o f this imp ort ant collection. A a result il nettJscientific methoestablish the au the nti cit y of ancien t jades has been developed.

Th e basis of this "new scientific meth od" consists of an examination of the tool m arkings presan d analysis of the evidence of wea thering. Weathering is defined as the n atur al process of the alteratof the surface of jade. The sale catalogue states that sometimes in archaeological finds where weathering may be traced the question is raised of how to establish the ase of the object. The catalogue continues, Esscrltiall~:f a ade ol~iccr zas 1 1 0 cllidcrrcc o f \veatlrcr-irrg- ~ o ~ ~ r c th ii r gi~lricI7 illllzodetcnnirlc d wit11 tllc llakcd C,VC it 17111jt d i l t ~i 0111 ~\'itlliila t ill ~e r(~clict 1 J ~ C [ I I ; 111 S I ~ I I Cappraisal q the wol-king teclzrriqrles an d stylistic ilssessnzent ~ I Z L ~ S ~C relied L ~ ~ O I Z .he catalogue con tinwith the admonition that c v c y , collector sl~ozlld llnke use o f a nzicr-oscopc. Th is i.; the .first stage i rscielltifir flnflll~sij.''

In revie\vins the various scientific testing techniques developed over the past twent). yeaseveral procedures have evolved into com mo n use. Th er n~ al unlinescence (T Li is the emission of lifrom an insulatol. or senii-condu ctor when it is heated . TL datin g is limited b the respo nse of samples tha t are a\lailable. Th e response is checked by irrad iating the sa mp le with a s tandard o r knosource of radiation prior to measurement of its TL. This calibration procedure enables the TL sensiti\of the material to be determined. Such a calibration, along with the m easured natural TL of the sam penables a deternlination of age.

Th is testing p rocedu re, however, may be defeated by fakers \+rho mix old er materials w ith nAlso, it does not have applicabilitjr to jade works of art. Another technique used is X-ray Fluorescenwhich yields information about the constituent elements, but does not yield age data. ElectrSpectroscopy (ESCA) is another way of analyzing the surface of an object and of its elemental make-This has been used successfully by Dr. Wen Guang in testing excavated jades from archaeological sithroug hout China [See the article, "Mineralogical Inqu iries into Chinese Neolithic Jades" publishedTh e Journal of Chinese Jade. 1996. S. Bernstein, edito r]. However, despite th ese claims of a n ew m eth odauthenticate the date of man ufacture of jade, the con sensus of art historians a nd scientists that th e aut hcanvassed is that there is no t, at the p resent time, a reliable scientific basis alone for the d ating of a wo rkpae oD leit.

The verisimilitude of results from the testing procedures may result when scientific testing alois applied to the dating of jade. It is the author's opin ion that while it is adm irable to ap ply scientitesting techniques to jade, the observer m ust unde rstand its limitations a nd place these proce dures i nan overall methodology of stylistic as well as physical review. Science must go hand in hand with historianship. The art historian has the visual ability to understand an object within its cultural ahistorical context. Scientific applications within this framework support the conclusions of the historian, not vice versa. If the results of such testing d o not sup po rt these assum ptions, then fur thenqu iry must be m ade to explain the discrepancy. In t he auction catalogue men tioned, this key elem e

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of ar t historianship in setting th e age parameters is missing. Professor James Cahill remark ed du rin g therecent symposium Isstles o fA ut hcn tic ity i n Chinese P~zinting, eld at the Me tropolitan M useum , New York,in December, 1999, that in addit io n to scientific measurem ent we should "not forget to look at thepainting." What is a scientist to test for if the object before him sits with no reference points in anhistorical context or archaeological background? Those individuals who produce fakes are amazinglyproficient at adapting t o th e nu anc es of scientific testing [See the author's essay "Fishing in the Jade Pon d"in this volume, pages 20-211.

It is correct think ing t ha t th e art historian w ho has the benefit of supp ort ing scientific analysis ofthe art object may produce a c learly reasoned and published description which adds to the body ofresearch. Based on v i s ~ l n lnnnlvsis :.done one i a n see a lmost : lnvthinz without some archaeolo~icallvderived point of reference. Herein lies the flaw in this latest attempt to date jade works or 21 1scientifically. There is a popular misconception that scientific testing is somehow "objective" while arthistory is "subjective." Clearly this is not the case. It is the interpretation of the results which requiresexpertise. Reliable results de pe nd o n a com pariso n with a control gr oup.

In t he case of jade, th is consists of comp arative analysis of the results to similar testing procedu reso n scientificallv excavated jade s. A significant exam ple of analysis of scientifically excavated jades a re tho sefro m the tom b of the Western King of Nanyue discovered in Guangzhou in Guandong Province in 1984.Results of scientific testing suggest that the jade used to work the jades have a similar consistency ofchemical makeup ; i.e., the m aterial originated from the same source. Nowhere within the results is therea claim of precise dating of the weathering of these obiects recovered bv Chinese archaeologists. 1,loreimp ortant ly, there is no basis tor the ar bitrar v parameter of 1000 vears for surface alteration to take placeo n a jade s tone.

abor atory test c on du ct ed by scientists at the CTniversity of ;intw erp in 1995 successfullv in ducedsurface effect on jade over a p erio d of several m ont hs expo sure to a tomb-like environment. The resultsdem onstra ted that s u r f ~ i e ilteration ioulci be induced in a relatively short tim e dur;ition of severalmonths. To quote the published paper of the experiment. "T il is 111rl111s t/ l ~ l t/l e prosCrs nlkc-s ,7/rlcr overrelatively short period o f t i ine (i .e. , ril lring tl ~ c n o r l d ~ slllzt the blrr icli bodies deioi~lpose . h is t q l r l i ~ l ~v11)1there is no iorrel~ztionbet~veetl llc 'iegree ofrrlterrltiorr 1111iii le rlye o f the object or t i ~ eeizgll o f rime it 5been buried. It is, rather, 11 fiinction of the exte nt and Jtirrztion of'sontrzct betwe en t he object L Z L ~ he cllk~llinesolution izi~iiire ~iiicrorrrrr trrre q ft ir e iair ~rm l.'' Results publ ished in Ciiinesr Jade iznd scroll Pn in tin gf ror nthe Dongxi iollectioi.~, icole De Bisscop. Kredietbank, N.V. 19% Brussels. Pp. 73-74] .

W ith out th e in pu t of the ar t historian or archaeologist, it is far too easv for scientific testing results:o be misinterpreted. This does disservice to both ,irt historianship and scientific inquiry and adverselyaffects the jade nlarket worldtvide bv creating the im pression of scientific infallibility. Com pariso n w itharchaeologically derived examples remains our strongest and most potent analytical tool. Science alonedoes no t provide a panacea for answering ou r questions abo ut the absolute dating of jade w orks of art.

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ishing in the Jade Pond

e of the precise indicators of an upw ardly mobile art market is an increase in sp urious works oFakers, above all, are denizens of the marketplace. It may truthfully be said that fakes delineateevolutio n of taste an d fads in collecting with su rprising precision. Th ei r creation is a response to de mwhich is an ever-changing reflection o f hum an desires. Further, fakes provide an un derstand ing ofpeople wh o make the m an d those for who m th e fakes are mad e.

Chinese jade is at the present time experiencing an increase in d em and and th e attention of bbe gin nin g collectors an d conno isseurs alike. Following each wave of archaeo logical discover : sp urcopies haire entered the marketplace. A subtle difference, however, has emerged which separatespresen t from past trend s in faker .. .An increase in technological soph istica tion has been b rou ght to on th e efforts of the fakers. Scholars in o the r disciplines, such as C hine se m etalwork an d po rcelain, hbe m oa ne d th e fact that fakers are often one step ahead of the academ ics an d dealers \vho catch on to thIt is a dubious tribute to the ingenuity of the human mind that enables the faker to simulate bothob vio us an d m ore s ubtle tell-tale signs of authenticity.

Sadl ., each so c ie t~ .nd seneration fakes the art it covets most. Roman copies of Greek sculpkept generations of sculptors basicall - pro duc ing both imitations a n d copies. In o ur o\i7n lifetime,\vorks of Picasso, Degas, I

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From experience, most buyers know that the price paid for a seeming bargain cannot be forthe real thing. T hey are buying an illusion a nd delude themselves. This is the faker s main weapon inperp etratin g h is fraud on the collector. If the work is too good to be true, then it usually is.

Th e buyer of the fake keeps the faker in business. The real loss resulting from the discovery of afake is not only monetary. For the person cheated, it loosens the hold on our perception andund erstan ding of the past. One of the strongest tools a collector possesses for uncovering fakes is the mostobvious. T his is simply the fact that a faker, whether h e copies, imitates, o r replicates, can never a ssum ethe mind-set of the artist of an original work and period. Fakers add flourishes and details withoutreally und ersta ndin g the symbolism an d purpo se beh ind th e original concept. Familiarity with jades of aparticular period enables the iolleitor to uilcierstand wh y ~1i i~ r ti s t sed certain moti q : I< 1veJJ < t h estylistic an d physical approach to the jade.

Finally, o u r concept of au thenticity depends on the relationship between the work of art itself andthe pe riod to which it is attributed. Determination of authenticity requires a methodology coun ting on aconsistency of bo th stylistic and physical analysis of the object. Looking at the work of ar t with a criticaleye is the nu m be r o ne defense for detecting fakery.

It is misleading to think that scientific advances and scholarly expertise alone can solve allproblems. However, an open, questioning mind can eliminate many of the more obvious pitfalls. Askyourse lf, is this work of a rt convincing? Is it stylistically an d physically consistent? What is the ar tisttrying to convey? Does the object exhibit logicality? Does it m ake sense? Be cautious, selective, an dassume the work of art is guilty until proven correct. The thrill and passion of collecting outweighs itsnegative side. Never for a mom ent let the faker deny you the pleasu re of collecting. We are all seekers oftruth ab ou t works of art and the direct link with those who made them.

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Neolithic Jade Blades: Feast and itual

M ch of what we know about early Chinese jade is undergoing change in light of recearchaeological discoveries. This article will focus on jade ritual blades specifically, reflecting on oarea of Neolithic jade working. Using individual examples, I will suggest a fresh approa ch t o the study anevaluation of ritual blades that is based upo n the most cur rent thinking. Th e jade collector ma y find thm e th od ol oa practical and beneficial in understanding the significance an d chronological history of thart form.

Neolithic Cu ltur e c. 6000- 1600BCHo ngsh an culture c. 4000-2200 BCDawenkou culture c. 4500-2300 BC

Sha ndon g Longshan c. 3000- 1700BC

Jade Blades Mirror N eolithic C ultureNeolithic jade blade s serve' as an arch aeol ogic

mirror of e ar ly ~h in es e u l tu re . The obvious impor tancassociated with them is intr iguing. T he prist incondition of m an )- jade blades suggests that they hasome social significance, rather than functioning as purely utilitarian tool. Blades were created wit

Xia dynasty c. 2 100- 1600 BCErlitou culture c. 1900- 1600 BC

i anazhu 2400-12 0 RCdifficult . of workin g \vit I~ he iade stone. ther e m us t bsome other conlpelling motivation for the great respecand careful attention that Neolithic artists attacheto their subject matter. By 3500 BC, various distinc

specialized attributes that seem to for m a foun dation foerr] i,lde-\vorl;ing r e i i ~ n o l i l g ) . Asid< trom the estrem

A New Archaeological M odel

Shang dynasty c. 1600-1 100 BC

The symbolic use of Neolithic blades allows us to categorize and study various types. This ikno\vn as typology and is essential to furthering our understanding of the subject, by establishincriteria with whic h we define artifac ts by their use. In this brief article we will refer t o jade blades in socio-technic context in ord er to better- understand blades in the sphe re o f social relations. This stu dcontr asts with a purely technical, or utilitarian use.

jade-working cultures in China appear to be devotinsisnificant amo unt s of wealth an d artistic effort towar

The student of Chinese iade may become aware of the significance and function of Neolithicblades througll t l l t lol lo~111gllilldeOlOglCdl llluilrl M l l l i l l ~ c l l iUL ~ ~ L I ~ ~ L C G0 O U 1 c l 1 L ' ~ . L : hlud). TI11archaeological mo del is elegantly introd uced by Brian Hayden, aut ho r of Archaeology The Science of Onctzd Future Tl~ings, ublished by W H Freeman Company, 1993 This mode l appe ars simultaneousl

in a worldwide geographical context which suggests parallel development in diverse Neolithic culturewith similar behavior. Dr. Hayden provides convincing argume nts for the veracity of this mo del, whichexplains the im porta nce, use, an d significance in a larger social role.

the creation of blades.

The Feasting an d "Big Man" M odelBrian H ayden, in Arclzneology The Science of Otrcc and tlturc Things, proposes an elaboration o

what h e terms the "Big Man" Com plex an d the Feasting Model. Simply stated, the social elites, or "Big

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men emerge as a powerful force in Neolithic cultures. These individuals developed a com mun ity'sresources by providing the incentive for increased production through economic competit i on. On eactivity associated with this econo mi c competition is ritual feasting. Th e num be r and quality of the potsan d implem ents required by this activity provided the incentive to produce more in order to susta in thecompetitive activity of e nter tain ing each other. These objects evolved into highly prized, elaborate worksof art. Th e incidence of pott ery vessels an d ritual jades du ring the Neolithic period in C hinese historysustains this view. Th e predo mi nate use of these magnificent objects was for food and dr ink , an d mostimpo rtantly, the enha ncem ent o f one's prestige.

T h e Biq Man mod el is built upon the idea that ambitious men could increase social andecon om ic status by organizi ng the co mi nun ity s teasts. AS big h1sn sou grlt co out-clo dii c)cllcl.s L , ~ ~ o u s ~these gatherings, they gained pow er by control ling the p roductio n of food an d resources. All gifts receivedby the honored individual(s) at a feast had to be repaid with interest. Therefore, in the spirit ofcomp etition, each feast was mo re lavish than the last. This model is suppor ted bv the custom of burvingprestige objects with a few m ale adults from Neolithic comm unities, and by the discovery of speciakzedfeasting and ritual implements. The excavation of Neolithic toinbs belonging to Chinese individuals ofelevated status have vielded the richest discoveries of these implements.

The Liangzhu culture (c . 3400-2250 BC) practice o t publicly displayed destr uction thro ughb u rn in g burial of surplus wealth was one means of exhibiting power and success. This elaborateburial practice \vas for the benefit of the living don~in;lntg rou p , ~ n d o n t i rn ~ e d h e p o we r o f th edeceased's living supporters as a competit ive group .Role of Jade Blades in t he F easting Model

Jade blades are evidence of th e i m po rta nt practice of exchanging prestigious gifts in the feastingrituals of Neolithic Chinese cultures. The eschunse of gifts of high intrinsic value :lnd the resulting debtto be repaid by the recipie nt was an i mp or tan t fe ature of Neolithic societies. Jade blades ivere ;I reflection

rlchie~.ed,ather than clscribed,status. This is :In important ditfsrentiation in the c ~ . o i u t i o ~ ~t ' t l ~

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Figure 2. Detai l of Harves t ing Blade Figure 3 Deta i l of H a r ves t i n g B l a d eO th er Aspects of Jade Neolithic Blades

Jade blades as prestige obiects tell us quite a lot about wh at Neolithic cul ture was like. T h e usblades as gift obbiects between "Bis M en" shows o ne aspect of social orga nizat ion. An oth er ex citin g development of social significance is the awareness that distinct individual Neolithic cultures in Cexisted side bv side, overlapping and forming a tapestry of interaction. Indeed, relationships interaction betiyeen cultures is docum ented h the appearance o iade blades and potter - in buria l toof Neolithic cultures. For example, an illustration in GCIIIS LIC II?~ ZIII II I I ~ L I I . ~ ,h o ~ l s D a w e ncultu re (c. 4500-2300 BC) potte ry article that was fou nd in a Lianszhu culture tom b of a social elite.

The duration and se o~ ra ph ica l pread of influence is no\v much better understood as a resulth e discover . o blades. Furt her, the natur e of I-cligiousbeliefs and the importailce of ritual is appaand extends back in t ime much earl ier than p~-e~,iousl? .hought. No\\*,we vjl examine in deraildevelopm ent of blade technology.A Typolo gy of N eolithic Blades

Let us esamine first-hand several iade blades which may have served as prestige gifts in feasting ritual. AS previousl~. ientinned, blades are classified b ~ .haracteristics such as type, materphysical conditio n a nd pa rticu lar attr ibute s. Several 17er)~ apable auth ors have explored specific aspeof the sculptural development of Neolithic jade art. I t is beneficial to briefly review the more salsubiects, which will provide a backdrop to our jade blade discussion.

Angus Forsy th has au thored in format ive a r t icle , "Five Ch ine se JFigures" (Orie?~tntio?zs, ay 1 990), explo rth e wo rk ma n s h ip a n d c h a ra c te r i s t i c s

.. Hongshan cultu re (c. 4000-3500 BC job iec ts . Of pa r t icu la r in te res t i s

Figure 4. Trapezo ida l K ni fe Hongshan culture jades. Mr. Forsvth aPl~ oto olirte5y o The Arthur M. Sarkler Mtueuni mentions that th e beveled hole te chniq ueHarvard Lnini,lersit ,ArtMlrsclrms, Bequest o f Grenville L. Wiilthropreside11 arid Fello~vs f Harvard Collcsc, Harva rd U~~ivel .sit l

no t used on Hongshan jades. Th is susgest

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possible de term ina tion of the origin of early and later Neolithicjades based o n ho le types.

The remarkable, elongated blade illustrated in Figure 1,which measures 50 c m (20 in) is know n JS a duo or ritual-formharvesting blade. Derivative examples of this form are well knownin Sha ndon g-Lo ngsha n culture (c. 2300- 1700 BC), Erlitou cu lture(c. 1900-1600 BC), and Shang cul ture (c. 1600-1100 BC).However, this example exhibi ts some character is t ics whichprovide insight into artistic development in Neolithic China. Ina ji t ldn , :he ,ubjcc: j i :hi: '- -:': '-:. 7 7 f T ~ . c c c x ; l trcj ~tritharvesting and, therefore, is a powerful symbol for a feastingritual.

The actual origin of the d ~ l on Figure is mu ch earliertha n prev iously believed. Figure 2 shows a close-up view of som edesign elements that provide important clues. The holes areevenly spaced and are biconicallv drilled from either side of the Figure 5. Longshan Culture ladeblade at an angle, meeting in the middle. This hole formingtechniq ue ha s left a narrow ch ann el with an offset ridge that is not polished o ut. According to thepreviously mentioned article on hole formation, this is indicative of an earlier form of hole drilling.

In earlier periods, holes were more easily drilled from an angle, rather than straight through.Perhaps, wh en 'ipplied at such an angle, primitive drilling tools were mo re resistant to breakage. Technicalrefinements in later periods resulted in new hole-forming techniques as evidenced by straight holes inblades. T he early hole type on this tirzo ma?. reflect date of i . 4000-3000 BC. Furthe r, this biconical holeis not seen in later Erlitou or Shan g blade examples. O ne may conclude that technology in Neolithic Ch inaevolved verv slowly an d graduallv over an estend ed period of time.

;\nother clue to Neolithic technological development is the geometric pattern, detailed in Figure3 , on the early harvesting blade. S o t e the faintly etched Jn d well-spaced lines with very little slipping oroversh oot o f th e line. Th e shallow, intersecting lines are reminiscent of those enco unte red as decorationon Ho ng sha n cu ltur e jades. Th e etched line is precise, econo mica l, an d faintly executed so as not tointrude on th e sculptural torm of the object itself , s im il ~ r lade dat ing from the Shang perioddemonstrates a heavier, more aggressive line and compressedpattern not as precisely rendered with overshoots of the lines.See Wen Fon g, Tlzr GI-eatBrorzze Age ~ ~ CI I I IZ L I ,ages 8 2 4 3 , plate

3 . ) It is clear tha t alth oug h the ele men ts are similar between thesetwo blades, there is clearly a gradual evolution in technologywhich re sults in dis tinct differences in execution.

In con trast, the elegant blade depicted in Figure 4 shows alarge trapezoidal knife with notched edges, presently in theHarvard Universi ty Art Museum. This dist inguished bladexeasu res 61 cm 24 in) in length. The clear straight throughdrilled holes and vertical notches would suggest a late Shang orWestern Z ho u date 1200- 1100 BC). This blade demon strates awell-established characteristic in Chinese jade workman ship o f alater period emulat ing a familiar form from an earlier period.The re is no do ub t tha t this blade's for m and design elements aredescended fro m th e blade il lustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 6. Shang lade

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Figure 7 Dawenkou lade

Th e rema rkable , estremel - thin blade sho wn in figure dem onst rate s a11othc.1.hole-formtechniqu e; a straight-throu gh conical hole pierced fr om o ne side. This neatly form ed a nd finished of hole is indicative of Longshan culture work man ship. The roun ded shoulders and thin profile oblade (t his blade measures onl 7 nim at the thickest po in t) are distinctive characteristics of rem arkbeaut .. T he re\tel-stxidc* lio\\ \nn ofkc't edge \rhich indiiaies the artist attempted t c ~ ake the b lr~d?thin ner This technique required slicing the boulder- from on c direction, then from t he other. At th e pwhere the two cuts meet, there is usually a slight ledge or o ffset. The next stase invohred sh apin gfin ishi ns the edges with either a bevel or slightl . ro un de d f orm .

O ne ma . contras t this Neolithic app roa ch with th e sturd . axe blade show n in Figure 6 of Shorigin. It is, in fact, the successor to the Longshan cultu re blade described above. No te the som e\coarser hole openin g which is, again, conically drilled from on e side. Th e bod\. of the b lade is propo rtioned and gentl . tapers towards the cut tin s edse, resulting in a pleasing an d fun ctional shBlades of this type often served as practical tools, as well as ceremonial implements; the wear onleading edges show s eiridence of this. The thickness is consider able, giving weight an d soli dity to the bl

third variant hole type is illustrated in Figure 7. This is a Dawenkou culture blade measur34.3 cm (13-112 in) in length. Note the perfectly executed hole which is pierced str aish t thro ugh . bod y of the blade is thin and the edges are beveled. Wh ile a num be r of blades of this type are kno wn ,is an especially fine example in term s of size, colorati on an d finish. After a com parative s tudy of ththree early blades, the reader mav arrive at the conclusion th at, am on g othe r characteristics, the typhole plays an imp ortant par t in determ inins or igin and date .Conclusion

Recent discoveries of jade blades in Neolithic period archaeological sites have resulted isignificant shift in ou r understan ding of the im por tanc e and use of these objects. Blades evolvedprestige objects which t he social elite exchanged as gifts in com petitive social feasting in o rd er t o incrematerial produ ction and attain status. Burial with individuals indicates the emergence of the conce pown ed property. Elaborate burial ritual for these "Big M en7' or social elites was an im po rta nt aspecNeolithic society. It enabled the dom inan t living gro up to confirm th e power of suppo rter s of deceased as a competitive group.

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We have examined several actual examples of jade Neolithic blades and their characteristics toarrive at a typology. Th e type of hole, shape, size and physical material create characteristics by whichblades may be classified. This classification system may be applied to identify specific geographicallocations of artistic development.

Inde ed, jade blades were a powerful symbol of w ealth, power, and prestige in early hum an culture.Today, jade blades serve as a mirr or reflecting to us the texture a nd beauty of Neolithic Chinese culture.

For Further ReadingChild s- Jo hn so n, Elizabeth. Dragon s, M asks, Axes an d Blades. Orientations , April 1988. Pages 30-41.?? rns tein , S. Chinese Jadefrom Dis tant Centzrries, Ca talog ue One. San Francisco: S. Bernstein Co., 1992.Bernstein, S. Chinese Ar tfro nl D istan t Cerztt~ries, olume Two. San Francisco: S. Bernstein Co., 1993.Forsyth, Angu s. Five Chin ese Jade Figures. Orientations , May 1990. Pages 54-63.Ha yden, Brian. Archaeology The Science of Once a n d Fr it~ rre hings. W H. Freeman Com pany, 1993.;I\vang-c hih Ch an g. The 14rc/zrzt.oloyyof Aizcierzt Clzina. New Haven: Yale Univers ity P ress, 1986.The Shanghai Museum and the Urban Council. Gems q Lia11gzl11~Cz~ltz~re. ong Kong: M useum ofHistory, 1992.Sun Shouda and G uo D ashun. Questions Conce rning the Origins of the Dragon and Settlement of theLiao River Valley. LVen~vzr,1984, Volume 6. Pages 11 17,30.

i n Fong, ed. Tlze Greizt Bronze Aye of' Clzina. New York: The hletropolitan hluseum of Art, Altred A.L