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Sex Roles, Vol. 15, Nos. 9/10, 1986 Children's Assumptions About the Generalizability of Sex-Typed Abilities I Arnie Cann 2 and Susan Palmer University of North Carolina at Charlotte Children (mean age = 103 months) were provided with information about the relative abilities of two stimulus children at a specific activity. They then were asked to predict which child would likely be superior at a second highly related activity. The two stimulus children were either same sex or opposite sex, and the activities in each pair were sex typed as male or female. The design was a 2 (sex of subjecO x 2 (age of subjecO x 4 (stimulus pair- MM, FF, MF, FM) x 2 (sex type of activities) mixed design, with sex of subject and age of subject as the between-subjects factors. Each child respond- ed to 32 instances, representing four replications of eight possible combina- tions. The dependent variable was the child's choice of the initially superior child or initially inferior child as better at the second activity. The predic- tion was that children would be less likely to assume that superiority could generalize to a second activity if the initial superiority contradicted sex- stereotyped expectations. This result would indicate that sex stereotypes in- terfere with inferences processes, supporting a scehmatic model of sex stereotyping. The results were consistent with the prediction. Compared to a baseline condition in which sex stereotypes were not relevant, children were less likely to choose the initially superior child when the sex stereotype had been violated, and more likely to select that child when it had been confirmed. Sex stereotypes and the sex-typing processes are increasingly being viewed from an information-processing perspective. This view considers the ~The authors would like to extend their appreciation to the principal, teachers, and students of Park Road Elementary School. This research was supported in part by funds from the Foundation of the University of North Carolina at Charlotte and from the State of North Carolina. 2Requests for reprints should be addressed to the Arnie Cann, Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, North Carolina 28223. 551 0360-0025/86/1100-0551 $05.00/0 © 1986Plenum Publishing Corporation

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Page 1: Children's assumptions about the generalizability of sex-typed abilities

Sex Roles, Vol. 15, Nos. 9/10, 1986

Children's Assumptions About the Generalizability of Sex-Typed Abilities I

Arnie Cann 2 and Susan Palmer University o f North Carolina at Charlotte

Children (mean age = 103 months) were provided with information about the relative abilities o f two stimulus children at a specific activity. They then were asked to predict which child would likely be superior at a second highly related activity. The two stimulus children were either same sex or opposite sex, and the activities in each pair were sex typed as male or female. The design was a 2 (sex o f subjecO x 2 (age o f subjecO x 4 (stimulus p a i r - MM, FF, MF, FM) x 2 (sex type o f activities) mixed design, with sex o f subject and age o f subject as the between-subjects factors. Each child respond- ed to 32 instances, representing f our replications o f eight possible combina- tions. The dependent variable was the child's choice o f the initially superior child or initially inferior child as better at the second activity. The predic- tion was that children would be less likely to assume that superiority could generalize to a second activity i f the initial superiority contradicted sex- stereotyped expectations. This result would indicate that sex stereotypes in- terfere with inferences processes, supporting a scehmatic model o f sex stereotyping. The results were consistent with the prediction. Compared to a baseline condition in which sex stereotypes were not relevant, children were less likely to choose the initially superior child when the sex stereotype had been violated, and more likely to select that child when it had been confirmed.

Sex stereotypes and the sex-typing processes are increasingly being viewed from an information-processing perspective. This view considers the

~The authors would like to extend their appreciation to the principal, teachers, and students o f Park Road Elementary School. This research was supported in part by funds from the Foundat ion o f the University o f North Carolina at Charlotte and from the State of North Carolina.

2Requests for reprints should be addressed to the Arnie Cann, Department of Psychology, University o f North Carolina, Charlotte, North Carolina 28223.

551

0360-0025/86/1100-0551 $05.00/0 © 1986 Plenum Publishing Corporation

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emergence of sex stereotypes to be the result of normal cognitive processes. Martin and Halverson (1981) have proposed a model of sex typing in children, which assumes that a schema guides the processing of sex role information. Based on the extensive literature on schematic processing (e.g., Alba & Hasher, 1983; Taylor & Crocker, 1981), they identified the logic and the likely implications of a sex-typing schema. Schema function to regulate behavior, organize information processing, and guide inference making. If sex stereotypes operate as a schema, then they should influence behavioral choices, leading to sex-typed preferences. Stereotypes also should impact on memory, facilitating the processing of sex role consistent stimuli but interfer- ing with sex role inconsistent data. Additionally, sex stereotypes should play a role in determining the inferences drawn concerning sex role relevant deci- sions, producing predictions and attributions consistent with the stereotypes.

Evidence supporting the first two impacts of a sex-stereotype schema has been provided through early research, which can be interpreted within a schema framework and by more reccent research stimulated by the schema model. Children do choose activities and objects that match sex-typed beliefs (e.g., DeLucia, 1963; Liebert, McCall, & Henratty, 1971; Nadelman, 1974), and they express preferences for stereotyped careers (e.g., Kriedberg, Butcher, & White, 1978; Papalia & Tennent, 1975). Memory processes have been shown to be affected on both recall and recognition tasks, involving either verbal or pictorial information. Children either fail to remember the counterstereotypic portrayal or erroneously claim to have encountered the stereotype-consistent alternative, i.e., a male nurse is recalled as a doctor or as having been a female (e.g., Cann & Newbern, 1984; Koblinsky, Cruse, & Sugawara, 1978; Liben & Signorella, 1980; Martin & Halverson, 1983).

The third function served by schema, guiding inference and interpreta- tions, has received less attention. In making attributions, or when generaliz- ing beyond the information given when sex roles are relevant, do sex stereotypes influence the conclusions? One recent investigation touched on this issue having children make predictions about the relative competence of two different sex individuals presented as performing the same sex typed occupational role (Cann & Garnett, 1984). Since both stimulus persons were described as engaged in the same job, the child could assume equal ability, a reasonable attribution given no other information. If, however, the sex stereotype guided the inference, differential competence would be based on sex-typed expectations- if the occupation was stereotyped as female, a female must be superior, etc. Children did make attributions biased in the direction of sex-stereotype consistency, attributing greater competence to the sex role consistent performer.

Recent research with adults suggests that sex stereotypes might have a diminished impact when specific behavioral information is provided about an individual. Locksley, Borgida, Brekke, and Hepburn (1980), and Deaux

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and Lewis (1984), report that the influence of gender information on in-

ferences about traits and behaviors is nearly eliminated when information about the individual's behavioral style is available. For example, knowing that a person had behaved assertively on one occasion was more influential than gender information in determining predictions of future behaviors (Locksley et al., 1980). Perhaps if children are told about the specific abilities of individuals they too will rely on that information rather than on gender information in making inferences.

The present study is intended to extend the evidence for sex-stereotyped impacts on inferences by testing this prediction. Children are provided with information about the relative abilities of two children at a specific activity and asked to predict their likely abilities at a second related activity. For ex- ample, the child would be told that "Mary is better than John at football ' and would be asked to predict who would be better at soccer. The pairs of stimulus children are varied to include same-sex and different sex sets, and the activities are selected to include equal numbers sex-typed male and female. The prediction is that the children will be less likely to make the logical generalization of continued superiority across similar activities when the in- itial information about competencies indicates a counterstereotypic relation- ship. When both logic and stereotypes lead to the same conclusion, the logical generalization will be readily made.

M E T H O D

Overview

Children were presented with pictures of pairs of same-sex or different-sex children and were told that one child was superior to the other at a sex-typed ac- tivity. The children were asked to indicate which child would likely be better at a second activity previously rated as similar to the first. The resulting design was a 2 (sex of child) x 2 (age of child) x 4 (sex composition of stimulus p a i r - F F , MM, FM, MF) x 2 (sex type of activity), with sex of child and age of child as the between-groups variables. Each child responded to four instances of the eight conditions created, for 32 total trials per child.

Subjects

The participants were 45 children from the second and third grades of a local elementary school. The children ranged in age from 84 to 122 months, with an average age of 103 months. The children were divided into two age

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groups. The younger children (10 males and 13 females) had a mean age of 96.3 months. The older children (12 males and 10 females) had a mean age of 110.4 months. All children had returned signed parental consent letters prior to their participation.

Materials

A set of 72 activities appropriate for young children was generated and then pairs of activities thought similar in terms of abilities required and in- terests involved were created. A sample of 30 college students (15 males and 15 females) rated the individual activities on a 7-point scale indicating whether a boy or girl 8 to 10 years old would be more likely to engage in the activity (the scale ranged from boy more likely to girl more likely). They also rated the pairs of activities by judging whether an 8- to 10-year-old who enjoyed and was good at the first activity would enjoy and be good at the second. The scale provided ranged from unlikely (1) to likely (8).

Based on these ratings, 32 pairs of activities (16 pairs sex typed as female and 16 pairs sex typed as male) were selected for presentation to the children. The pairs selected for presentation averaged 5.9 on the rated likelihood of similar ability and interest, and were selected by over 67~/0 of raters as clear- ly sex typed (ratings of 1 or 2, or 6 or 7) for the age of child involved.

Simple line drawings of children were used as stimuli during the ques- tioning. Each drawing showed two children of approximately equal size and stature. The drawings were of two same-sex children or two opposite-sex children, depending upon the trial.

Procedure

Children were tested individually by a 27-year-old female. The child was told, "We are going to play a game. I am going to tell you about some boys and girls and I want you to tell me which one you think is better at an activity. There are no right or wrong answers and this is not a test." After a few examples were given to ensure that the child understood the task, the test stimuli were presented. The 32 pairs of activities were arranged in four replications of eight possible combinations (Sex of Superior Child x Sex of Inferior Child x Sex Type of Activity Pair). Within each replication, a different random order was used. On each trial, the experimenter would in- dicate that the child on the right in the picture was better than the child on the left at the first activity in the pair. She would then ask the child to in- dicate which of the two children was likely to be better at the second activi-

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ty. After the 32 items were completed, the child was asked not to discuss the game with other children and was returned to the classroom.

RESULTS

The children's responses were scored by assigning a "0" when the in- itially superior child was selected or a " I" if the other child in the pair was chosen. Thus, scores could range from 0 to 4, with lower scores indicating that the logical generalization (selection of the superior child) was made with a high frequency. These data were subjected to a 2 x 2 x 4 x 2 analysis of variance, with sex and age of child as between-groups factors, and sex composition of stimulus pair and sex type of task as within subjects factors.

The analysis revealed the predicted interaction involving the sex type of the task and the composition of the stimulus pair, F(3, 122) = 19.26, p < .0001. Table I contains the relevant means. No other interactions or main effects were significant.

The interaction is due to the differential responses when the stimulus pair includes different sex children. Simple-effect tests confirm that when the children are the same sex (MM or FF), there are no differences across task types (Fs < 1). In the pairs where the sex of child varies, the responses vary significantly depending upon the sex type of the task, Fs(l, 122) -- 24.74 and 32.55 for the MF and FM pairs, respectively. The differences are exact- ly those that would be predicted if children use gender information in mak- ing their predictions.

To further clarify the relationships within the interaction, the MM and FF conditions were combined to create a control condition (all same-sex con- ditions) against which the mixed-sex pairs could be evaluated. The mean for the resulting control group was 2.16, and all four of the mixed-sex means differed significantly from it (17 < .01). Relative to a baseline condition in which gender is irrelevant, the initially superior child is chosen more often

Table 1. Interaction Between Sex Type of Task and Sex Composition of the Stimulus Pair °

Sex composition of stimulus pair Sex type of task Male-Male Female-Female Male-Female Female-Male Male 2.07 2.27 1.60 2.82

(1.45) (1.25) (1.36) (1.19) Female 2.18 2.13 2.64 1.62

(1.23) (1.18) (1.17) (l.13)

"The numbers in the cells are the means and standard deviations, respectively. The scores could range from O to 4, with lower scores reflecting more choices of the initially superior child. There were 45 children in each condition.

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when the task is sex appropriate and less often when the task is counterstereotypic. Clearly, the children are not able to ignore the gender information even when specific behavioral data are provided.

DISCUSSION

A schematic model of sex typing, if viable, would provide a meaningful context within which to interpret the emergence and influence of sex stereotypes. Sex-stereotype effects could appropriately be considered the result of normal cognitive processes, and the extensive literature on schematic pro- cessing could be invoked to explain observed effects. Sex stereotypes would no longer be viewed as simple categorization systems in which stimuli are more or less passively stored according to their sex role associations. A sex- typing schema would be an active system influencing attention, retention, and inference processes. Stimuli that activate the schema should be affected by the cognitive context, producing enhanced or distorted processing, depen- ding upon their fit with the schema.

The results obtained in the present study provide necessary support for assuming a scehmatic model. The inferences children made about relative abilities were altered as a function of the sex role relevance and consistency of the information. Using as a baseline the children's inferences when sex was not a distinguishing feature, i.e., when the stimulus children in the pair were the same sex, it is obvious that sex-stereotyped expectations operated to force greater sex role consistency than logic and the data would dictate. The fact that a child had demonstrated superior ability at a related activity apparently was not persuasive enough evidence to support an in- ference of continued superiority if the superiority was inconsistent with sex stereotypes. The content of the schema counteracted the logic implied by the information presented. The child was less willing to generalize the ability across activities. When logic and sex role expectations led to the same con- clusion, the schema-consistent choice was made at a frequency above the baseline and with few exceptions. Again, the schema content affected the conclusion, producing a stronger generalization because of the fit with the schema. Both these deviations from the baseline behavior are predictable within the schematic model.

Children, as contrasted with adults (Locksley et al., 1980), apparently do not ignore gender information when specific individuating data are available. In the absence of a direct comparison, the basis of this difference can only be inferred. The generalization in the present test required accep- ting two instances of deviations from sex-typed expectations. Perhaps adults also would fail to make the generalizations required. Alternatively, it may

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be the case that children, due to a lack of experience, a lack of cognitive complexity, or an inflexibility in stereotype categories, simply depend more on their schemas to draw inferences. Comparisons across a much wider age range will be required to assess these possibilities. What is clear f rom these data is the considerable influence of sex stereotypes on children's inference making.

The theoretical gain provided by the acceptance of a schematic pro- cessing model of sex stereotyping carries with it some important practical implications. The development of sex stereotypes in children is evident at an age when cognitive capabilities are limited. Therefore, the initial schema that evolves is probably simplistic in its discriminations and flexibility. The child's goal at this stage is simply to identify those activities and objects that are sex role appropriate or inappropriate. As subsequent information is receiv- ed and processed, and as a child's cognitive skills mature, a less simplistic structure could and should develop.

Unfortunately, the current results suggest that this change in structure may be quite slow to take place. When information inconsistent with the existing schema was encountered, the inferences drawn were distorted to pro- duce conclusions implying greater schema consistency than seems logically appropriate. The influence of the schema apparently is at least as strong as specific evidence that an exception exists. Cognitive operations within the schema function to minimize the impact of inconsistent data, leading to a maintenance of the already existing assumptions. A schematic model of sex typing implies that sex-typed beliefs may be very difficult to alter, even through the presentation of information that obviously contradicts the stereotype. For those whose objectives include the reduction of sex-stereotyped assump- tions, a consideration of schema-based processing may be essential to develop- ing successful programs.

REFERENCES

Alba, J. W., & Hasher, L. Is memory schematic? Psychological Bulletin, 1983, 93, 203-231. Cann, A., & Garnett, A. G. Sex stereotype impacts on competence ratings by children. Sex

Roles, 1984, 11, 333-343. Cann, A., & Newbern, S. R. Sex stereotype effects in children's picture recognition. Child

Development, 1984, 55, 1085-1090. Deaux, K., & Lewis, L. L. Structure of gender stereotypes: Interrelationships among components

and gender label. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1984, 46, 996-1004. DeLucia, L. A. The toy preference test: A measure of sex role identification. Child Develop-

ment, 1963, 34, 107-117. Koblinsky, S. G., Cruse, D. F., & Sugawara, A. I. Sex role stereotypes and children's memory

for story_content. Child Development, 1978, 48, 452-458. Kriedberg, G., Butcher, A. L., & White, K. M. Vocational role choice in second- and sixth-

grade children. Sex Roles, 1978, 4, 175-181.

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Liben, L. S., & Signorella, M. L. Geoder-rdated schemata and constructive memory in children. Child Development, 1980, 51, 11-18.

Liebert, R. M., McCall, R. B., & Hanratty, M. A. Effects of sex-typed information on children's toy preferences. Journal o/Genetic Psychology, 1971, 119, 133-136.

Locksley, A., Borgida, E., Brekke, N., & Hepburn, C. Sex stereotypes and social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1980, 39, 821-831.

Martin, C. L., & Halverson, C. F., Jr. A schematic processing model of sex typing and stereotyp- ing in children. Child Development, 1981, 52, 1119-1134.

Martin, C. L., & Haiverson, C. F., Jr. The effects of sex-typing schemas on young children's memory. Child Development, 1983, 54, 563-574.

Nadelman, L. Sex identity in American children: Memory, knowledge, and preference tests. Developmental Psychology, 1974, I0, 413-417.

Papilia, D. E., & Tennent, S. S. Vocational aspirations in preschoolers: A manifestation of early sex role stereotyping. Sex Roles, 1975, 1, 197-199.

Taylor, S. E., & Crocker, J. Schematic bases of social information processing. In E. T. Hig- gins, P. Hermann, & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), The Ontario symposium on personality and social psychology (Vol. 1). Hillsdale, N.J.: LEA, 1981.