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Chemical Reactions in Living Cells• Chemical Reaction
– Involves the making and breaking of chemical bonds
– Represented as a “short statement”:
H2O H2 + O2
How would you balance this?
22 22
Does this happen on its own?
• Activation Energy: The amount of energy needed to initiate a reaction
Biochemistry: Chemical Reactions in Living Cells
δ +
δ +
δ -
Water molecules are polar covalent bonds.
Biochemistry: The unique properties of water
They are attracted to other water molecules through relatively weak Hydrogen bonds.
Can water form ions?Yes, at a very small rate (1 out of 500,000,000!)
H2O H+ OH-+
+ -
How would you quantify (count) this ionic disassociation? The pH scale
The “powerpower of HydrogenHydrogen” scale
pH
Biochemistry: The unique properties of water
Stomach Acid, lemon juiceVinegar, cola
Tomato juice
Black coffee; RainwaterUrine
Pure water; Human blood
Seawater
Milk of magnesia
Household ammonia
Household bleach
Oven cleaner
Incr
easi
ngly
Aci
dic
Inc
reas
ingl
y B
asic
Neutral
<[H+] >[OH-]
[H+] = [OH-]
>[H+] <[OH-]
Besides water, what elements and compounds are essential to life?
Organic compounds1. Mostly contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulfur*
*For Homework: Left Side IntNB Assignment: Write an Acrostic Poem for the six elements often found in organic compounds
Carbon
C CC CC C
H
H HH
H HH
OHO H
HHHO O
O
O
Organic Compounds: An Overview
Organic compounds (continued…)2. Four categories of organic compounds:
a. Carbohydrates
b. Lipids
c. Proteins
d. Nucleic Acids
3. All formed and separated in similar waysa. Formation (Polymerization): Dehydration
Synthesis
b. Separation: Hydrolysis
Hey Sugar, I sure am happy that you’re a Carbohydrate
like me.
Awww, how sweet!
Hurry up, Lipids! You should have more energy
stored up than this!
Does this bond structure make
me look fat?
Hi there! My name is Polly
Peptide.
Can you believe that each of your cells contains
about 2 meters of me?
Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
Polymerization
• Polymerization (definition):– Forming of large organic macromolecules by
the joining of smaller repeating units called monomers
Bonding: Polymerization
Dehydration Synthesis
• Dehydration Synthesis is the removal of a water molecule to form a new bond.
HOH
H2O
HO H
HHO
Short Polymer Monomer
Dehydration removes a water molecule forming a new bond
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
Bonding: Polymerization: Dehydration Synthesis
Hydrolysis
HOH
H2O
HO
H
H
HO
Short Polymer Monomer
Hydrolysis adds a water molecule to break a bond
1 2 3
1 2 3
4
• Polymers are broken by adding water.
• Literally, “Water Splitting”
Bonding: Polymerization: Hydrolysis
C CC CC C
Carbon = The element of life
• Carbon’s Valence has ____ electrons
• Can bond with ____ elements
• Can form chains, rings, branches, & isomers
44
CCHO
OHH
HCC
HO OH
H H
What biological impact do you think isomers have on living systems?
Bonding: Carbon
Thalidomide: an optical isomerBonding: The importance of chemical structure
Bond energy
• When bonds are made, energy (E) is stored.
• When bonds are broken, energy (E) is released for use.
Bonding: Bond Energy
Glucose: A Monosaccharide Fructose: A Monosaccharide
Sucrose: A Disaccharide
Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are:– an important energy (E) source– Cellular structures
• Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1
• General Formula (CH2O)n
Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates
CH2O
Water = hydrateCarbon hydrate
Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates: Monomers
Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides (simple sugars) – Contain 3-7 Carbons each
• Examples: Glucose, Galactose, FructoseGlucose
Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates: Dimers
Carbohydrates
• Disaccharides (two sugars)
• Examples: Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose– Maltose = Glucose + Glucose– Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
Sucrose
Glucose Fructose
Organic Compounds: Carbohydrates: Polymers
Carbohydrates
• Polysaccharides (many sugars)
• Examples: Starch, Glycogen, CelluloseStarch Cellulose
Chloroplast Starch
Glycogen
Liver Cell
Plant Cells
Plant Cells
Cellulose
LipidsOrganic Compounds: Lipids
• Lipids function in:– Energy (E) storage, – forming cell membranes, – and as chemical messengers
(e.g., hormones)
• Nonpolar (hydrophobic)
• Made up mostly of Carbon and Hydrogen (with a few Oxygen)
Lipids1. Fats (Triglycerides)
– Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids– Saturated = No Double Bonds (solid)– Unsaturated = Double Bonds (liquid)
Organic Compounds: Lipids: Fats
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
Ester Bonds
Lipids2. Phospholipids
– Glycerol with Phosphate Head + 2 Fatty Acid Chains
– Amphiphilic (“Both” “lover”)• Hydrophilic head• Hydrophobic tail
– Forms 2 layers in water– Makes up cell membranes
Organic Compounds: Lipids: Phospholipids
Phosphate
Glycerol
Fatty Acids
Organic Compounds: Lipids: Sterols
Lipids
OH
O
Testosterone
HO
O
Estrogen
3. Sterols– Lipids whose Carbon Skeleton consists of 4
fused rings– Includes:
• Hormones• Cholesterol• Cortisol
– Makes up cell membranes
HOOH
O
O
OH
Proteins
• Made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen (and some Sulfur)
• Many functions represented through different types of proteins
Organic Compounds: Proteins
Proteins
• Enzymes: Catalysts that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction – Build up or break down substrate
• Fit together like a “lock” and a “key”
– Not used up in the reaction– Work in a very specific biological range– Usually end with “-ase”
Organic Compounds: Proteins: Functions
Hi sweeties, Do you remember
me?
In addition to what you know. I am a substrate.
I am an enzyme. I am going to try to convert you.
I am now a product.
I am a glucose now.
I am a product, too.
I am a fructose now.
I am completely unchanged, and ready for some more sucrose!
I am the active site. The substrate binds
to me.
Proteins
• Structural Proteins– Provides mechanical support to cells and
tissues
• Transport Proteins– Transports small ions or molecules
• Motor Proteins– Enables structures to move
Organic Compounds: Proteins: Functions
Proteins
• Hormones (signaling proteins)– Carries signals from cell-to-cell– e.g., insulin
• Storage– Stores small molecules or ions– e.g., iron is stored in the liver in ferritin
• Other specialized functions– Defense (antibodies), – Receptor proteins (in eyes and muscles to
detect stimulus)
Organic Compounds: Proteins: Functions
Proteins• Monomers: Amino Acids
– Peptide Bond: Bond between 2 Amino Acids: Amino end (NH2) and the Carboxyl end (COOH)
Organic Compounds: Proteins: Monomers
HH22OO
Side Chains
Backbone
R Group =
Amino end Carboxyl end
Proteins
• R Groups (Side chains)– Differ in:
• Size• Charge• Polarity
• There are 20 protein-building Amino Acids– 9 Essential Amino Acids
• Can’t be synthesized by the body, but are necessary for life
Organic Compounds: Proteins: Monomers
Hydrophilic Amino Acid Hydrophobic Amino Acid
Proteins
• Polymers: Polypeptides “Many Peptides”
• Four Levels of Structure– Primary (1°)– Secondary (2°) – H bonds– Tertiary (3°)– Quaternary (4°) – several
polypeptides
• These specific shapes allow proteins to function
Organic Compounds: Proteins: Polymers
Polypeptides
Organic Compounds: Proteins: Denaturation
Proteins
• Denaturation– When the protein loses its
shape, and becomes non-functional due to:
– Changes in • temperature • pH• salinity (salt concentration)• alcohol concentration
Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic Acids– Informational Polymers: Code for all of the
proteins in an organism– Monomers: Nucleotides
• Phosphate Group• 5-Carbon Sugar• Nitrogenous base
Organic Compounds: Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids
• DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)– Backbone sugar: Deoxyribose– Four Bases
• Adenine (A)• Guanine (G)• Thymine (T)• Cytosine (C)
• RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)– Messenger RNA: mRNA conveys the
instructions to build proteins from the genetic information in DNA
– Differences from DNA:• Backbone sugar: Ribose• Uracil in place of Thymine
Organic Compounds: Nucleic Acids
Deoxyribo
Adenine Guanine
ThymineCytosine Uracil
Flow of Information
DNA
RNA
Protein
Organic Compounds: Nucleic Acids and Proteins