Charter Schools in Canada and evolving concepts of citizenship EDU6422FinalPaperCOMPLETED

EDU6422: Final Research Paper

Taking a Look at Canadian Charter Schools as a Space for Evolving Concepts of Citizenship Education

For: Prof. Farhat ShahzadBy: Andrea Lagalisse (2992863)

2/14/2012

Lagalisse. A. (2014) EDU6422 Taking a look at Canadian charter schools…1

Taking a Look at Canadian Charter Schools as a Space for Evolving Concepts of Citizenship Education

Lagalisse, A.

Introduction

My initial interest in charter schools arose out of an investigation into alternative education

opportunities in Canada as part of a wider desire for educational reform. Charter schools in

Canada are defined as “…autonomous public schools that would provide innovative or enhanced

means of delivering education in order to improve student learning” (Alberta Learning (AL),

2002. p. 1). To date, Alberta is the only Canadian province or territory to try out the charter

method. This study will consist of critical discourse involving historical contextual analysis to

situate the Charter School experience in Alberta. I will attempt to discover what place the

charter school system holds in the Alberta educational system, how charter schools in Alberta

have developed and not developed, and what experts and communities are saying about the

Abstract

This paper examines the emergence of the charter school system in Canada and its perceived associated benefits and drawbacks. Employing critical discourse through a literature review, the author investigates the experiences and climate of the charter school project in Alberta and how charter schools may be able to contribute to an emerging discourse in education reform that champions critical thinking, inclusivity, community, and increased opportunities for authentic citizenship education and democratic development in Canadian public schooling.


charter school experiment in Alberta. I will do so in the context of contributing to the

reimagining and evolution of citizenship education in Canada. In doing so, I hope to increase

interest in the changing norms of schooling and in inquiring into issues of authority, power,

socialization, and culture in the context of developing the citizens of the future.

My research questions are

1) What are charter schools and how do they operate?

2) What are some of the benefits and challenges of charter school system in Canada?

3) Can charter schools provide a space, or bridge, for evolving concepts of citizenship

education and democratic thinking?

Methodology

I employ critical discourse through an intensive literature review. Speaking with fellow students

and researchers, I had noticed that there seemed to be a lack of interest or understanding of

charter schools in Canadian education discourse. By reviewing the charter school experiment in

Alberta since its inception in 1994 and the discourse and important changes in the 20 years that

followed, I hoped to activate what Van Dijk calls the role of discourse in the “(re)production and

challenge of dominance…defined here as the exercise of social power by elites, institutions or

groups, that results in social inequality” (1993, p. 249).

Reviewing a sample of the relatively underrepresented aspect of alternative education

opportunities will be helpful because it will increase understanding and discussion about charter

schools in Canada, as well as offer insights on how to ensure that these schools are increasingly

able to provide authentic and accessible alternatives to traditional public and private school

education across the country. This will contribute to the discourse in education reform as well


and foster understanding of the nature of charter schools and the opportunities they present to

bridge traditional schooling with alternate forms in order to better serve students.

Why look at charter schools?

An important theme in education research centres on examining the social fabric of learning

communities, and in gaining better understanding the purposes of education in a democratic

society. As Guo notes, Canadian curriculum standards vary from province to province and are

“strongly shaped by nationalist orientation” (2013, p. 8). Tupper and Cappello point out that a

major “goal” of schools has and continues to be “the formation of particular kinds of subjects,”

particularly citizens who are “responsible to the state and inherently governable (2010, p.

339/348). They suggest that to counter hegemonic influences it is necessary to offer students

“(un)usual narratives of citizenship which subvert false universalism and draw attention to the

differential formation of subjects” (Tupper & Cappello, 2010, p. 358). The adaptation and

expansion of charter school systems may be one way to promote the kind of differentiation that

they are suggesting.

Cook and Westheimer (2006) highlight how traditional public school curriculum discourse in

Canada privileges “…older, dominant cultural assumptions that implicitly locate problems in

certain ‘uncivilized’ individuals rather than in the struggles for democratic social relations”

(p.351). Charter schools can be seen as a way to step out of this normalizing impulse of the post-

industrial nation-state mentality towards a ‘multidimensional citizenship” as envisioned by

Osborne (2000) that recognizes and incorporates the personal, social, temporal and spatial

dimensions of being a citizen in the world (p. 24). In investigating the Charter Schools I wished

to inquire as to how and whether they could offer an authentic alternative to current public

school programs in Canada in the context of developing the citizens of the future.


Situating charter schools in Canada

The reality in education is that throughout the Western world, student achievement has

plummeted (Ritchie, 2010, p.5). In 1997, near the beginning of the charter school experiment in

Alberta, Canada ranked “among the world’s education leaders” in spending on education (Clark,

W., 2001, 100 Years of education, p. 7). Guo notes that increased interconnectedness and

technology, and diversity in classrooms means that the landscape of Canadian classrooms is

changing (2013, p. 8). Researches notes that there is a growing “democratic deficit” that is

especially seen among the youth and young adult population (Cook and Westheimer, 2006, p.

349).

The international trend of increasing conservatism and also of increasing pluralism has

been cited as a factor contributing to the trend in charter and other alternative education funding

(Wagner, 1999. p. 54). Westheimer (2010) laments a “troubling trend: much of current education

reform is limiting the ways teachers can develop the kinds of attitudes, skills, knowledge, and

habits necessary for a democratic society to flourish” (p. 6). Charter schools present an

opportunity to bridge the difference between traditional public schooling and future possibilities

in alternative education. It is notable that as of 2010, there were 13 charter schools (of a possible

15) in operation over 22 campuses, student enrollment has increased consistently, and waiting

lists to enroll that are in the thousands are considered normal (Ritchie, 2010, p.12-13). This

indicates that there is a place as well as the social will for charter schools to grow in the realm of

Canadian education. I often wondered why charter schools have been restricted to Alberta only.

It seems to me, like Toma and Zimmer (2012) state, that

at the end of the day, we must recognize that families are choosing charter schools…the

choice is voluntary….but beyond achievement effects, our observation that the movement


is voluntary suggests that the research community should be creatively searching for

ways in which to measure the benefits perceived by families. (Two decades of charter

schools, p. 212).

This leads me to wonder: why haven't other provinces or territories tried to implement their own

charter school experiments? Also, why there was a cap on how many charter schools could be in

operation in the province at any one time? More research is needed to answer these questions

properly.

Perceived benefits of charter schools in Alberta

Westheimer and Cook (2006) note that in Canada, the “belief in the fundamental importance of

schooling for democracy” was a key factor in the development of public education (p. 351).

However, it is arguable that public schools in Canada have not been able to provide for the

diverse nature of Canadian populations in a way that can build strong communities. Gardner

(1990) imagines a new conception of communities that incorporate heterogeneity, are responsive

to change, are pluralistic and adaptive, are inclusive and in touch with the world, and that

“consciously foster the norms and values that will ensure their continued integrity” (p. 40).

Charter schools offer an opportunity to build these types of communities and shift public

education discourse and practice towards more holistic and inclusive concepts of citizenship and

democratic development and thinking.

Charter schools in Canada are defined as “…autonomous public schools that would

provide innovative or enhanced means of delivering education in order to improve student

learning” (Alberta Learning (AL), 2002. p. 1). Charter schools receive the same funding as other

public schools, and are non-religious and non-profit, and require teachers to be certified (AL,


2002, p. 3- 4). Charter school champions argue that “…student and parent demand for the

choices charter schools provide will increase and public schools will fight for the flexibility

charter schools enjoy” (Bosetti, L. 2010, p.101). Examples of charter schools that are in

operation in Alberta today include programs such as: the Calgary Arts Academy ( offers an art-

immersion curriculum); Mother Earth’s Children’s Charter School (has a focus on indigenous

teachings); the Suzuki Charter School (places focus on academic, musical and personal

excellence); the Valhalla Community School (is focussed on rural leadership); and the Connect

Charter School (privileges an inquiry-based, technology-rich environment) (Association of

Alberta Charter Schools website, ‘Our Members’). They offer a wide variety of programs that

cater to a diverse population, from more generalized specialization programs like arts or music,

to capitalizing on technology, and even trying to incorporate traditional indigenous teaching and

learning methods into a public school setting to try and better serve a local community with a

large indigenous population rather than force them to adapt to existing structures that have

proved incapable and unwilling to include them in any real way.

Perceived drawbacks and difficulties of charter schools in Alberta

Not long after the unveiling of the charter program and its vision, Global Learning Academy,

one of the largest schools, had to shut down. In an article in Maclean’s magazine, the author

notes the political, social and economic difficulties that led to this demise:

…no one thought that these schools would be turned into political orphans, abandoned by

a provincial government that was retrenching, hung out to dry by local school boards who

resented the charters as grant-snatchers and private-school wanna-bes. "The provincial

government had the original vision," says Lynn Bosetti, director of the Centre for Gifted

Education at the University of Calgary. "But then the minister changed and other key


people left, and it is not clear now where the ministry is going. The problems you see

now are all issues of governance." (Sheppard, R., 1998, p. 52.)

It appeared that there were significant barriers preventing the charter school experiment in

Alberta from achieving its goal to offer authentic alternatives to its students. Further research is

needed into why this has happened and how to move forward in amending the charter system,

but that is beyond the scope of this paper, and to be saved for another time.

The charter school experiment in Alberta: 20 years in

Since the inception of the charter program in 1994, there have been several in-depth studies and

projects intended to monitor and improve charter schools. In 2009, the Alberta Government

released a concept paper that outlines how “Alberta Education envisions charter schools as

catalysts for critical thinking about education. Many people offer the Minister advice on how to

improve education; the next generation of charter schools would act as pilots or incubators and

could let the Minister test the best of these ideas” (Government of Alberta, Charter Schools

Concept Paper, 2009, p. 2). In this newer vision for charter schools, teachers and administrators

could play a larger role in the professional development of others as well as in the development

of educational theory and practice. They could serve as mentors to teachers and administrators in

other schools (Charter Schools Concept Paper, 2009, p. 2-3). This is exciting because it is

looking forward, anticipating change is coming, albeit slowly, but recognizing the need to learn

from past mistakes and set up for future successes.

This amendment shows attempts toward reflexivity in practice in line with current

discourse that engages in reflective practice which encourages active, inquiry-based learning,

fostering critical literacy, taking multiple perspectives, and providing “authentic opportunities for


students to become responsible and competent citizens in meaningful ways” (Guo, L.,2013, p. 9).

By recognizing the evolving nature of the charter school experiment, with the aim of improving

rather than removing the alternatives charter schools offer, expiry on the charter school

regulations stay on the path toward creating more diverse education alternatives to Canadian

students. This aligns with current sentiment in education research that there is need to shift away

from traditional hegemonic and exclusionary framework of citizenship debate towards one that

champions “participative, critical and democratic involvement in public life” (Osborne, 2000, p.

25).

In Ritchie’s “Innovation in action: an examination of charter schools in Alberta” she

outlines challenges that include but are not limited to; the restrictive nature and instability

created by the charter renewal process whereby schools must reapply for status every five years,

difficulties in acquiring premises due to restrictions on public land and building grants, and

opposition from those who believe charter schools serve niche markets and are exclusive (The

West in Canada Research Series, 2010. p. 18-19). The charter school program has shown that it

recognizes the need to change and adapt in order to achieve the true purpose of providing

authentic alternatives to its students and families.

The 2012 review of the Charter Schools Regulations recognized some the difficulties

posed by the five-year renewal system and renegotiated it to allow for a long-term renewal after

an initial five-year term, noting that “with the ability to access renewal terms of 15 years, charter

schools with a demonstrated record of success will be able to focus less on administration and

more on student learning and school improvement” (Alberta Governments, (2012) Questions and

answers: Changes to the charter school regulations, p. 1). The 2012 amendment is indicative of

the will of charter school proponents to keep trying in spite of the setbacks encountered from


various sources, and should be recognized as an example of the slow progressive change that is

typical of entrenched systems.

Conclusion: The future of charter schools in Canadian public education

It is important to recognize that the landscape and meanings of education are changing, and that

they must continue evolving alongside Canadian populations and cultures if Canadian society is

to thrive, represent and further grow its reputation as a champion of diversity, inclusivity and

democracy. Educators, administrators, parents and young people are reaching for change in the

norms of education towards systems that are reflective of the authentic diversity that supports the

development of involved citizens (Osborne, 2000; Bosetti, 2010; Toma & Zimmer, 2012;

Ritchie, 2010; Westheimer, 2006,). There is a desire for and support for concepts of learning that

are active, critically engaging of youth, relevant and supportive of the creation of global

citizenship (Gardner, 1990; Westheimer, 2006; Cook & Westheimer, 2012; Guo, 2013).

Lack of interest and participation in democratic processes and student dissatisfaction,

plummeting student achievement and apathy are the result of the traditional citizenship education

in Canadian schools, and the prevailing feeling is that current education reform is limiting the

ways in which educators can provide opportunities to develop the skills and attitudes needed for

democratic societies to thrive (Clark, 2001; Ritchie, 2010; Westheimer, 2010). Charter schools

can offer the alternatives not present in current public schools if the local and regional

communities support progressive change and educational reform. However, difficulties are often

encountered in the form of social, political and national resistance to change (Shepperd, 1998;

Ritchie, 2010; Tupper & Cappello, 2010).


Charter schools can offer an alternative to traditionally envisioned public schools in Canada

by creating safe spaces for opening up daily teaching practices in ways that enable youth

engagement, support critical thinking and inquiry (Bosetti, 2001; Government of Alberta, 2009,

2012). The charter school experiment in Alberta is an important component in challenging

traditional discourses of citizenship and education in Canada, one step in a major shift in

discourse and practice towards promoting diversity and providing opportunities for the

development and expression of authentic citizenship in Canadian education.


References

Alberta Learning. (2002). Charter Schools Handbook. ISBN: 0-7785-2550-3

Association of Alberta Charter Schools. Our members. Retrieved from

http://www.taapcs.ca/members.html

Bosetti, L. (2001). The Alberta charter school experience. In C. R. Hepburn (Ed.), Can the

market save our schools? (pp. 101-121). Vancouver, BC: Fraser Institute. Retrieved from

http://oldfraser.lexi.net/publications/books/market_schools/7_bosetti.pdf

Clark, W. (2001). 100 Years of education. Education Quarterly Review 7(3), 18-23. ISSN 1481-

1634

Cook, S., & Westheimer, J., (2006). Introduction: Democracy and education. Canadian Journal

of Education, 29(2), 347-358. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable.20054167

Gardner, J. (1990) Building community. Social Contract Journal, 1(1), 39-46. Retrieved from

http://www.thesocialcontract.com/pdf/one-one/gardner.pdf

Government of Alberta. (2012) Questions and answers: Changes to the charter school

regulations, Retrieved from

http://education.alberta.ca/media/6673323/charterschoolregulationchangeqa.pdf

Guo, L. (2013) Translating global citizenship education into pedagogic actions in classroom

settings. In L.R. Maclean & N. Ng-A-Fook (Eds.), Education Review, 3(2), 8-9). ISSN

1925-5497

Ritchie, S. (2010). Innovation in action: an examination of charter schools in Alberta. The West

in Canada Research Series. The Canada West Foundation. ISBN: 1-897423-61-5

http://education.alberta.ca/media/6673323/charterschoolregulationchangeqa.pdf

http://www.thesocialcontract.com/pdf/one-one/gardner.pdf

http://www.jstor.org/stable.20054167

http://oldfraser.lexi.net/publications/books/market_schools/7_bosetti.pdf

http://www.taapcs.ca/members.html


Osborne, K. (2000). Public schooling and citizenship education in Canada. Canadian Ethnic

Studies, 32(1), 8-37. Retrieved from

http://schoolandsociety2014.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/73531010/Osborne-

Citizenship2000.pdf

Sheppard, R. (1998) A school failure. Macleans. Vol. 111 Issue 27, p52. ISSN 0024-9262

Toma, E., & Zimmer, R. (2012). Two decades of charter schools: Expectations, reality, and the

future. Economics of Education Review, 31, 209-212. Retrieved from

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2011.10.001

Tupper, J. & Cappello, M. (2010). Locating citizenship: Curriculum, social class and the 'good'

citizen. Theory and Research in Social Education, 38(3), 298-327. doi

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Van Dijk, T. A., (1993). Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse & Society, 4(2), 249-

283. doi: 10.1177/0957926593004002006

Wagner, M. (1999). Charter schools in Alberta: Change or continuity in progressive conservative

education policy? The Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 45(1), 52-66. ISSN

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Westheimer, J. (2010). What kind of citizen? Democratic dialogues in education. Education

Canada, 48(3), 6-10. ISSN 0013-1253. Retrieved from www.cea-ace.ca

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