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Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 1
CHARLESPOSTELDEPARTMENTOFHISTORYSANFRANCISCOSTATEUNIVERSITY
“THEPOPULISTCONTEXT:TEXASCOTTONFARMERSANDRELIGIOUSCONFLICT,1880‐1900”
AGRARIANSTUDIESCOLLOQUIUM,YALEUNIVERSITY,JANUARY29,2010
AbustlingtradingtownontheBrazosRiver,Waco,Texasservedasthe
supplycenterandmarketforthecottonfarmersoftheadjoiningdistricts.Bywagon
andrail,in1893farmersbrought180,000balesofcottontotheWacomarket.The
townalsoclaimedtobethe“AthensofTexas”andthe“CityofChurches,”asitwas
thehomeoftheBaptistBaylorUniversityandthecenterofmissionaryeducational
worktowinTexastoevangelicalChristianity.1Today,theabundanceofchurch
spiresandChristianacademieswouldconvinceanytwenty‐firstcenturyvisitorsto
thesignificanceofWaco’sevangelicalpast.Butwhattheymaynotknowisthat
Wacowasalsothecenterofanintensereligiousconflictthatcametoaheadon
November19,1897.Onthatday,inbroaddaylightinthemiddleoftown,twomen
ambushedCountyJudgeGeorgeBruceGerald.AimingattheJudge’sback,oneofthe
bulletslodgedinhisarmandanotherbouncedoffthemetalbuttonontheJudge’s
suspenders,givinghimtimetodrawhissix‐shooterandkillhiswould‐beassassins.
JudgeGeraldhadlongbeenathorninthesideofBaptistofficialdom.Inthe
early1880s,hehadturnedhiscourtroomovertotheweeklymeetingsofan
associationofsecularfreethinkers.ButtheJudge’sgreatestaffrontwashis
1CharlesCutter,Cutter’sGuidetotheCityofWaco(Waco:Padgitt’sParkNatatorium,1894),39.
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 2
outspokendefenseofhisfriendWilliamCowpersBrann,theeditorandpublisherin
WacooftheIconoclastmagazine,whichdevoteditspagestodebunkingthemyths
andexposingthehypocrisiesoftheProtestantchurches.Angrymembersofthe
BaptistcommunitysoughttoteachBrannalesson.WhenJudgeGeraldcametothe
editor’sdefense,theymadetheirattemptonGerald.Fourmonthslater,onApril1,
1898,amanseekingthefavorofBaptistcitizensshottheeditoroftheIconoclastin
thebackashewalkedalongWaco’smainstreet.BrannreturnedfireandbothBrann
andhisassassindiedthenextday.2
Inlaterdecades,Waco’sresidenthistorianswouldexplaintheseeventsasan
episodeinthetown’s“colorful”and“WildWest”past.3Thebloodshedonthestreets
ofWaco,however,carriedadeeperhistoricalsignificancebecauseitwaspartofa
profoundreligiousconflictthatplayedoutacrossthecottondistrictsofcentraland
easternTexas.Moreover,thisconflictoverbeliefandunbelieftookplaceatthesame
timeandinthesameruraldistrictsthatwereattheepicenterofthePopulistrevolt.
TheFarmers’Alliancemovementfirstappearedinthecottondistrictsofcentral
Texas,fromwhichitgrewbytheendofthe1880sasanunprecedentednational
forceofagrarianorganization.TheFarmers’Allianceprovidedtheintellectualand
organizationalcatalystforthePopulistfarmer‐laborcoalitionandthenational
2GeorgeB.Gerald,“ThePassingofWilliamCowperBrann,”Iconoclast,vol.8,no.4(May1898),74‐6;“FullerWilliamson’sStatementMadeinDr.CarlLovelace’sOffice,Feb.9,1934,”unpublishedms.,TexasCollection,BaylorUniversity;“LastActoftheWacoTragedy,”SanAntonio,April21,1898,clipping,and“Brann,WilliamCowper,”unpublishedms.in“WilliamCowperBrann,”verticalfile,CenterforAmericanHistory,UniversityofTexas,Austin;CharlesCarver,BrannandtheIconoclast(Austin,TX,1957).3“G.B.GeraldReownedasJurist,Editor,ConfederateHeroandManofCourage,”WacoTribuneHerald,October30,1949;“LivesofLivelyDissent,”WacoTribuneHerald,May14,2007;GaryCleveWilson,“BaneoftheBaptists,”TexasMonthly,January,1986.
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 3
People’sParty,arguablythemostpowerfulchallengetocorporatepowerinU.S.
history.Whatthenwastherelationship,ifany,betweenthereligiouswarfareand
thePopulistrevolt?Thescholarshiphascoveredthechallengesofmarkets,
indebtedness,corporatepower,andpoliticalabusethatframedthesocialand
politicalcontextsofthePopulistrevolt.Thepurposeofthispaperistoexamine
anotherdimensionofthePopulistcontext,whichwasthereligiousconflictin
centralTexasthatledtothebloodshedinWaco.
TodosorequiresprobingsomeofthemostdurablemythsaboutAmerica’s
agrarianpastandthehistoricalmeaningofthenation’srural/urbandivide.Inthe
widerpoliticalculture,thismeaninghasoftenbeenrefractedthroughthelensofthe
Scopes“Monkey”Trialof1925.JohnScopes,ayoungscienceteacher,facedcharges
inthesmalltownofDaytonTennesseeforviolatingthestatelawbarringthe
teachingofevolution.Thecaseturnedintothe“trialofthecentury.”Forthe
prosecution,itwasWilliamJenningsBryan,aformercongressmanfromNebraska
andthreetimestheDemocraticnomineeforpresident.ForoverthirtyyearsBryan
madeheadlineswithhiscampaignsforpopularsocialreforms.Inthe1920s,he
madecommoncausewithChristianfundamentalistsintheireffortstobanthe
teachingofevolution.Onthedefenseteam,itwasClarenceDarrow,thefamous
Chicagoattorney,urbane,cosmopolitan,skeptical,andagnostic.Atthetime,the
journalistH.L.Menckenframedthetrialasa“religiousorgy,”witharural“Homo
Neanderthalensis”wielding“theanthropomorphicreligionofanelderday”against
theenlightenedurbanminority.4Historytextbookswouldlatermarkthetrialas
4BaltimoreEveningSun,June29,1925;TheNation,July1,1925.
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 4
“thelastholdoutofthenineteenthcentury”inthefaceofmodernurbanAmerica.
DespitetheevidencethatTennesseevotersweredividedovertheanti‐evolution
law,andthattheoppositiontothelawwasasstronginruraldistrictsasurbanones,
thetrialforgedthelinkinthenation’smythsandmemoriesbetweenfundamentalist
ortraditionalreligionandruralpeople.5
Moreover,inthepoliticalculture,theScopesTriallinkedfundamentalist
religiontoPopulistreform.WilliamJenningsBryanhadadvocatedsilverinflation
andotherreformssoughtbyfarmersand,althoughhewasalife‐longDemocratand
wontheDemocraticnominationforthepresidencyin1896,hiscandidacyhadalso
beenendorsedbythePeople’sParty.Hence,ifBryanattheScopesTrialrepresented
the“shabbinessoftheEvangelicalmind,”asRichardHofstadtersodelicatelyputit,
Populismcametorepresentmuchthesame.6EversincetheScopesTrialrural
PopulismandfundamentalistortraditionalProtestantismhavebeenclosely
intertwinedinhistoricalmemory.Indeed,inthescholarshipofAmericanpolitical
cultureandreform,evangelicalpietyhasservedasthesheetanchortyingPopulism
andagrarianprotesttoatraditionalpast.7
Formorethanhalfacentury,thenatureofthePopulistmovementhas
representedasharppointofscholarlycontroversy.Inthe1950s,RichardHofstadter
5EdwardJ.Larson,SummerfortheGods:TheScopesTrialandAmerica’sContinuingDebateOverScienceandReligion(Cambridge:HarvardUniversity,1997),50,56,236.6Hofstadter,AgeofReform,288.7RayGinger,SixDaysorForever?Tennesseev.JohnScopes(Boston:Beacon,1958,reprint,NewYork:Oxford,1970),16,223;MichaelKazin,ThePopulistPersuasion,AnAmericanHistory(NewYork:Basic,1995),106,andAGodlyHero:TheLifeofWilliamJenningsBryan(NewYork,Knopf,2006),303‐04;JohnL.Thomas,AlternativeAmerica:HenryGeorge,EdwardBellamy,HenryDemarestLloyd,andtheAdversaryTradition(NewYork:RandomHouse,1963),333;KevinP.Philips,PostConservativeAmerica:People,PoliticsandIdeologyinaTimeofCrisis(NewYork:RandomHouse,1982),181.
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 5
atColumbiaandaninfluentialsetofAmericanintellectuals,concernedaboutthe
originsoffascisminEurope,lookedbackatPopulismtoseeifitmightcontainseeds
ofirrational,intolerant,andanti‐Semiticmasspolitics.Sureenough,thatisjustwhat
theyfound.HofstadterdrewtheconclusionthatthePopulistswerebackward
lookinganddelusional,aruralpeoplepsychologicallyunabletocopewiththe
demandsofamodernsociety.8Quitedifferentconcernsanimatedthehistoriansof
the1970sand1980s.Theirpointofreferencewasthegrass‐rootsactivismofthe
CivilRightsMovement.HistorianssuchasLawrenceGoodwynandChristopher
LaschsawPopulismasthe1960sculturewritlarge.Populism,astheysawit,
providedhistoricalconfirmationoftheirownideasaboutgrass‐rootsdemocracy
andthefailingsofahierarchicalandcommercialculture.Populism,theyargued,
wasdrivenbythedemocraticresponseofruralpeopletakingastandtodefendtheir
traditionalworld–family,community,andchurch–fromamoderninvasionof
businessmenseekingdevelopment.9Thekeythingtounderstandaboutthese
sharplydifferentviews–Populismasproto‐fascismversusPopulismasthelastbest
hopeforgrass‐rootsdemocracy–isthattheyarebothfoundedonacommon
8Hofstadter,TheAgeofReform,12‐22,46‐47;VictorFerkiss,“PopulistInfluencesonAmericanFascism,”WesternHistoricalQuarterly,vol.10(1957),350‐57;SeymourLipsetandEarlRaab,ThePoliticsofUnreason:RightWingExtremisminAmerica,17901977(Chicago:UniveristyofChicago,1978),90‐99.9LawrenceGoodwyn,TheDemocraticPromise:ThePopulistMomentinAmerica(NewYork:Oxford,1976),612‐14,andThePopulistMoment:AShortHistoryoftheAgrarianRevoltinAmerica(NewYork:Oxford,1978),ixandxxi;ChristopherLasch,“ThePopulistCampaignAgainst‘Improvement,’”inTheTrueandOnlyHeaven:ProgressandItsCritics(NewYork:Norton,1991),168‐225,and“CommunitarianismorPopulism,”inTheRevoltoftheElitesandtheBetrayalofDemocracy(NewYork:Norton,1995),92‐114;StevenHahn,TheRootsofSouthernPopulism,YeomanFarmersandtheTransformationoftheGeorgiaUpcountry,18501890(NewYork:Oxford,1985);BrucePalmer,“ManOverMoney”:TheSouthernPopulistCritiqueofAmericanCapitalism(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolina,1980).
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 6
premise:ThePopulistsweretradition‐boundpeopleinrevoltagainstmodernityand
progress.
IntheusualnarrativeofAmericandevelopment,Populismhasbeenplaced
ontheteleologicaltrackfromtheagrarianGemeinschaftoflocal,self‐sufficient,
mutualistcommunity,totheurbanGesellschaftofcentralized,commercial,
bureaucraticsociety.Mybook,ThePopulistVision,haschallengedthatnarrative.It
questionstheassumptionsthatlocatePopulisminthecontextofrural
traditionalism,andreconsidersexactlywhowasmodernandwhowasnot.Inthe
process,averydifferentPopulismcomesintoview.ThisisaPopulismthat
represented,atitscore,avastmovementofruraleducation,amovementthat
broughtoftenmarginallyliteratemenandwomenintoinstitutes,classrooms,book
clubs,andlectureseries,wheretheystudiedpoliticaleconomy,history,andfarming
techniqueandbusinessmethods,alongwiththenaturalandsocialsciences
includingthelatestfindingsofHerbertSpencer,ThomasHenryHuxley,Charles
Darwinandotherevolutionarytheorists.ThisisaPopulismthatmobilized
hundredsofthousandsofwomendemandingeducation,professionalemployment,
andfreedomfromtraditionalrestraints.ThisisaPopulismthatpioneeredhighly
centralizedandtechnologicallyadvancedcooperativemarketingsystemsthatwould
serveasacornerstoneofmodernagribusiness.ThisisaPopulismthattranscended
localismandregionalism,representinganationalistmovementofSoutherncotton
farmersandGreatPlainsgrainproducers,aswellasCaliforniaandFloridafruit
growers,Midwesterncoalminersandrailwayemployees,andurbanmiddleclass
reformersinChicago,Denver,andSanFrancisco.ThisisaPopulismthatstoodona
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 7
platformthatcalledfortheexpansionofthenationalgovernmentonthemodelof
thepostalsystem,thecentralgovernment’slargestbureaucracy.Thiswasa
Populismthatsoughttomakeuseoftelecommunications,steampower,and
economiesofscaletobuildwhattheyperceivedasamorejustandequitablemodel
ofmoderndevelopment.
Foraworkingdefinitionoftheconceptmodern,Ireliedinmyresearchon
MarshalBerman’srenderingofTheCommunistManifesto.“Allthatissolidmeltsinto
air”withinthecontextofaglobalmarketfacilitatedby“technologically
sophisticatedcommunications.”Moreover,modernityalsoimpliesacertaintypeof
peoplewhoseekinnovationandchange.AsBermanputsit,they“lookforwardto
futuredevelopmentsintheirconditionsoflifeandtheirrelationswiththeirfellow
men.”10Myresearchconcludes:“ThePopulistswerejustthiskindofpeople.They
soughttoimprovetheirdomesticeconomyandtheirnationalgovernment.They
soughtrenewalinlocalschoolhousesandfederalcreditsystems.Theysoughtto
refashionassociationaltieswithneighborsandcommercialrelationswiththe
world.Theysoughtnewtechniques,newacreage,andnewavenuesofspiritual
expression.”11
Inotherwords,thePopulistswereruralmoderns.Buttheyweremorethan
that,astheirinnovativeeffortshadadetermined,pointededge.JamesScotthas
appliedtheconceptofhighmodernismtodescribeanoutlookthatis“bestconceived
asastrong(onemightevensaymuscle‐bound)versionofthebeliefsinscientific
10MarshalBerman,AllThatIsSolidMeltsintoAir:TheExperienceofModernity(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1982,reprint,NewYork:Penguin,1988),90‐96.11CharlesPostel,ThePopulistVision(NewYork:Oxford,2007),10.
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 8
andtechnicalprogress,”especiallyasappliedbythestate,andshows“asupreme
self‐confidenceaboutcontinuedlinealprogress.”12IntheAmericancontext,scholars
haveusedScott’sconcepttodiscussurbanleaders–collegeprofessors,government
agents,andbusinessexecutives–who,inthe1920sand1930s,brought“agriculture
kickingandscreamingintothemodernworld.”13Butmyresearchpointsina
differentdirection–torural“highmoderns.”PostCivilWarAmericaproduceda
waveofagrarianmovements,culminatinginPopulism,thatmightbebestdescribed
ashighmodernistasScottdefinestheterm.ThemenandwomenofthePopulist
leadership,alongwiththegrass‐rootsrurallecturersandorganizers,displayeda
“muscle‐bound”faithinscience,technology,andprogress.Theyenjoyedenormous
self‐confidencethatprogresswaslinealandknowable.Andtheybelievedinthe
humancapacity,bymeansofthestateandotherwise,toharnessnatureinthe
serviceofever‐risingsocialimprovement.
ThehistorianRobertMcMath,Jr.pointsoutthatafterreadingThePopulist
Vision“itistemptingtociteDorothy’scommenttoherlittledogafterthecyclone
haddepositedtheminOz:‘Toto,we’renotinKansasanymore.’”14Placingagrarian
highmodernismintothenineteenth‐centuryruralworldofAmericanmyth,legend,
andprevailingscholarshipcanprovedisorienting.Thedissonanceisespecially
12JamesC.Scott,SeeingLikeaState:HowCertainSchemestoImprovetheHumanConditionHaveFailed(NewHaven:Yale,1998),8990.13DeborahFitzgerald,EveryFarmaFactory:TheIndustrialIdealinAmericanAgriculture(NewHaven:Yale,2003),6‐7,77,and“AccountingforChange,”inCatherineMcNicolStockandRobertD.Johnston,eds,TheCountrysideintheAgeoftheModernState(Ithaca,NY:Cornell,2001),189212.14RobertC.McMath,Jr.,“AnotherLookatthe‘HardSide’ofPopulism,”ReviewsinAmericanHistory,vol.36,no.2(June2008),and“ThePopulistVision:ARoundtableDiscussion,”KansasHistory,vol.32,no.1(Spring2009),18‐45.
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 9
acutewhenitcomestoreligion.Historicalmemoryandmuchofourhistorical
scholarshipassumesaubiquitouspresenceofevangelicalfaithintherural
heartland,anassumptionthatishardtosquarewithmyclaimsoftheinnovative
andscientisticnatureofPopulistbeliefandunbelief.Myoriginalresearchfocused
onthePopulistinterior,theliterature,correspondence,lecturenotes,minutebooks,
diaries,andmemoirsleftbehindbytheleadersaswellasthegrassroots“organic
intellectuals”ofthemovement.Thepurposeofthispaperistolookmorecloselyat
thereligiousenvironmentinwhichthemodernizingprojectofruralPopulism
emerged.
Religion,aswitheveryotherpartofhumanexperience,ishistorically
contingent.Whatwasthehistoricalspecificityofthereligiouscontextthatshaped
thePopulistmovement?Addressingthisquestionshedslightonthemoral
frameworksoflatenineteenth‐centuryreformmovements,therelationships
betweenplebianreligionandplebianpolitics,aswellasthenatureofthe
rural/urbandivide.Itisacomplexquestiontoresearch.Populismwasasocial
movementinvolvingmillionsofpeople,numerouscontradictorytrendsandcross
currentsspreadacrossacontinentwithwidevariationbyregionandplace.In
California,thePopulistsemergedinanenvironmentcharacterizedbybroad
indifferenceaboutreligiousconcerns,andthosethatweremostpolitically
influentialonthePopulistmovementtendedtobewhatareknowntodayasNew
AgeinterestsinmetaphysicsandEasternphilosophies.InKansas,thePopulists
reflectedespeciallyacrimoniousruralresentmentsagainstthechurchesand
“churchianity.”NorthCarolinahadthepeculiarcombinationofbothastrong
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 10
Populistmovementandstronglyestablishedchurches.15Texaswasthestormcenter
ofthePopulistrevoltandwasalsorifewithreligiouscontroversiesthatbrokeinto
publicpolitics(andpublicviolence)andleftatellinghistoricalrecord.
TheRev.H.S.Thrall,inchargeofMethodistmissionaryworkinTexas,
describedthestateinthelate1880sas“unoccupiedterritory,”whereamobile
populationhad“childrenasignorantofChristianityasthoughtheyhadbeenborn
heathens.”16The1890CensusseemedtoconfirmThrall’sassessment.Outofa
populationof2,235,527,aseventypercentmajoritydidnotbelongtoachurchor
religiousorder.Thelevelofchurchmembershipwashigherinthecitiesandtowns,
insomedistrictswithlargenumbersofMexicanCatholics,andamongsome
immigrantcommunities.Butconnectionstoorganizedreligiongrewthininthe
ruraldistrictsofcentralandeasternTexaswherethePopulistmovementhadits
greateststrength.17ThemainlyEnglish‐speakingfarmersandtenantsofthese
districtswereoftennewarrivals,andalthoughmostofthemcamefromProtestant
backgrounds,manysettlershadlostorganizedconnectionstothechurchesand
creedsthattheyoncemighthavehadbackinGeorgiaorNorthCarolinafrom
whencetheycame.Therewasalsoaracialdimension.Withthedefeatof
15WithhisresearchfocusonNorthCarolina,JoeCreechdrawstheconclusionthatevangelicalreligionwasthemotiveforcebehindthePopulistrevolt.Whileoverstatingthecase,thisconclusionalsoreflectsthepeculiaritiesofNorthCarolina.RighteousIndignation:Religion&thePopulistRevolution(Urbana:UniveristyofIllinois,2006).16TexasChristianAdvocate(Galveston,TX),January27,1887.17ReportonStatisticsofChurchesintheUnitedStatesattheEleventhCensus(Washington,D.C.:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1890),48,81,245‐6.
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 11
ReconstructionandthedestructionofAfrican‐Americanpoliticalorganizations,
African‐Americanfarmersandtenantsmayhaveprovedmoresuccessfulthantheir
whitecounterpartsinsettingupandmaintainingchurchnetworks.
InherstudyoftheoriginsoftheBibleBelt,ChristineHeyrmanremindsus
thattheante‐bellumevangelicalconquestoftheSouthinvolvedinnovationand
conflict,andwasundertakenbyevangelicalmissionariesfromNewEnglandand
acrosstheAtlanticwhoencounteredhostilityandresistancefromthelocal
populace.18ThecycleofconquestcontinuedinTexas.UnderMexicanrule,when
Anglo‐AmericansettlerswerediscouragedfrombringingProtestantismintoTexas,
StephenAustinconsideredthat“oneMethodistpreacher”wouldcausemore
damagetoAmericansettlement“thanadozenhorsethieves.”19Afterannexation,
mostsettlersshowedlittleinterestinreligiousmatters,yettheearlymissionaries
madedeterminedefforts.ThisincludedthegreatgrandfatherofLyndonBaines
Johnson,GeorgeWashingtonBaines,whoworkedasaBaptistmissionaryforthe
NewYorkHomeMissionSociety,andservedinthe1860sasthepresidentofBaylor
University.20AfterattendingBaylorandstudyingwithBaines,theparsonHenry
RenfrotookupfarmingandmissionaryworkintheCrossTimbersdistrict,wherehe
wroteto“BrotherBaines”aboutthelackofwaterforBaptisms,thelackofasingle
18ChristineLeighHeyrman,SouthernCross:TheBeginningsoftheBibleBelt(ChapelHill,NC,1997).19HandbookofTexasOnline,s.v.","http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/RR/izrdf.html(accessedJanuary21,2010).20RobertCaro,ThePathtoPower:TheYearsofLyndonJohnson(NewYork:Knopf,1982),50.
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 12
ministerinthecounty,andwhereanitinerantminister“comessixtymilestopreach
atthischurch.”21
Still,theBaptistsandMethodistshadtheupperhandwhenitcameto
missionarywork,butthePresbyteriansandotherevangelicalswerealsointhefield.
SotoowereSwedenborgians,Unitarians,Spiritualists,FreeThinkers,andother
unorthodoxandiconoclasticcreeds.MissionariesofeverystripeviewedTexasas
“unoccupiedterritory”becausethegreatmajorityofruralpeoplewereoutsideof
anyfoldand,perhapsmoreimportantly,theweaknessofestablishedchurches
openedthedoorsforupheavalandinnovation.AlbertFranciscoservedasa
missionaryfortheSwedenborgianNewChurch,agroupinspiredbythe
metaphysicalandrationalistphilosophyoftheSwedishscientistandinventor
EmanuelSwedenborg.Aftertouringthestate,Franciscoreportedbacktohischurch
officersthatTexasofferedthegreatestopportunityformissionsinthecountry,
because“thereisagreatrevolutiongoingonhere.”22
Intheirwidevariety,themissionariesfanningoutacrosstheTexas
countrysidetendedtofocusonwinningoverthesameethno‐culturalgroup.The
ruralpeoplethattheysoughttoconvertweremainlynotIndians,Mexicans,or,for
thatmatter,Germans,Bohemians,orotherimmigrants,butthenative‐born,English‐
speakingfarmerswhocomprisedthedemographicmajorityinthestate.This
majoritysustainedelementsofProtestantcultureandprobablyshowedless
“ignoranceofChristianity”thanclaimedintheexcitedreportsofthemissionaries.21HenryRenfro,LettertotheEditor,TheTexasBaptist,September2,1856,inWilliamClarkGriggs,ParsonHenryRenfro:FreeThinkingontheTexasFrontier(Austin,1994),11‐15.22KeithLynnKing,“ReligiousDimensionsoftheAgrarianProtestinTexas,1870‐1908,”PhDdiss.,UniversityofIllinoisKing,“ReligiousDimensions,”163.
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 13
ManydesolatefarmcabinshadaBibleontheshelf,thetextfromwhichfarm
childrenoftenlearnedtheirletters.Farmwomenoftenconsideredbiblereadingan
obligationasmuchasthehouseholdchores.Inthatcontext,biblicalreferencesand
biblestorieswerewovencloselyintohowruralpeoplediscussedandargued,across
thespectrumofbeliefandunbelief.
Missionariesalsousedsimilarmethodsofrecruitingas,forexample,intheir
useofcampmeetings.Revivalencampmentswheremissionariespreachedunder
bigtentstopotentialconvertsservedasameansbywhichtheevangelicalshad
conqueredtheSouthinapreviousgeneration.InlatenineteenthcenturyTexas,the
campmeetingwasanattractiveformforruralpeople,andthemissionariesmade
themostofit.AcampmeetingbyaforestspringoronthebanksoftheBrazosRiver
providedacoolplaceforfarmfamiliestorestandsocializeduringthesummer
heat.23Theyalsogavefarmerstheopportunitytobeentertainedandinformedby
talentedspeakersonbehalfofawidechoiceofcreedsandbeliefs.Underthecamp
meetingtent,farmersmightlistentothePresbyterianministerWilliamB.Bloys.
TrainedfortheministryinIllinois,Bloyshadhoped“toservetheLordinIndia,”but
becauseofhispoorhealthhischurchhadsenthimtoTexasinstead.Heheldhisfirst
campmeetingatSkillmanGroveoutsideofFortDavis,reportingthatofforty‐six
participants,onlyoneadultmanandfivewomenwere“professingChristians.”24
ExactlywhatBloysmeantbytheclaimthattheotherfortywerenot“professing
Christians”isunclear.Theclaimsuggests,however,thatanelementofnoveltyand23“RevivalNews,”TexasChristianAdvocate(Galveston,TX),August25,1883.24“TheTrueStoryAbouttheFirstCampMeetingHeldOctober10th,1890,atSkillmanGrove,”unpublishedms.,and“CoveSpringCampMeetin,”in“Campmeetings”verticalfile,CenterforAmericanHistory,Austin,Texas.
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 14
discoverywasoneoftheattractionsofthecampmeeting.Indeed,theSpiritualists,
heldwell‐attendedruralcampmeetingsincentralTexasthatwerenotexplicitly
Christianatall,butdrewalargeruralfollowingtowitnesspresentationsbyboth
maleandfemalemediumsexplainingthescienceandpracticeofcommunicating
withthedead.25
Thecampmeeting,withitslowoverheadcostsandwithcleanwaterandcool
shadeprovidingtheessentialinfrastructure,allowedtheSpiritualistsandother
unorthodoxgroupstocompetewiththemoreorthodoxBaptists,Methodists,and
otherevangelicals.Theunorthodoxmovementshadoneotherfactorworkingfor
them.Duringthelatenineteenthcenturythemainlineevangelicalchurcheswere
consumedbyinternalconflict.In1891,ThomasDewittTalmagethefamed
PresbyterianclergymannotedfromhisBrooklyn,NewYork,ministrythat:“thisisa
timeofresoundingecclesiasticalquarrel.Neverwithinyourmemoryorminehas
theairbeensofullofmissiles.”26TheProtestantchurcheshadtheirusualinter‐
denominationaldisputesovertheusualissuessuchasthetechniquesandtimingof
baptism,theroleoftheclergy,andwhetheritwasapreorpost‐millennialage.But
the“resoundingecclesiasticalquarrel”thatTalmagereferencedinvolvedwhatthe
Texaschurchesconsideredthepressingissuesofthetime.
InstructionssenttotheMethodist’sInternationalSundaySchoolwenttothe
heartofthecrisis.HowwerethefaithfultoteachchildrentheGospelinatimewhen
“skepticalcriticshaveattemptedtoprovetheMosaicbookstobetheproductofthe
25“InCamp.TheDayWiththeSpiritualistsatOakCliff,”DailyTimesHerald(Dallas,TX),September1,2,4,6,1896.26Caucasian(Clinton,NC),September28,1893.
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 15
priestlyage”?Howtoconfront“theso‐calledmodernscientificandcritical
objectionstothebookofGenesis”?Assuchviewscouldnolongerbekeptfromthe
students,oreasilyrefutedexceptbytheologiansofhighertraining,theinstructions
suggestedthatSundayschoolteachersberemindedthat“everythoughtfulchild
knowsbyhisconsciencethatheisasinner,”andtherebychangethesubject.Butthe
subjectcouldnotbesoeasilychanged.27Discoveriesinbiologyandphysics,andthe
influenceofsocialevolutionarythinking,gaveanewmoralauthoritytoempirical
evidenceandrationalinquiry.Scienceandreasonwerelookedonasthenew
arbitersofmoralityandtruth.TheresonanceofHigherCriticismmeantthatthe
Biblewasincreasinglysubjecttothesamecriticalstandard,which,amongother
things,meantthatJesusasmanlyGodhadtocontendwiththenotionofJesusasa
godlyman.Meanwhile,astheTexasMethodistswarned,“Infidelityisfondof
comparingChristianitywithotherreligions,”asglobalinterconnectionsalsospread
knowledgeofnon‐Christianbeliefs.In1893,theProtestantchurchesorganizeda
WorldParliamentofReligionstocoincidewiththeChicagoWorldsFair.Overa
hundredandfiftythousandpeopletookpartinitssessions,comparingnoteswith
representativesfromacrossAsiaandtheMiddleEastaboutBuddha,Zoroaster,
Confucius,andMohammed.28
Moreover,thesocialcrisesofthe1880sand90sfurtherexacerbatedthe
“ecclesiasticalquarrel.”Theyawninggapbetweenrichandpoor,andthepowerful
27TexasChristianAdvocate,January13,1887.28TexasChristianAdvocate,August25,1883;MaxMuller,“TheRealSignificanceoftheParliamentofReligions,”Arena11(1894),1‐14;RichardHughesSeager,TheWorld’sParliamentofReligions:TheEast/WestEncounter,Chicago,1893(Bloomington:UniversityofIndiana,1995).
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riseofplebiansocialmovementsposedthepoliticaldilemma:werethechurches
aboutthefutureafterlifeorsavinghumanityinthehereandnow?WasJesusthe
saviorofindividualsoulsorwashethecarpenterwhosoughtsocialjusticeforthe
poor?Theconflictsoverhowtoadapttothisnewintellectualandpolitical
environmentplayedoutwithinnationaldenominations.Theyragedintheelite
seminariesinChicago,NewYork,andPrinceton,producingthe“NewTheology,”as
urbanmiddleclassreformersalignedwithaSocialGospel.
ThesameforceswereatworkwithintheevangelicalmovementsinTexas,
stimulatingsharppolemics,heresytrials,reforms,andschisms,aswellasreligious
indifferenceandunbelief.TheclergyatBaylorUniversityfeared“graveand
dangerous”hereticsworkingtheir“ruinousteaching”withinthechurch.29The
Universityitselffacednotonlythecompetitionfrom“cheapandshowy”Catholic
schools,butespeciallyfromthesystemofpubliceducation,that“isbeing
manipulatedbyInfidels&GodlessmenfortheruinofourChildren&Texas.”30At
rootoftheproblemsconfrontingChristianityinTexas,accordingtotheBaptist
leadership,wastheabilityofinfidelstoexploitignoranceofDivineRevelation.The
Rev.BenajahH.CarrolltaughtatBaylor,ministeredtheFirstBaptistChurchin
Waco,andwasthemostpowerfulBaptisttheologianinthestate.Asayoungerman,
Carrollridiculedreligionandconsideredhimselfa“committedinfidel”priortoa
campmeetingconversion.Asalateconverttothecause,hewadedintoonereligious
29W.E.Penn,Trenton,TN,toRev.B.H.Carroll,Waco,TX,April18,1889,B.H.CarrollPapers,TexasCollection,BaylorUniversity.30RufusC.BurlesonandT.E.Muse,undatedlettertoCommitteeonSchoolsandEducation,RufusC.BurlesonPapers,TexasCollection,BaylorUniversity.
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controversyafterthenextto“raisethestandard”oforthodoxy.31In1884he
deliveredamuch‐publicizedsermonentitled“TheAgnostic,”hundredsofcopiesof
whichwerehandedoutfreeonthestreetsofWaco.InthesermonCarrollanalyzed
an“infideltidewhichpushesitschillingwavesovertheearth.”Thesourceofthis
tidewasthepromiscuousspreadofthe“evolutionhypothesis.”Hidingbehindthe
fashionableviewsofSpencer,Darwin,Huxley,Buckle,andJohnStuartMill,Carroll
warned,“theenemy”keptthepeopleinignoranceoftheirGod.32
Indifference,however,compoundedignorance.ToomanyTexansdrifted
awayfromreligionandbeliefbecauseoflackofinterest.ThemissionaryRev.H.S.
Thrallviewedreligiousindifferencetobethemostchallengingobstacletowinning
soulsinTexas.Healsorealizedthatthespreadofunbeliefwasthedangerous
corollarytoagrarianandlaborunrest.“Suchcrimesasboycotting,fencecuttingand
strikes,”Thrallnoted,“arenewphasesinTexassociety.Thisisnotall.Thereisa
constantlyincreasingclassofpeopleindifferenttothegospel.”“Indifference,”Thrall
concluded,“wastheenemytobeconquered.”33
OnesuchconquesttookplaceinthesmallBowieCountytownofIngersollin
thenortheastcornerofthestate.Inthe1870s,theoriginalsettlersnamedtheir
towninhonoroftheagnosticRobertG.Ingersoll,whomadehisnameasafiery
criticofChristianityandother“superstitiousreligions.”AdiscipleofVoltaire,
31KeithLynnCogburn,“B.H.CarrollandControversy:AStudyofHisLeadershipamongTexasBaptists,1871‐1899,”MAthesis,BaylorUniversity,1983.32BenajahH.Carroll,“TheAgonistic.ASermon.DeliveredintheBaptistChurch,Waco,Texas,Sunday,June1,1884(Gatesville,TX:Advance,1884),4,21.JamesB.Cranfill,“Shaw:FreeThinkerandBiographerofBrann,”unpublishedmsc1929,TexasCollection,BaylorUniversity.33TexasChristianAdvocate(Galveston,TX),January27,1887.
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IngersolltranslatedEnlightenmentrationalismintotheAmericanvernacular.He
wasperhapsthesinglemostpopularoratorinthecountry,andhishighlymoralistic
messageofhumansolidarityresonatedwithintheranksofruralandlaborreform.34
EugeneDebswoulddescribeIngersoll’sfaithas“loveandserviceandconsecration
ofhumanity.”35AshistorianJamesTurnerexplainedthegeneralcontext,“moralism
wasthepeakthatstoodstill,prominentinitsisolation,afterotherbeliefshad
eroded.”36HereitmustbestressedthatintheeyesofmanyTexansIngersollhad
significantstrikesagainsthim.HewasaformerabolitionistandcolonelintheUnion
Army,afriendofFrederickDouglassandadvocateofcivilrightsforAfrican
Americans,aRepublicanPartypowerbroker,andaNewYorkcorporatelawyer
employedbysomeofthemostresentedrailroadcorporations.Notsurprisingly,to
nameatownafter“theGreatAgnostic”wasaredflagtoProtestantmissionaries,
whoin1886successfullytargetedthetownforarevival,inthewakeofwhichthe
townwasrechristenedRedwater.37ButtheIngersollphenomenoncontinuedto
attractattentionintheLoneStarstate.In1896,IngersolltookhiscrusadetoTexas,
andfamiliespiledintowagonsandtraveledfromdistantfarmstohearhissecular
messageofhumanloveandhissharp‐tonguedrefutationsoftheBible.38
34KansasFarmer(Topeka),July7,1887;Farmer&Mechanic(Raleigh),December6,1877;Caucasian(Clinton,NorthCarolina),February18,1892.35EugeneV.Debs,“RecollectionsofIngersoll,”Pearson’sMagazine(April1917).36JamesTurner,WithoutGod,WithoutCreed:TheOriginsofUnbeliefinAmerica(Baltimore:JohnsHopkins,1985),203.37HandbookofTexasOnline,s.v.","http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/RR/hlr8.html(accessedNovember4,2009).38DallasMorningNews,February2,1896.
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Ingersoll’spresenceinTexasprovidesawindowintothereligiouspoliticsof
thetime,apoliticsthathasbeenlargelymissedinthestudyofruralandworking
classAmericans.FollowingtheleadofE.P.Thompson,socialandlaborhistoriansof
the1970sand1980srediscoveredthereligiosityofthecommonfolkofthenation’s
fieldsandworkshops.JustasE.P.ThompsondemonstratedthatMethodismwasthe
traditionalreligionoftheLondonlaborer,itwasunderstoodthatthetoilersinthe
Americanheartlandwererearedinthetraditionofthechurchesandsteepedinthe
conventionsofpiety.39Buttoooftentheruralworldtheypaintedtendedtowards
staticandessentialisttraditionalism.TheinvocationoftheProtestantevangelical
traditionbecamesomethingofatalismanofhistoricalanalysis.Theconflictive,
dynamic,innovative,modernelementsthatproducedtheideologicalstorms
sweepingacrossagrarianlandscapessimplydidnotfitintowhatmightbecalleda
Thompsonianframeworkoftraditionalruralresistancetosecularmodernity.
HereanotherkeyinsightofE.P.Thompson’scomesintoplay.Referringto
EnglishMethodism,Thompsonobservedthatevangelicalswere“highlypolitically
consciousreligions.”Withtheemergenceofplebianpolitics,henoted,therewasa
“drasticreorientationofhatred,”awayfrom“SinandthePope”andtowards
unbelief,freethought,andTomPaine,whohelduparadicalismwithamoral
religion“todogood.”PopularMethodisminEnglandevolvedintensionwiththis
pole.40ItmightbesaidthatIngersollwasnoTomPaine;hesurelywasmore
39E.P.Thompson,TheMakingoftheEnglishWorkingClass(NewYork,1963),350‐400;HerbertGutman,“ProtestantismandtheAmericanLaborMovement,”WorkCultureandSocietyinIndustrializingAmerica(NewYork,1966),79‐117;RobertC.McMath,Jr.,“PopulistBaseCommunities:TheEvangelicalRootsofFarmProtestinTexas,”Locus1(1988),53‐63.40E.P.Thompson,TheMakingoftheEnglishWorkingClass,96,391‐2.
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conservativepolitically.Buttheparallelisstillsuggestive:the“ecclesiastical
quarrels”withinruralevangelicalismevolvedinasimilartensionwiththepoleof
freethoughtandunbelief.41
JamesD.Shaw,asaformerMethodistminister,lackedIngersoll’sfame,biting
witandfloridoratory.Buthehadasimilarreputationformoralintegrity,andwas
theLoneStarState’smostrespectedandinfluentialsecularist.Shawhadministered
overWaco’sFifthStreetChurch,themostprominentMethodistcongregationin
centralTexas.InSeptemberof1882hegaveasermonthatheadlinedthe
newspapersandcreatedasensationfromthestreetsofWacototheremotecorners
ofruralTexas.42ThenewspapersreportedthatShaw,“rejectstheabsolute
inspirationofthescripture,theatonement,thesavingpoweroffaith,etc.,and
acceptstheteachingsofChristasahigherhumanphilosophy.”InNovemberof
1882,theNorthwestConferenceoftheMethodistChurch,meetinginCleburne,
Texas,accusedShawofadvocatingviews“detrimentaltoreligionandinjuriousto
thechurch,”andproceededtostriptheconvictedhereticofhischurchpositions.In
December,ShawsetupaReligiousandBenevolentAssociationforthepurposesof
conductingcharitableworkandofdiscussingliberalideasaboutreligionand
41Inrecentdecades,RobertIngersollhasbeeneffectivelyairbrushedfromhistorybooksorreducedtoacomicfootnote,butnopersonloomedlargeroverthepost‐CivilWarreligiousconflicts.MargaretSangerobservedthatthehundred‐yearbattleforreligiousliberty“cametoaclimaxinthecareerofRobertG.Ingersoll.”MargaretSanger,WomanandtheNewRace(NewYork:Truth,1920),187‐88.EugeneDebsdescribedIngersollas“themosttalkedaboutmaninAmerica,”whohaddonemoretoimprovethehumanconditionthananymaninanyage.EugeneV.DebstoEvaParkerIngersoll,July23,1906,inLettersofEugeneV.Debs,vol.1,(Urbana:UniversityofIllinois,1990),185‐86,229;EugeneV.Debs,“RecollectionsofIngersoll,”Pearson’sMagazine(April1917).42JamesB.Cranfill,“Shaw:FreeThinkerandBiographerofBrann,”unpublishedmsc1929,TexasCollection,BaylorUniversity;VirginiaMing,“J.D.Shaw:Freethinker,”WacoHeritage&Historyvol.10,no.2(summer1979,1‐21.
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morality.SympathizingwithShaw’sefforts,theCountyJudgeGeorgeBruceGerald
invitedthenewassociationtoholditsSundaymeetingsinhiscourtroom.In1884
ShawconstructedLiberalHallforhiscongregation,andherehepublishedthe
IndependentPulpit,ajournaldevotedtofreethought.Shaw’sreputationgrewacross
thestateandthecountry.HesharedthestagewithRobertIngersollatthe1885
nationalconventionoftheAmericanSecularUnionheldinCleveland.Inwhatthe
Texasclergydescribedastheclashbetweenthe“Calvinists”andthe“Ingersollites,”
Shawhademergedasakeyfigureontheliberalside.43
LiberalHallsponsoredlecturesandsymposiacoveringabroadterrainof
history,philosophy,andscience.GuestsincludedSpiritualistmediumsandJewish
rabbis.TheIndependentPulpitreportedontheworkofElizabethCadyStantonand
debatesontherelationshipbetweenreligionandwomen’srights.Itdiscussedthe
latestworksofSpencerandcomparativeandworldreligions.Withthreethousand
subscribers,theIndependentPulpitwasoneofWaco’smostsuccessfulreligious
publicationsandLiberalHallhousedoneofitslargestcongregations,whose
membershipincludedJudgeGeorgeandotherrespectedprofessionals.Shaw
meanwhilelecturedacrossthestatetopromotehiscause.Hespokeinthesenate
43Griggs,FreeThoughtontheTexasFrontier,120‐23;“CalvinandIngersoll,”IndependentPulpit(Waco,TX),vol.6,no.4(August1883),5,vol.2,no.2(January1885),127,vol.3.,no.9(November1885),98‐116. Variationsontheterm“Ingersollite”or“Ingersollism”werecommonlyusedinTexasatleastsince1880,whentheMethodistRev.G.W.Briggsdeliveredawidelypublicizedlecturetitled“IngersollandIngersollism.”ADefenseofFreeThought:BeingaProtestandReplytoaLectureDeliveredintheGalvestionOperaHouse,May13,1880,bytheRev.G.W.Briggs,ByanAgnostic(Galveston,TX,1890).
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 22
chamberoftheTexaslegislatureinAustin,andhislecturespackedcourthousesand
operahousesincitiesandtownsthroughoutTexas.44
Shawalsotraveledextensivelytothesmalltownsandvillagesofcentral
Texas,meetinginfarmers’homesandruralschoolhouses.HevisitedtheCross
Timbersdistrict,thebirthplaceoftheFarmers’Alliance,tohelpcelebratetheeighth
anniversaryofthe“AssociationofFreethinkersofBellCounty,”whichwasthefirst
organizationoffreethinkersinTexas.Associationscommittedtowhatwasknown
as“liberalism,”“secularism,”or“freethought”flourishedinsuchplacesduringthe
post‐CivilWardecades,despiteoccasionalhostilityofProtestantcitizens.In1877,
thepresidentoftheBellCountyassociation,Dr.LeviJamesRussell,hadbeen
captured,stripped,andsavagelywhippedbyagroupofhisChristianneighbors.45
Shaw’slecturecircuitaimedtoencouragetheruralassociations.Atypicalnotefrom
“TheLectureField”reportedonavisittoMoscowinPolkCounty,where“onSunday
morningthecrowdwastoolargefortheschoolhouse”sothefreethinkerswere
invitedtousetheBaptistchurch.Onthatsametrip,Shaw“drovetothehouseofMr.
T.S.Gay,asturdyfarmerwhoevolutedintoLiberalismfromPrimitiveBaptist
Faith.”46TheIndependentPulpitregularlyreportedonsuchconversionstories.“I
formerlybelievedinthedoctrinestaughtbytheMethodists,”explainedN.D.Morris
ofDuncanville,“butthroughaprocessofreasoningIbecameconvincedthatIwas
44IndependentPulpit,vol.1,no.6(August1883),4,vol.1,no.10(January1884),8,vol.3,no.1(March1885),7,10‐11,vol.3,no.12(February1886),137,vol.4,no.1(March1886),4‐6,30‐32,vol.4,no.5(July1886),104.45BlakeW.Barrow,“FreethoughtinTexas:J.D.ShawandtheIndependentPulpit,”MAthesis,BaylorUniversity,1983,133;WilliamClarkGriggs,ParsonHenryRenfro:FreeThinkingontheTexasFrontier(Austin,1994),118‐1946IndependentPulpit,vol.4,no.7(October1886),187.
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travelinginthewrongcoursetoobtainhappiness.”47Aneighty‐fouryearoldman
fromLamarCountywrote“IfoundtheMethodistchurchwhenIwasfifteen….I
thoughtthatitwasmydutytorelyonthebloodofJesus.Iam,now,ashamedofsuch
adoctrine.”48M.M.ClackofBastropCountywrotetoShaw,“whilstIhaveever
respectedtheearnestnessofyourconvictions,Ihavebeentooreligioustocastmy
nickelsinyourmissionarybox.Butitisaprogressiveage–timeschangeandwe
change…Hereisadollar.”49
OneofthemostcompellingconversiontestimoniescamefromtheRev.
HenryRenfro,theformerBaylorstudentwhobythe1880swasawell‐respected
ministerandfarmerinJohnsonCounty.InaMay1884lettertotheIndependent
Pulpitheexplainedhistrajectoryoutofthechurch:
HereIamfarming,attendingtohorses,cattle,sheepandhogs,mymindstillmoreburdenedthanmybody,askingandansweringathousandquestionsabouttheBible,Christianity,churchtrials,orthodoxyandheterodoxy,tillIhavenothadonemomenttosparetoletyouknowhowIamgettingalongwithmysorewarfareagainsttheworld,thefleshandthedevil….IamoutoftheBaptistchurch.Regularlytrieduponthechargeofinfidelity,Iwasturnedovertothebuffetingofsatan….Myhabitwastoreadbutlittle,workhardalltheweek,andthentrusttothereflectionsandmeditationsofamorning’sride…tohelpmethrough…sermononSunday.Forthelasttwoorthreeyears,Ihavebeenreadingconsiderablyforamanofmyhurriedlife,andallthatwhilemydoubtshavebeengrowingstrongerandstronger,tillnow,Iamwoefullyskeptical.Ihavelearnedthisfact,thattoreadistothink,tothinkistoinvestigate,toinvestigateistodoubt,andtodoubtistobedamnedbyorthodoxchurches.50
RenfrohadsearchedforanswersintheworksofSpinoza,Paine,and
Ingersoll.Hisreputationformoralcourageonlygrewamonghisneighborswhenhis47IndependentPulpit,vol.2,no.7(September1884),68.48IndependentPulpit,vol.1,no.7(September1883),10.49IndependentPulpit,vol.1,no.12(February1884),5.50IndependentPulpit,vol.2,no.3(May1884),34.
Charles Postel 1/21/10 Page 24
readingledtohisexpulsionfromthechurch.Afterhistrial,farmersinthedistrict
packedintotheAlvaradooperahousein“thelargestaudienceevergatheredthere”
tohearwhathehadtosay.51
FreethinkerssuchasJamesShawandHenryRenfrotoppledorthodoxies,but
theyalwaysdidsowithapoliterespectforbothfriendandfoe.Bycontrast,William
CowperBrannattackedthereligiouslyorthodoxbywayoffiercejournalisticassault.
BroughtuponafarmindownstateIllinois,asayoungmanheworkedasafireman
onTexasfreighttrainsandasapitcheronasemi‐professionalbaseballteam.He
foundhiscallingwritingcolumnsforanumberofTexasnewspapers.Althoughhe
hadlittleformaleducation,hisstudyofliteratureextendedfromtheancientclassics
toMcCauley,Carlisle,andTomPaine.Takinganinterestinfinancialreform,he
popularizedasemi‐Populistsystemforanexpandedcurrency.Histalentsand
passions,however,ledhimtofocusonliterary,social,andreligiouscriticism.In
1895,fromhisWacooffice,helaunchedtheIconoclastasamonthlymagazine
devotedtotheseissues.52
Brannemployedasystemofbitingsarcasmanddestructiveinsult,whichhe
regularlyaimedatthe“pharisaicalplutocrats”oftheProtestantchurches.Heabused
DeWittTalmageas“amonstrousbagoffetidwind,”observingthat“themanwho
canfindintellectualfoodinTalmadge’ssermonscouldacquireacaseofdelirium
tremensbydrinkingthefrothoutofapopbottle.”Forhisownspiritual
51WilliamClarkGriggs,ParsonHenryRenfro:FreeThinkingontheTexasFrontier(Austin,1994),118‐19,123‐25,190;IndependentPulpit,vol.2,no.1(March1884),5.52Brannreportedlylost$27,000inbetswhenhiscandidateWilliamJenningsBryanlostthe1896presidentialelection.AndyKopplin,“W.C.Brann,ATexasIconoclast,”TexasHistorian(May1981),Wm.CowperBrannverticalfile,CenterforAmericanHistory,UniversityofTexas,Austin;Carver,BrannandtheIconoclast,18‐26.
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nourishment,Brannpointedtothe“SacredBooksofallcenturies[which]are
essentiallythesame–thehalfarticulatevoiceoftheworldcryingforlight...theold
testamentandthenew,theKoranandthesacredVedas,thenorthernSagasandthe
southernmythologies…IsitwithSiddarthabeneaththeBodhitreeandfollowthe
prophetofIslaminallhispilgrimages;IstandwithMosesonSinai’sflamingcrest
andlistentotheprayerofChristintheGardenofGehtsemane.”53Suchchallengesto
religiousorthodoxyalarmedWaco’sBaptistofficialdom,butdrewafascinated
readership.TheIconoclastquicklyemergedasapublishingphenomenon.Withover
90,000subscribers,BrannwouldclaimtheIconoclastwas“TheonlyAmerican
magazinethatsecured100,000readersinasingleyear.”Somesubscriptionswere
mailedtoaddressesacrossthecountryandaroundtheglobe,buttensofthousands
ofbundledcopiesoftheIconoclastarrivedinhundredsofruralpostofficesacross
Texas.54
BrannbefriendedJamesShaw,JudgeGeorgeandotherfreethinkers,yethe
viewedhimselfasanadvocateofabroad‐mindedChristianity.Inapublicletter
addressedtoRobertIngersoll,Brannrejectedasa“foolishfalsehood”that“because
AlmightyGodhasnotseenpropertorevealhimselfinallsupernalsplendorto
Messrs.HumeandVoltaire,PaineandIngersolltheworldhasnogoodreasonfor
beliefinhisexistence.”Atthesametime,headdedthatIngersollhad“donemoreto
53Carver,BrannandtheIconoclast,41‐3.54MartinJosephDawson,“Image‐BreakerBrannSixDecadesAfter,”SouthwestReview(Spring1958),148‐58;FredWhiteheadandVerleMuhrer,FreethoughtontheAmericanFrontier(Buffalo,NY:Prometheus,1992),155.
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intellectualizeandhumanizeman’sconceptionofAlmightyGod,thananyreformer
sincethedaysofChrist.”55
DespitethebitternessofhisjournalisticattacksontheBaylorUniversity
hierarchy,Brannalsowantedto“makeBaylorbetter.”HeadmiredtheBaptist
ministerThomasDixon,Jr.,who,likeBrann,embraceda“broad‐minded”andself‐
consciouslyprogressivefaith.BornandraisedinNorthCarolina,Dixonwouldlater
gainfameandfortuneastheauthorofthewhitesupremacistnovels,TheClansman
andTheLeopard’sSpots,onwhichD.W.GriffithwouldbasehisepicfilmBirthofa
Nation.Butintheearly1890sDixonwasatthezenithofhiscareerasareform‐
mindedevangelical.Withhisservicesmuchindemand,heministeredtheDudley
StreetChurchinBostonandthe23rdStreetBaptistChurchinManhattan.From
thesehigh‐profilevenuesheadvocatedrecastingreligionin“thelanguageof
modernlife,gratefulforallofthelightofscience,philosophy,andcriticism.”56Dixon
definedhisprogressivefaithasbeing“inlifeanddeathstrugglewithtraditionand
bigotry.”HereitmustbestressedthatwhenDixonattackedbigotry,hemeant
religiousintolerance.Asforhisvirulentracismandwhitenationalism,Dixon
justifiedwhitesupremacyasthedictateofprogressandmodernscience.Sodid
Brann,whowroteblood‐curdlingjeremiadsabout“theNegrorape‐fiend.”For
Brann,too,AfricanAmericanswereperceivedasaroadblocktoprogress,“theBete
NoireoftheSouth,amillstoneaboutherneck.”57
55“BranntoBob.TheApostleWritesthePagan,”Iconoclast,vol.5,no.1(February1895),15.56ThomasDixon,Jr.,“Progress,”inLivingProblemsinReligionandSocialScience(NewYork:Dillingham,1889),129‐43.57Carver,BrannandtheIconoclast,43‐4.
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Asahighlypoliticaltheologian,Dixon’sextensiveexchangeswithRobert
Ingersollshowedthathewaskeenlyattunedtothenecessitytoadaptand
innovate.58Hewasalsoprofoundlyinfluencedbytheriseofplebianpolitics.Hetook
partinthe1891nationalPopulistconventioninCincinnati,andadmiredthe
PopulistsasmuchasmanyPopulistsadmiredhim.By1895,Dixon’sheterodoxyhad
takenhimoutsidetheBaptistchurchtofounda“People’sTemple”committedto
socialjusticeandhumansolidarity.59ManyTexanssympathizedwithasimilar
liberalorhumanistfaith.Suchideaswerewidespreadamongthelargenumberof
unaffiliatedChristians.Theyalsotookorganizedformintheliberalorprogressive
wingoftheDisciplesofChristandother“Campbellite”or“restorationist”churches
seekingtoreclaimChristianityonthemoralfoundationofdoinggood.
TheAfrican‐Americanchurches,however,madeupbyfarthelargest
evangelicalcontingentseekingamoreliberalpolicy.Mostlyfarmers,tenants,and
farmlaborersonlyoneortwogenerationsremovedfromslavery,blackTexans
facedintensepovertyandpoliticalrepressionunderthe“redeemed”regimeof
58In1892,Dixonpublishedabookwith200pagesofhissermonstreatingtheviewsofIngersoll.CommentingonDixon’sbook,EugeneDebsobservedatthetime:“IintroducethetestimonyofRev.ThomasDixon,ofNewYork,whodeclaresthatMr.Ingersoll‘hasdonemuchtoridtheworldofthesuperstitions,lies,shams,humbugs,traditions,andpretensesthatusedtopasscurrentasorthodoxtruth.’Suchistheadmissionofanorthodoxclergyman,whohaspublishedabook…toarresttheconqueringmissionofMr.Ingersoll.”ThomasDixon,Jr.,DixononIngersoll(NewYork:Alden,1892);EugeneV.Debs,“RobertIngersoll,”AmericanJournalofPolitics(February1893),198‐203.AnditwasnotjustDixon,asreform‐mindedtheologiansfromDavidSwingtoHenryWardBeecherfeltcompelledtoengagethe“mistakesofIngersoll,”J.B.McClure,editor,MistakesofIngersollandHisAnswersComplete(Chicago:Rhodes&McClure,1884).59W.FitzhughBrundage,“ThomasDixon:AmericanProteus,”inThomasDixonJr.andtheBirthofModernAmerica,ed.MicheleK.GillespieandRandalL.Hall(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversity,2006),23‐45;Caucasian,May21,28,June4,11,18,1891,February11,18,March3,April14,21,1892;MaryElizabethLease,“Mrs.MaryE.Lease,”unpublished,KansasStateHistoricalSociety,Topeka,1912.
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whitesupremacy.Theruralblackchurcheshadmeagerresources,yetthey
increasinglyplayedaroleinneighborhoodsocialandpoliticalnetworks.The
majorityofthesenetworkswereassociatedwiththeBaptists.TheblackBaptist
churchesreceivedaidfromtheNewYorkHomeMissionSociety,andthepaternalist
tutelageofthewhiteclergyinWaco.ButAfricanAmericansjoinedBaptistchurches
becausetheyenjoyedrelativeautonomyfromchurchauthorities,whichmeantthat
churchmembersworshippedinthewaystheywanted,andmadeuseoftheir
churchesforthesocial,educational,andpoliticalfunctionstheyneeded.Thewhite
Baptistleadershipfearedthisautonomy.60TheblackBaptistleadership,however,
strovetoadapt,recognizingthatthefateofthechurchesrestedontheirabilityto
addresstheacutesocialproblemsoftheirimpoverishedruralmembership.
Inthelate1880sandearly1890s,theAfrican‐AmericanpastorLeeLewis
CampbellwasresponsibleformuchofthemissionaryworkamongblackTexans.
BorninMilamCounty,CampbellgainedaneducationandattendedtheUniversityof
Chicago.FromhisministryinAustin,hewouldbecomepresidentoftheGeneral
BaptistStateConvention,andmoderatoroftheSt.John’sAssociationthatclaimed
230,000membersinthestate,andthatheldannualcampmeetingsfivetoten
thousandstrong.Regardingthepoliticsofrace,Campbellpreachedaccommodation.
“TheracesintheSoutharegettingalongsmoothly,”henoted,“andwherethenegro
acceptstheadviceofhiswhiteneighborprosperityisinevidence.”61Butonmatters
ofreligion,Campbelladvocatedinnovation.Hearguedifreligionweretoaddress60LawrenceD.Rice,TheNegroinTexas,18741900(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversity,1971),232,171‐75.61“EncampmentofNegroes,”“NegroLeaderInvitesStudyRaceProblem,”“DeathClaimsDr.L.L.Campbell,”NegroScrapbooks,CenterforAmericanHistory,UniversityofTexas,Austin.
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theneedsofthepeople,itneededtobealignedwiththelatestinhumanthought,
takingintoaccountDarwinandAgassiz,EmersonandLowell.Reflectinghisinterest
incomparativereligion,hedescribedthe1893WorldParliamentofReligionsheld
inChicagoas“likeanawakening.”Mostsignificantly,Campbellemphasized“social
service”over“savingsouls.”HeeditedtheSundaySchoolHeraldthatcovereda
broadrangeofsocialandpoliticaltopics,includingtheprosandconsofthe
emergingPeople’sPartyfortheblackfarmer.Giventhatthechurch’sfollowingwas
overwhelminglycomposedofblackfarmersandfarmlaborersfacingcruelpoverty
andhardships,forthechurchtosurvivepoliticallyithadto“savemen’sbodiesand
brightenandenrichtheirlives.”62PerhapsCampbell,muchlikeMartinLutherKing,
Jr.halfacenturylater,hadlearnedelementsoftheSocialGospelfromhisnorthern
education.Atthesametime,theSocialGospelemergingfromnorthernuniversities
andseminariesresembledinitsessentialsthereligiousadaptationsandinnovations
undertakenbyabroadsectionofruralTexans,blackandwhite,seekingtoimprove
thehereandnow.
AcrossTexas,ruralfolkandtownspeople,thechurchedandunchurched,
engagedatmultiplelevelsinthereligiouscontroversies.Asakeenjournalist,
WilliamCowperBrannunderstoodthepopularsentimentsrunningagainstthe
entrenchedBaptistleadership.TotheextentthattheIconoclastfeaturedexposesof
Baptistscandalandintrigue,itservedareadershipdeeplyresentfulof“plutocratic
preachers.”Brann’smostsensationaleditorialsinvolvedthepregnancyofateenage
BraziliangirlwhohadbeeninthecareofaBaylorofficialand,accordingto
62SundaySchoolHerald(Austin,TX),May21,June4,June25,July30,1892.
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testimonyofthegirl,theembraceoftheofficial’sbrother.IntheeyesoftheBaylor
community,Brann’ssarcasticharpingonthecasehadcrossedthelineoftolerance.
OnOctober2,1897,anangrymobofBaylorstudentsabductedBrannwith
planstotarandfeatherthe“atheist,”andwhenthoseplansfellthroughthey
decidedtohanghimfromatreeontheedgeofcampus.Thetimelyinterventionof
twoBaylorprofessorspreventedalynching.Beforehiswoundshealed,Brannwas
againabductedandhorsewhippedbytwoBaylorstalwarts.Inresponsetothe
assaultsonhisfriend,JudgeGeraldsubmittedaprotestnotetoaWaconewspaper
thatledtotheassassinationattemptontheJudge.Fourmonthslater,Brannhimself
wasmurdered,silencingtheIconoclast,andclosinganepochofintensereligious
conflict.63
Intheverysameruraldistrictsthathadwitnessedagenerationofreligious
strife,Texasfarmersalsounleashedapoliticalrevoltagainstcorporatepower.They
launchedtheFarmers’Alliance,whichprovidedtheorganizationalandideological
impetusforthenationalPopulistmovement.Theconnectionsbetweenthesetwo
developmentsarenotimmediatelytransparent.TheFarmers’Allianceandthe
PopulistPartymaintainedabanondiscussionofreligiousmatterswithintheir
organizations.Religiousorganizations,suchasShaw’sassociationoffreethinkers,
tendedtoavoiddiscussionofpolitics.ThesamewastrueofBrann’sIconoclast,
althoughitcommentedfavorablyonthePopulistsandtheirreforms,andexpressed
63Carver,BrannandtheIconoclast,142‐80.
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solidaritywhenPopulistnewspapersfacedchurchboycottsmuchastheIconoclast
did.64Yet,abundantevidencepointstoaconnection.
Countybycountymappingsuggestsacorrespondencebetweenthepresence
ofmembersofliberalorheterodoxreligioussocietiesandPopulistvoting.65Other
evidencehelpstofillinthemap.Forexample,enthusiastsfortherationalist
philosophyofEmanuelSwedenborghadaspecialplaceintheTexasPopulist
leadership.ThisincludedThomasKingwhoservedasajudgeandledthethirdparty
movementinErathCounty,andhisfriendAlbertFrancisco,whowasbotharural
PopulistandaruralmissionaryfortheSwedenborgianNewChurch.Thomas
Nugent,thePeople’sPartycandidateforgovernor,wasperhapsthemostrespected
ofallTexasPopulists.AlthoughsympathetictoSwedenborg’sphilosophy,Nugent
wagedhisownstruggleagainstwhatheconsideredthetyrannyand“thumbscrew”
methodsoftheProtestantreligion,andpursuedahumanistphilosophyoutsideof
churchorcreed.66
TheSouthernMercury,thenewspaperoftheTexasFarmers’Alliance,mainly
avoidedreligiousquestions,butacarefulreaderwouldpickupitsliberalmessages
andprotestsagainstostracismofthereligiouslyheterodox.Thisincludedadefense
oftheSpiritualists,aconsiderablenumberofwhomwerealsoTexasPopulists.
“Certainreligiousfanatics”thatsoughttopersecutetheSpiritualists,theSouthern
Mercurynoted,“forgetthatitwasthepersecutionsofthehandfulofearlyChristians
64Iconoclast,vol.5,no.8(September1895),141‐2,vol.5,no.9(October1895),155,vol.5,no.11(December1895),216.65King,“ReligiousDimensionsoftheAgrarianProtest,”112.66CatherineNugent,ed.,LifeWorkofThomasL.Nugent(Stephenville,Tex.:C.Nugent,1896),161.
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whichgavesuchanimpetus”totheirreligion.67EbenLaFayetteDohoney,the
People’sPartycandidateforstatechiefjusticewasthePopulistsmostfamous
SpiritualistinTexas.Itismoredifficulttomeasuretheconnectionsbetween
SpiritualismandPopulismatthelocallevel.Butweknow,forexample,thata
hundredpercentofalllistedmembersofSpiritualistorganizationsinTexaslivedin
Populiststrongholds.ThatincludedthebackwoodsofGrimesCounty,wherethe
localSpiritualistorganizationhadtwenty‐ninemembers.68Thatmayormaynot
haveincludedJohnW.H.Davis,apoorcottonfarmerwhoranin1894asthe
People’sPartycandidateforcountytaxcollector.WhatwedoknowisthatDavis,
cametoquestionaChristianitythatignoredthehereandnowwithitsmisplaced
focuson“yourdeadcarcassafterdeath,”andthatbythePopulistdecadehestudied
metaphysicalliteraturethatrejectedtheperceivedfallaciesofreligionandbeliefin
agod,infavorof“mentalscience”in“thelightofamorescientificday.”69
AsforthepresenceofagnosticismorfreethoughtintheranksoftheTexas
Populists,thatisperhapsthemostdifficulttomeasure,asthechargeof“atheism”
carriedapoliticalprice.Nonetheless,here,too,wecanfindrevealingconnections.J.
N.ColwickandT.TheoColwick,thepresidentandsecretaryoftheNorseFarmers
Alliance,forexample,werealsosupportersofJamesShawandfreethought.70And
associationsoffreethinkerstookpartinPopulistpoliticsinlessdirectways.In
September1896,thePopuliststurnedtheLaborDayParadeinDallasintoaPeople’s
67SouthernMercury,July12,1888.68King,“ReligiousDimensions,”166‐69.69“NotesofJ.W.H.Davis,”JohnB.RushingCollection,CenterforAmericanHistory,UniversityofTexas,Austin.70IndependentPulpit,vol.9,no.1(March1891),9.
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Partymarch.TomWatson,thewell‐known“agrarianrebel”andPopulistleader
fromGeorgialedtheparade.RightbehindWatsonmarchedthecontingentofthe
DallasFreethinkers’Association.71Presumably,whileorganizershadnotwelcomed
contingentsofthereligious,agnosticswereaspecialcasepreciselybecauseoftheir
irreligion.AsforTomWatson,itisunclearwhetherornothehadtiestotheDallas
agnostics.Watsonhimselfshowednoparticularinterestinreligion,withthe
possibleexceptionofhisworshipofNapoleon.However,oneofWatson’sclosest
comradesinGeorgia,theeditorofhisPeople’sPartyPaperandstateleaderofthe
PopulistParty,wasCharlesC.Post,whowasregularlybrandedan“atheist”byhis
politicalenemies.Infact,Postandhiswifewereadvocatesof“mentalscience,”and
contributedarticlestothemetaphysicalliteraturestudiedbytheGrimesCounty
PopulistorganizerJ.W.H.Davis.72
ThehighprofileofNugent,King,Francisco,Dohoney,andotherreligious
iconoclastsearnedtheTexasPopulistsregularattacksfromtheirDemocraticParty
opponentsasthepartyof“infidels”and“cranks.”73Atthesametime,itwaswell
knownthatformerevangelicalpreachershadaprominentplaceintheranksof
Populistlecturersandorganizers.InruralTexas,theministrywasoneofthefew
professionsavailabletoeducatedyoungmen,anditwasnotunusualforfarmersto
alsoserveasitinerantpreachers.AreporterfromtheGalvestonDailyNewsqueried:
“Howmanypreachersarethereinthepopulistparty.Whoknows?”Thereporter
71DailyTimesHerald(Dallas),September7,1896;DallasMorningNews,September6,1896.72“MentalScience,”Freedom:AJournalofRealisticIdealism(December1,1896),in“NotesofJ.W.H.Davis,”JohnB.RushingCollection,CenterforAmericanHistory,UniversityofTexas,Austin.73RoscoeC.Martin,ThePeople’sPartyinTexas:AStudyofThirdPartyPolitics(Austin:UniversityofTexas,1933),82‐88.
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thenaddedthat,“Itisapopularbeliefthatmorethantwo‐thirdsofthepopulist
oratorshaveatsometimeorotherbeenconnectedtotheministry.”Thisincluded
twosecretariesofthestateFarmers’Alliance,theMethodistcircuitriderHarrison
“Stump”AshbyandtheBaptistparsonS.O.Daws.Whenaskedwhyhequitthe
church,Ashbyexplainedthathecoulddomoreforthehumanraceworkingforthe
PopulistParty,“preachingthegospelofuniversalemancipation,”and“tryingto
liberatethemindsandbodiesofmen.”74
Similarly,theAfrican‐AmericanPopulistJohnB.RaynerlefttheBaptist
ministrytobecomethemostrenownedPopuliststumpspeakerinthecotton
districtsofeasternTexas.OrdinationasapreacherhadallowedRaynerto
supplementhisearningsasaschoolteacher.ButhebridledatProtestantdogmas
andwhathedecriedas“emotionalisminthepews.”Rejecting“emotionalreligion”
andthechurch,Rayneradoptedwhatheunderstoodasthetruereligionofservice
forthegoodofthepeople.75Fromthatperspective,thepresenceofformer
preachersinthePopulistranksdidnotindicatetheholdoftraditionalreligionon
themovementasmuchasitcorrespondedtoE.P.Thompson’sobservation
regardingtheriseofplebianpoliticsasachallengetotheevangelical
cause.
Ruralwomen’sclaimstoequalrightsrepresentedapowerfulforcewithin
thisplebianpolitics.Populistwomenhadtheirownreasonstoresentmale
dominatedchurches.WithintheFarmers’Alliancewomencomprisedmorethana74“PopulistPreachers,”GalvestonDailyNews,September28,1894.75JohnB.Rayner,“GoodCitizenshipandtheNegro,”undatedms.,“SomeofJ.B.Rayner’sWiseSayings,”undatedms.,and“RacialGrowth,”undatedlettertotheDallasMorningNews,JohnB.RaynerPapers,CenterforAmericanHistory,UniversityofTexas,Austin.
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quarterofthemembership,wheretheyenjoyedatleastnominalequalitywithmen,
andwidelydiscussedanddebatedtheproblemsofwomen’srights.Thisincluded
sharpcritiquesofthechurchesandthedenominationalwarfarethatledthe
individualfarmerto“hisspecialchurchforthepurposeofhearinghisownpeculiar
doctrines,”resultinginthefurthersocialisolationofruralwomen.76Populist
womenalsoresentedthehaughtyandsuperiorattitudesthatchurchmembers
expressedtowardstheruralfolk.SusanLuscombeoftheFarmers’Alliancecriticized
thosewho“professtobeChristians,buttheydonotinhabitthisworldtohelpliftup
thefallen,”adding,“ifthereisanythingwehatewithamostcordialhatreditisa
‘holierthanthou’spirit.“77
BettieGay,whomanagedacottonplantationnearColumbus,Texas,was
perhapsuniqueamongtheleadersofTexasPopulisminthatshemaintainedher
standingintheBaptistchurch.Butherrelationswiththechurchcooleddramatically
asherPopulistactivismgrew.Sheexpresseddiscontentwithchurchpoliciesthat
“discourageintellectualeffort”amongwomenandsilencedtheiropinions.78As
farmwomengainedtheirvoicewithintheFarmers’Alliance,theysubjectedthe
churchestocriticismfordenyingtheirequalrights.Asone
femalememberoftheFarmers’Allianceasked,“Ifpoliticsarecorrupt,whatisthe
matterwithourchurchesthatourgreatMethodistconferencerefusedtoseatthe
ladydelegatessent?Isit,too,toocorruptforwomen?”Theanswertothisquestion,
76“WomanintheAlliance,”W.L.GarvinandS.O.Daws,eds.,HistoryoftheNationalFarmers’AllianceandCoOperativeUnionofAmerica(Jacksboro,TX:J.N.Rogers&Co.,1887).77SouthernMercury(Dallas),November13,1888.78BettieGay,“TheInfluenceofWomenintheAlliance,”N.A.Dunning,ed.,TheFarmers’AllianceHistoryandAgriculturalDigest(Washington,D.C.:Alliance,1891),308‐12.
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shewentontoexplain,layintheeffortsofmentokeepwomenintheireconomic
place.“Whenchurchdebtsaretobepaidorministers’salariestoberaised,thenthe
ministersthinkthereisnoharminwoman’scounselandwoman’senergeticwork
butwhenitcomestoadmittingwomendelegatestheyfearthismayprovea
steppingstonetothepulpitandthusthesalariesofmen.”79
NotallProtestantchurchesinTexasprovedasunaccommodatingoreven
hostiletoPopulismasthemainstreamMethodistsandBaptistsdid.SamJohnson,
thefraternalgrandfatherofthethirty‐sixthPresident,lefttheBaptistsforthe
Christadelphians,whohadnoordainedministry,didnotbelieveinadevil,and
rejectedtheemphasisonpersonalimmorality.ThisprovedcongenialforJohnson,
whodranktoomuchandloudlyengagedinPopulistpolitics,includingan
unsuccessfulrunin1892forthestatelegislatureonthePeople’sPartyticket.80The
liberalorprogressivewingoftheDisciplesofChristalsohadamoreaccepting
attitudetowardsPopulistactivism.TheCampbellitepreacherJ.W.BiardofParis,
Texas,amemberofthePeople’sPartyNationalCommittee,hadoriginallyjoinedthe
Farmers’Allianceto“servehispeoplebetter.”Whenhewasnotlecturingfor
Populistreformshecontinuedtopreachparttime.Hemaintainedafriendly
correspondencewithaC.C.Perrin,afacultymemberattheDisciplesofChrist’s
Add‐RanCollegeinnearbyHoodCounty,inwhichtheyprobedthemeaningof
79SouthernMercury(Dallas),June6,1888.80Caro,PathtoPower,27‐33;M.Phelan,HandbookofAllDenominations,(Nashville&Dallas:M.E.Church,1916),38.
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AgassizandDarwinandtheproposition,“ItdoesnotdishonorGodtothinkhe
worksthroughthelawsofnatureinallpossibleways.”81
Indeed,religious‐mindedPopuliststendedtoembraceabroad,adaptive
socialChristianity.WritingontheroleofreligionwithintheFarmers’Alliance,the
ReverendIsomP.Langleynotedthestrainingofthetiesbetweenthefarmersand
thereligiousleadership,as“menandwomenhavebecomemoreexactingastothe
conductoftheleadersinbothChurchandState.”Thepeopledemandedscience‐
basedpolicies,accordingtoLangley,because“scienceiswhatweknow.”Ifthe
ChristianevangelicalsweretosucceedintheconquestofruralTexas,Langley
proposed,“letourpastorsandpriestsstudythephysicalneedsofthepeoplemore,
andgivethemlesstheology.”“Oneofthemainreasonswhywehavesomanyempty
seatsinourchurches,”Langleyexplained,“istheabundanceofemptystomachsand
uncladlimbs.”SuchwastherationalistsocialChristianityofreligiouslyminded
TexasPopulists.82
81“PopulistPreachers,”GalvestonDailyNews,September28,1894;C.C.Perrin,ThorpSpring,Texas,toW.(Bustah)Biard,Biardstown,Texas,February24,1886,Biard(JamesW.)Papers1882‐1913,CenterforAmericanHistory,UniversityofTexas,Austin. AlthoughtheDisciplesofChristmayhavebeenmoretoleranttowardsPopulistpolitics,theykepttheirdistanceasdistinctmovement.Forexample,aredRivercottonfarmerrecordedinhisdiarythatonTuesday,August9,1892,the“biggestmobthatevermetatourCourtHouse”gatheredtohearadebatebetweenPopulistandDemocraticspeakers,withthefarmerstronglydisapprovingoftheformer.Fourdayslater,hereportedapprovingly“theCampellitescommencedabigmeetingonSaturdaynight,”thathadnoapparentconnectiontothepoliticalevents.W.M.Bower(Diary),CenterforAmericanHistory,UniversityofTexas,Austin.
TheDisciplesofChristmovedAdd‐RanCollegefromThorpSpring(HoodCounty)toWacoin1895whereitwasrenamedTexasChristianUniversitybeforerelocatingtoForthWorth.IamindebtedtoProfessorGreggCantrellofTCUforbringingtomyattentiontherolethattheDisciplesofChristplayedwithinTexasPopulism.(CantrellispresentlywritingahistoryofTexasPopulismforYaleUniversityPress.)82Rev.IsomP.Langley,“ReligionintheAlliance,”Dunning,Farmers’AllianceHistory,313‐17.
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ThesizeandsignificanceofthisreligiouselementwithinPopulismisdifficult
tomeasure.RobertMcMath,Jr.,arguesthatitwaslargeandhighlysignificant.He
drawsaparallelbetweenPopulismastherevitalizationofaradicalevangelical
traditionandtheChristianbasecommunitiesofLatinAmerican“Liberation
Theology.”Healsodrawsaparallelwiththeblackchurchinthecivilrights
movementofthe1950sand60s.83UnlikeeitherLatinAmericanbasecommunities
orchurch‐basedcivilrightsmobilizations,however,thewhitefarmersofthe
Populistmovementdidnotorganizethroughthechurches.Elsewhereinthe
country,urbanPopulistsmadeafewisolatedandunsuccessfulattemptstosetup
“People’sChurches”or“People’sTemples”withaPopulistorientation.84Nosuch
effortwasmadeinruralTexas,wherewhitePopulistsmetinpublicschoolhouses
orotherpublicbuildings,andissuedtheirdemandsfromcourthousesteps.Good
politicalreasonsledthePopuliststomeetonsuchsecularterrain.Acentralfocusof
Populistpoliticswastheexpansionofthepublicsphereintherealmsofeducation,
commerce,transportation,telecommunications,andfinance.Anditonlymadesense
toleveragepublicspacetoachievesuchpublicaims.
ButtherewerealsogoodreligiousreasonswhythePopulistsdidnotwork
throughthechurches.Thefirstofthesewastheruralcontextinwhichonlya
fractionofTexasfarmerswereconnectedtoanorganizedchurch.Moreover,within
theframeworkofthereligiouswarfareofthe1880sand1890s,thosefarmerswho
83RobertC.McMath,Jr.,“PopulistBaseCommunities:TheEvangelicalRootsofFarmProtestinTexas,”Locus1(1988),53‐63.84Nonconformist(Indianapolis),January26,1893.
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supportedPopulismalsotendedtofavorwhattheyperceivedtobetheliberalside
ofthereligiousconflict.Theytendedtoseekspiritualreformstoaligntheir
cosmologywithwhattheyperceivedasscientificandmodernrealities,andwhich
wouldalsoreinforcemoralcertaintiesabouthumanimprovementandtheabilityof
reformerstoeffectsocialprogress.Significantly,theliberal,humanist,and
scientisticsideofthespectrumofbeliefandunbeliefalsotendedtowards
atomizationandweakenedcommitmenttoreligiousorganization.Inshort,the
heterodoxadmixtureoffaithswithinPopulistrankspointedawayfromthe
churchesandtowardssecularspace.
AfricanAmericanfarmers,meanwhile,confronteddifferentpolitical
contingencies.Inpost‐ReconstructionTexas,itwasofteneitherdangerousor
impossibleforblackcitizenstoorganizeopenlyinpublicortoissueeconomicand
politicaldemandsonthecourthousesteps.Blacksusuallylackedaccesstoa
schoolhouseworthyofthename;schoolsforblackchildrenwereoftenwoefully
inadequatefarmstructures,andwhatschoolstherewereoftendoubledaschurches.
TheColoredFarmers’AllianceemergedinTexasduringthe1880sparalleltothe
whiteFarmers’Allianceandwithsimilarstatedgoals.Butinthefaceofpolitical
repression,thechurchrepresentedthesafestoptionforblackstotakepartinrural
associationallife.Indeed,oneofthereasonswhythewhiteFarmers’Alliance
reluctantlyacceptedtheexistenceoftheColoredFarmers’Alliancewasassurance
thatitwouldstayoutofthepublicsphereandremainundertheroofofthechurches
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andthewatchfuleyesofthewhitepreacherswhosupervisedtheColoredAlliance.85
Thebroadextensionoftheneighborhoodnetworksthatmadeuptheruralblack
churchesindicatesthatinTexasAfricanAmericanfarmershadperhapsastronger
commitmenttoorganizedreligionthantheirwhitecounterpartsdid.Butdidunlike
politicalcircumstancesmainlyaccountforthisapparentlyreligiousdifference?
Possiblyso,butmoretellingly,thevariationsbeliefadoptedbytheBaptistRev.Lee
LewisCampbellandbytheiconoclasticPopulistoratorJohnRaynersuggestthat
bothblacksandwhitessharedaruralenvironmentsubjecttothesamereligious
storms.
Itneedstobestressedthat,althoughPopulistfarmerstendedtoalignonone
endofthespectrumofbelief,ruralTexansmoregenerallyincludedafareshareof
peoplewhoconsideredthemselvestobeorthodoxandconservativeevangelicals.
Butthatdoesnotmeanthattheywereinsomequalitativewaymoreconservative
thantheirmoreurbancounterparts.TownstendedtobestrongholdsoftheBaptist
andMethodistchurches.BaylorUniversitymeantthatWacoservedasthe
institutionalheadquartersoftheorthodoxBaptistsinthestate.ButWacowasalsoa
townwithextensiveinteractionswiththesurroundingruralenvironment.
Anotherwaytoexaminetherural/urbandividewouldbetotakeinto
accountthatTexaslayundertheurbanshadowsofbigcitiessuchasSt.Louis,
Chicago,andNewYork.AndjustasruralTexansfelttheliberalandheterodox
influencesofthelikesofRobertIngersollorThomasDixon,Jr.,theywerealso
subjecttothemissionaryeffortsofDwightMoody’sChicagobasedconservative85RichardManningHumphrey,“TheHistoryoftheColoredFarmers’NationalAlliance,”Dunning,Farmers’AllianceHistory,288‐92.
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crusades.BaptistmissionaryworkinTexaslanguisheduntilreinforcementsarrived
fromtheHomeMissionSocietyinNewYork.Fromhiscorporateofficesin
Manhattan,JohnD.RockefellersentbigcheckstoaidhisembattledBaptistbrethren
atBaylor.Rockefeller’scontributionsweremadeinstrictsecrecyasitwas
apparentlyviewedasimportanttohidetheroleofYankeedollarsinthebuildingup
oftheTexaschurch.86ThepowerandinfluenceinTexasofRockefeller,Moody,and
theNewYorkandChicagobasedmissionssuggestsagapinthestandard
teleologicalnarrativeoftheliberalizingorsecularizingurbanNorthleavingbehind
aruralSouthclingingtoitsBiblesandtraditions.
Therealignmentsandshiftsinreligiousandpoliticalcontextfromone
generationtothenextrevealevenlargergapsinthestandardnarrative.Thepolitics
ofteachingevolutionisinstructiveinthisregard.Inthe1880sand90s,theTexas
Farmers’Alliance,constitutedaformidablepoliticalandintellectualforce.The
Alliancemovementformedthebaseofpublicsupportfortheimprovementofthe
commonschools,emphasizingscience‐basededucationasthekeytothefarmers’
progress.Atthesametime,evolutionarytheorywasastapleoftheAlliance
movement’sowneducationalprojects.TheFarmers’Alliancepressurgeditsreaders
that“NofarmhouseinAmerica”shouldbewithoutEdwardClodd’sbookTheStoryof
Creation:APlainAccountofEvolution,explainingtheideasofDarwin,Huxley,and
86B.F.Riley,HistoryoftheBaptistsofTexas(Dallas,1906),265;Forexample,RockefellersentfifteenthousanddollarstoBaylorUniversityinJuneof1892.Apparently,thedealingsbetweenRockefellerandBaylorweremade“instrictconfidence,”asbeingbankrolledbytheStandardOiltycooninvolvedpoliticalcomplications.J.D.RockefellerandF.T.GatestoB.H.Carroll,June23,1892.B.H.CarrollPapers,TexasCollection,BaylorUniversity.
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Spencer.87Inthatscientistichistoricalmoment,evolutionarytheorywasmilitantly
wieldedasatoolofsurgingagrarianandlaborpolitics.Legislativeactiontobarthe
teachingofevolutionintheschoolswasnowhereonthehorizon.EventheBaptists
inWacoandothermoreorthodoxevangelicalssoughttoavoiddirectclashesover
evolutionandscience,andmainlytackedbeforetheprevailingwinds.
The1898murderofWilliamCowperBrannandthesilencingofthe
Iconoclastwasatelltalesignofashiftingclimate.Twoyearsbefore,TexasPopulism
hadreceivedastunningblowwithdevelopmentsinnationalelectoralpolitics.The
endorsementoftheDemocraticWilliamJenningsBryanbythenationalconvention
ofthePeople’sPartyrenderedTexasPopulismintosharplywarringfactionsthat
succumbedtoevenfurtherdemoralizationwithBryan’sdefeatinthegeneral
election.Inthenewcentury,someoftheformerPopuliststookpartinnewfarmer
associationsorfollowedEugeneDebsintoSocialism,butmuchoftheenergyofthe
earlieragrarianrevolthaddissipated.ManyformerPopulistsrebuiltbroken
connectionstheyhadseveredduringthehightideofprotest,reconcilingwiththe
DemocraticPartyestablishment,andsomealsowiththechurchestablishment.
Meanwhile,thesensationaltechniquesofmodernmassevangelicalismthathad
beenintroducedbysuchevangelicalentrepreneursasSamJones,oftentotheshock
anddismayoftheWacoclergy,madesteadyheadway.88Risingwiththe
87NationalEconomist,March14,1889,August3,1889;EdwardClodd,TheStoryofCreation:APlainAccountofEvolution(London:Longman’sGreen,1888).88DwightMoodyofChicagoperfectedthemoderntechniquesofcelebrityevangelismbywayofmasspublicity.SamJonesofGeorgiacarriedthesetechniquesintocentralTexas.AlthoughhisfolksyandtheatricalsermonsridiculedtheBaptistoldguard,Jonespreachedapoliticallyandreligiouslyconservativemessage.“ItmakestohispecuniaryinteresttoabusethePops…withhisoratoricalstinkpots,”asBrannexplainedthepoliticsof“SlangySam”
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conservativepoliticaltideofthe1920s,anewandmilitantProtestant
“fundamentalism”emergedasapowerfulforceinTexaspolitics.Inthefallof1925,
Texas’sfirstfemaleGovernorMiriamFergusonorderedthestate’stextbook
commissiontoprohibitmentionofevolutioninhighschooltextbooks,anorderthat
wouldhavebeeninconceivableagenerationprevious.
Inpurgingthetextbooks,GovernorFergusontookinspirationfromWilliam
JenningsBryan’sperformanceattheScopesTrialandBryan’smartyr‐likecollapse
anddeathfivedaysafterthetrialended.ThetrialclimaxedwithDarrow
questioningBryanasanexpertwitnessontheBible:WhatofBuddha,Confucius,
andZoroaster?HowdidthephysicsworkintheBiblicalstoryofthesunstanding
still?Journalistsatthetime,andhistoricaltextbookssince,havedescribedDarrow’s
mercilessquestioningasthecityslickerabusingthecountryrube,themodern
secularistbullyingthedefenderoftheoldfaith.Butlookingaheadfromthe
perspectiveofthelatenineteenthcenturyDarrow’squestioningtakesonawhole
differentmeaning.Acluetothedifferenceisthatinthe1890s,itwasDarrow,not
Bryan,whowasthePopuliststumpspeaker,rallyingIllinoisfarmerstothePeople’s
Party.89DarrowandBryanhadmuchincommon:rootsinsmalltownevangelical
environments;Chicagoeducations;comradeshipinreformpolitics;andcloseat
andthe“modernpreacher.”“ThePreacherinPolitics,”Iconoclast,vol.5,no.8(September1895),141‐42;“TheBlackMoodyofTexas,”and“Rev.Collier,theSamJonesofTexas,”SundaySchoolHerald(Austin),July2,1892;“ReligiousRevolution,”WacoDailyExaminer,June21,25,and26,1885;IndependentPulpit,vol.3,no.5(July1885),54,vol.3,no.7(September1885),75;BruceJ.Evensen,God’sManfortheGildedAge:D.L.MoodyandtheRiseofModernMassEvangelism(NewYork:Oxford,2003).89ChicagoSearchlight,July19,August9,16,1894;ChesterMcArthurDestler,AmericanRadicalism,18651901(NewLondon:ConnecticutCollege,1946,reprint,Chicago:Quadrangle,1966),181,194,197.
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handexperiencewiththereligiouscontroversiesofthe1880sand90s.Darrow
followedRobertIngersolltofreethought.BryanexchangedletterswithIngersollin
acrisisoffaith,butdecidedtostaywiththePresbyterians,adenominationwracked
withconflictincludingthefamous1892heresytrialoftheliberaltheologianCharles
Briggs.Bryannevershowedmuchinterestinthereligiouscontroversies,butlater
twentiethcenturyshocks,includingthemodernhorrorsofimperialistwarinthe
Philippines,theNorthwestPacific,andlaterWWI,turnedBryanintoacriticof
evolutionarytheoryandasupporterofanti‐evolutionlaws.
Significantly,inhislineofquestioningattheScopesTrial,includingverbatim
phrasingaboutthephysicsofthesunstandingstill,Darrowplagiarizedfromawork
ofRobertIngersoll’stitled“ProfessorBriggs.”Thecontext,however,wasreversed.A
nationalherotoreligiousliberals,includingthosewithintheagrarianmovement,90
IngersollquestionedBriggsonlytoencouragehiscriticaloutlook.91Bycontrast,
Darrow’squestioningofBryanaimedatexposinghisformercomradeforbetraying
thecriticaloutlookthatBriggsandlike‐mindedevangelicalshadonceembraced.
HencetheheatofDarrow’sgrillingattheScopesTrial.Theaimwasnottoridicule
ruralornineteenth‐centurybackwardness,buttwentieth‐centuryapostasy.Bryan’s
effortsonbehalfofevangelicalfundamentalismthreatenedtoclosethedooron
whatDarrowandBryanhadexperiencedastherationalistandhumanistic
possibilitiesinthereformcampaignsoftheiryouth.
90Caucasian(Clinton,NC),May21,28,1891.91RobertG.Ingersoll,“ProfessorBriggs,”WorksofRobertG.Ingersoll,vol.12,(NewYork:Dresden,1909),301‐13.
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BythetimeGovernorFergusonorderedwritingevolutionoutofthe
textbooks,theTexaseconomyhadshiftedintohighgearoftechnological
modernization.Theblackgoldofpetroleumoutstrippedthewhitegoldofcotton.
TexasfarmersdroveFordsandChevys,andtheluckyoneshadelectricityanda
radio.MostofthemforgotorneverheardofJamesShaw,WilliamCowpersBrann,
andthereligiouswarsthathadconvulsedtheLoneStarstateduringthelast
decadesofthenineteenthcentury.Yet,thosewarshadprovidedessentialcontext
fortheagrarianrevoltofthe1880sand90s.ThePopulistmovementtookonthe
featuresofahighmodernism,embracinga“musclebound”beliefinscience,state
power,andprogress,preciselybecauseitemergedinanintellectualenvironment
whenscientificrationalismhadunprecedentedmoralauthorityinsuchplacesasthe
cottondistrictsofcentralandeasternTexas.Thatthisauthoritywouldwanein
futuregenerationsunderscorestheweaknessesinteleologicalnarrativesabout
agrariantraditionalismandurbanmodernity.Italsopointstotheroleofpolitical
andsocialcontingencyintheshiftingconfigurationsofbeliefandunbelief.
Inotherwords,tounderstandwhyattheoutsetofthetwentyfirstcentury
theevangelicalchurchesexertsucheffectivepowerincentralTexas,referencing
ruraltraditiononlyexplainssomuch,andpoliticaldevelopmentsexplainmuch
more.Inthewakeofthecivilrightsrevolution,forexample,theprofusionofracially
separateChristianacademieshasgiventhechurchesanewandextraordinary
educationalandinstitutionalrole.Similarly,therisingpoweroftheevangelical
entrepreneurcorrespondstothepoliticaltransitionfromthepublicandsecular
idealsoftheGreatSocietytothetriumphantmarketfundamentalismoftheearly
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twentyfirstcentury.Fromthatperspective,itiseithercoincidenceoranactof
divineinterventionthatLyndonB.JohnsonandGeorgeW.Bushbothhavecloseties
tothecentralTexasfarmcountryatthecenteroftheagrarianrevoltofthe1880s
and90s.Johnson’sfather,thesonofaPopulistpolitician,was“broad‐minded”on
religiousquestionsanddespiteostracismfromthe“church‐goingpeople,”wouldsit
bythefirewithaninfidelneighborandtalkallnight“aboutDarwinandother
things.”92Healsohatedcottonfarming,taughtinaone‐roomschoolhouseintheold
PopuliststrongholdofGillespieCounty,wentintopolitics,andshapedthe
worldviewofthefuturepresident.TheambitionsofLyndonJohnson’sGreatSociety
wouldcomeclosertohighmodernismthanthoseofanypresidentbeforeorsince.
Almostfortyyearslater,GeorgeW.Bush,scionoftheEastCoastfinancialand
politicalelite,productofYaleandHarvard,madeCrawford,Texas,twentymiles
outsideofWaco,thesiteofthe“WesternWhiteHouse.”Thatiswherehefounda
congenialenvironmentforhistwinbeliefsinevangelicalorthodoxyandthemagicof
privatemarkets.SuchisClio’scaprice.
92Caro,PathtoPower,63.