CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL ADVERTISING SALES

REPRESENTATIVES

By

KATHLEEN VILLARUEL

A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ADVERTISING

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

2006

Copyright 2006

by

Kathleen Villaruel

This document is dedicated to the graduate students of the University of Florida.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank my entire thesis committee for their help throughout the

course of my thesis. Without their support, I would not have been able to reach the level

of achievement that I did at the University of Florida. They have provided me with the

quality education necessary to attain success in my chosen career.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv

LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................................ vii

ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................... viii

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................1

The Sales Industry ........................................................................................................1 Advertising Sales ..........................................................................................................2 Success in Sales ............................................................................................................3 Chapter Summary .........................................................................................................4

2 LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................5

Sales..............................................................................................................................5 The Selling Process.......................................................................................................6 Advertising Sales Industry............................................................................................8 Adverting Sales vs. Other Selling.................................................................................9 Success in Sales ..........................................................................................................10

Predictors of Success...........................................................................................10 Measures of Success............................................................................................14

Assessments for Salespeople ......................................................................................16 Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP)................................................18

Origins of the Wonderlic CPP.............................................................................19 Wonderlic CPP Content ......................................................................................20 Wonderlic CPP Primary and Secondary Personality Traits ................................21 Other CPP Measures............................................................................................24 Wonderlic CPP Reliability and Validity .............................................................24 Reliability of the Wonderlic CPP ........................................................................25 Validity of the Wonderlic CPP............................................................................26 Normative Database for the Wonderlic CPP.......................................................27 Wonderlic CPP Study..........................................................................................28

Hypotheses..................................................................................................................29 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................30

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3 METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................................31

Wonderlic’s Involvement in the Study .......................................................................31 Survey Research Method............................................................................................32 Operational Definitions ..............................................................................................34

Independent Variables .........................................................................................34 Dependent Variables ...........................................................................................34

Study Design...............................................................................................................37 Participants ..........................................................................................................37 The Study.............................................................................................................38 Questionnaires .....................................................................................................39 Analysis ...............................................................................................................39

4 RESULTS...................................................................................................................41

Sample ........................................................................................................................41 Hypotheses Testing.....................................................................................................44 Hypothesis Results......................................................................................................45

5 DISCUSSION.............................................................................................................51

Summary of Results....................................................................................................51 Implications ................................................................................................................52 Contributions to Advertising Sales Literature ............................................................52 Limitations..................................................................................................................54 Future Research ..........................................................................................................54 Conclusions.................................................................................................................55

APPENDIX

A QUESTIONNAIRES..................................................................................................57

B RESEARCH AGREEMENT FOR WONDERLIC ASSESSMENTS .......................61

C IRB PROTOCOL AND INFORMED CONSENT FORMS......................................65

LIST OF REFERENCES...................................................................................................72

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH .............................................................................................76

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table page 2-1 Advertising Salespeople Number and Revenue for Each Media Type ......................9

2-2 CPP Normative Sample Characteristics ...................................................................20

2-3 Major Characteristics Mentioned by Most Authors and Similar CPP Traits ...........24

2-4 Advertising Salespeople CPP Norms for Primary Traits .........................................28

3-1 Success Indicators and Performance Level Groups .................................................37

3-2 Sales Managers and Representatives........................................................................37

4-1 Sample Profile of Sales Representatives ..................................................................41

4-2 Sample Means and CPP Norms for Primary Traits..................................................42

4-3 Success Indicators ....................................................................................................43

4-4 Statistics for Wonderlic Characteristics ...................................................................44

4-5 Accuracy Index Scores.............................................................................................45

4-6 Wonderlic Characteristics by Accounts Lost Groups ..............................................46

4-7 Wonderlic Characteristics by Accounts Gained Groups..........................................46

4-8 Wonderlic Characteristics by Total Sales 2005 Groups...........................................47

4-9 Wonderlic Characteristics by Total Sales 2006 Groups...........................................48

4-10 Wonderlic Characteristics by Sales Manager Rating Groups ..................................48

4-11 Wonderlic Characteristics’ Pearson Correlations with Success Indicators..............50

viii

Abstract of Thesis Presented to the Graduate School

of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Advertising

CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL ADVERTISING SALES REPRESENTATIVES

By

Kathleen Villaruel

December 2006

Chair: John Sutherland Major Department: Advertising

The purpose of this study was to assess the utility of the Wonderlic Comprehensive

Personality Profile (CPP) in identifying successful advertising sales representatives. The

CPP is a widely used personality profiling system that tests personality characteristics

with job compatibility. Even though the CPP is a reliable and valid tool for testing

general salespeople, the CPP has not been shown to be a good tool for identifying the

characteristics of successful versus unsuccessful advertising sales representatives.

Further, previous research on the CPP’s ability to test advertising salespeople was

completed on a small sample. This thesis studies the Wonderlic CPP’s ability to identify

personality characteristics of successful advertising sales representatives.

Data were gathered from 67 advertising sales representatives and 17 sales managers

from print and broadcast media companies. The advertising sales representatives

completed the Wonderlic CPP online and a paper-pencil questionnaire. The instruments

measured levels of success and characteristics of their personalities. In order to study the

ix

sales managers, a different questionnaire was used. Sales managers answered questions

that reflected their opinions of individual sales representatives’ level of success and

personality characteristics for which they supervised. Thus, the study consisted of both

the sales managers and the sales representatives completing their own separate

questionnaires.

The results of this thesis indicate that although the Wonderlic Comprehensive

Personality Profile (CPP) is a reliable and valid tool for profiling the personalities of

general salespeople, the CPP does not differentiate successful from unsuccessful

advertising sales representatives. The results suggest that media companies should use the

CPP cautiously. Companies should also consider using other employee assessment tools

or success indicators in order to better identify the characteristics of successful

advertising salespeople. Overall, this thesis provides media companies and the entire

sales industry updated information on general sales, advertising sales, success in sales,

employee assessment tools, and other important relevant topics.

1

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The Sales Industry

The sales industry is a business that encompasses a large range of occupations

including retail salespeople, insurance sales agents and advertising sales agents (Bureau

of Labor Statistics, 2006). Each type of selling is unique in the products it offers, the

selling techniques followed, and the responsibilities of the salespeople (Schiffman, 1994).

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (2006) reports that approximately 13,930,320 total

employees work in the sales industry, with an average annual wage of $32,800. Hisrich

and Jackson (1993) note that a sales career can lead to high income levels, placing

salespeople among the most highly paid employees. Most salespeople are paid a base

salary plus commission, and other salespeople work on a commission and bonus

compensation plan. Many workers choose a sales career because of its high

compensation levels and the opportunities to promote to an upper level management

position (Hisrich & Jackson, 1993).

Schmidt (2000) suggests that technological advancements are influencing the

employment opportunities in the sale industry by increasing the usage of the Internet.

Salespeople are improving their computer skills and are completing more sales tasks

online. Sales appointments, presentations, and follow-ups are completed via e-mail

(Schmidt, 2000). Companies are taking advantage of technological advancements such

as video conferencing and cell phones in order to make their sales pitches more creative

and vivid (Hisrich & Jackson, 1993). As a result of technological advancements, the

2

nature of customer-relationship management is changing. Salespeople need to know

when personal interaction with their customers is needed to close a sale (Schmidt, 2000).

With new industry trends, the roles of salespeople are changing because

salespeople are becoming more important in their companies’ overall marketing

strategies (Hisrich & Jackson, 1993). Brooks (2006) proposes that salespeople’s

consumers and managers now have new demands and expectations of their salespeople.

With customers becoming more knowledgeable of the business and sales managers are

expecting more from their salespeople, salespeople are expected to know their clients

better and have a deeper understanding of their client’s wants and needs (Hisrich &

Jackson, 1993). Salespeople must also learn important skills and traits in order to

succeed in sales. These skills include goal setting, time management, planning, listening

and scheduling. The traits include proactive, positive and truthful (Brooks, 2006).

Advertising Sales

The main purpose of advertising sales is to help clients reach their sales and

marketing goals through communication of an advertising message (Shane, 1999). The

Bureau of Labor Statistics (2006) reports that a total of 153,890 advertising sales agents

work in the industry, with an average annual wage of $50,400.

The advertising sales industry’s total industry revenue equals $231.3 billion, and

125,000 total salespeople work in the industry (Warner & Buchman, 2004). Advertising

sales representatives are responsible for selling media services to the advertising

community (Pattis, 2004). Sales representatives can sell through various media formats

including print, broadcast, outdoor, and internet (Shane, 1999). For all media formats,

sales representatives should be knowledgeable of their media’s offerings and client’s

needs. Sales representatives should be able to maintain current clients and build new

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business by suggesting ways to improve the sales and marketing of their clients’

companies (Pattis, 2004).

Success in Sales

It takes a certain type of person to achieve success in the sales profession. For

some salespeople, this task can often result in failure (Hisrich & Jackson, 1993).

Rasmusson (1999) identified the top ten traits of successful salespeople. Successful

salespeople are believed to have the following traits: assertiveness, ego drive, empathy,

ego strength, sense of urgency, willingness to take risks, sociable, abstract reasoning,

healthy sense of skepticism, and creativity (Rasmusson, 1999). Warner and Buchman

(2004) present the AESKOPP system, which is a simplified sales framework. They

believe that an advertising salesperson’s success level depends on the characteristics of

Attitude (A), Emotional Intelligence (E), Skills (S), Knowledge (K), Opportunities (O),

Preparation (P), and Persistence (P) (Warner & Buchman, 2004). Further, if a

salesperson is motivated (Bartkus & Howell, 1999), assertive (Rasmusson, 1999), and

trustworthy (Macintosh, Anglin, Szymanski, & Gentry, 1992), the seller is expected to be

able to achieve success in sales.

Success in sales can be directly measured through different indicators such as sales

volume, sales manager evaluations and salesperson self-evaluations (Levy & Sharma,

1993). Salespeople are often evaluated and compensated based on their ability to close

sales, achieve revenue and meet quotas (Hisrich & Jackson, 1993). Companies set

quotas, which are pre-set sales goals that managers evaluate their salespeople based on

whether or not the quota was met or exceeded (Schiffman, 2006). Salespeople are

evaluated and compensated based on their performance levels of success (Hisrich &

Jackson, 1993).

4

In order to identify job candidates that are most likely to be successful in sales,

several companies use employee assessment tools (Borofsky, 1993). One company that

specializes in employee recruitment and assessment is Wonderlic (2006). Wonderlic’s

Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP) is a personality profiling system that tests

personality and job fit (Wonderlic, 1999). The CPP is known for being a reliable and

valid tool for assessing the personality characteristics of salespeople. The tool can assist

companies in finding the best candidates for a career in general sales. Companies turn to

Wonderlic to measure a salesperson’s level of success and to pinpoint how individual

salespeople can improve (Wonderlic, 1999). By understanding a salesperson’s ability to

succeed, the strengths and weaknesses of a seller can be found (Costell, 2004).

Chapter Summary

This chapter introduced the main topics that this thesis will discuss. This thesis is

specifically studying the important characteristics of successful advertising sales

representatives in terms of the Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP). The

main purpose of this study is to determine the characteristics of successful advertising

sales representatives and to assess Wonderlic’s ability to identify characteristics of

successful advertising salespeople. Further, this thesis adds to theoretical knowledge in

the fields of sales and advertising sales through information on characteristics, success,

and assessments. A literature review, methodology, results and discussion section is

included in this paper.

5

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews various literatures on the sales and advertising sales

industries. The importance of understanding the characteristics of successful advertising

sales representatives is discussed through several topics, including the selling process,

advertising sales, success in sales, personality characteristics, and employee assessments.

This literature review describes and analyzes previous material on these subjects in order

to create a theoretical framework for this thesis on the characteristics of leading

advertising salespeople.

Sales

According to Shane (1999) sales is an “economic exchange, not day-to-day human

interaction” (p. 3). Salespeople sell products or services by explaining to the customer

the benefits of the purchase. It is a process of identifying and fulfilling customer needs in

a profitable manner (Shane, 1999). Sales can either be traditional or consultative selling.

Graziano and Flanagan (2005) describe traditional selling as a sales approach where the

product or service is the main focus of the sales process. During traditional selling,

salespeople are directly responsible for selling a product or service to buyers that need it

(Graziano & Flanagan, 2005).

Hanan (2004) describes consultative selling as a sales approach that focuses on the

impact a sale has on the customer’s business. Consultative salespeople explain to their

customers how the buy will benefit their company in terms of value and profit (Hanan,

2004). Graziano and Flanagan (2005) explained that the customers’ needs and wants are

6

the main focus in consultative selling process. Consultative selling is considered to be

more customer-oriented and non-manipulative because salespeople focus on

understanding clients’ wants and needs (Graziano & Flanagan, 2005). By being non-

manipulative, consultative selling is effective at developing and maintaining customer

relationships (Warner & Buchman, 2004). They must be able to identify and solve

clients’ issues, while maintaining relationships with their clients. Further, the sales

representative must have strong listening and problem solving abilities. By focusing on

the client, consultative sellers make their clients feel more secure and involved in the

sales process. Clients are more likely to show interest in the product or service if they are

more involved in the selling process. Consultative selling is becoming more popular in

the sales industry, with several salespeople making the transition from traditional to

consultative selling (Graziano & Flanagan, 2005).

Siguaw and Bojanic (2004) explain that consultative selling is used heavily

throughout the selling process, while the traditional selling approach is not used as

commonly. Salespeople practice consultative selling when identifying customers,

gathering information, analyzing customer needs, building customer relationships, and

dealing with customer objections. On the contrary, salespeople use the traditional selling

approach less frequently and during the last stages of the selling process (Siguaw &

Bojanic, 2004).

The Selling Process

For the consultative approach, there are four sales models that exist and can be

applied to advertising sales. The Sequential Model includes ten steps of selling:

Attitude, Planning, Prospecting, Rapport, Discovery, Presentation, Confirm, Negotiate,

Action, and Follow Up (Breithaupt, 2003). Hisrich and Jackson (1993) proposed six

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main stages. His model includes the stages of Prospecting, Preapproach, Sales

Presentation, Handling Objections, Closing the Sale, and Service after the Sale.

Shane’s (1999) sales cycle condenses the steps of selling into seven primary stages.

The steps include Prospecting, Qualifying, Needs Analysis, Presentation, Answering

Objections, Closing/Implementation and Relationship Management. The first step,

Prospecting, is the act of gathering a list of potential clients. During this step, salespeople

search and identify new customers. Strong prospects are found based on their needs and

purchasing abilities. After the prospects have been identified, the information gathering

of the prospects begins. Qualifying, the second step, allows salespeople to develop a file

for prospect information. The files help salespeople ensure that the clients are qualified

to do business based on their financial and payment history. Following qualifying is the

third step of needs analysis, which is an extension of the cycle’s information gathering.

Salespeople must analyze the needs of their clients and match them with their product or

service’s benefits. During the fourth step, Presentation, the salesperson completes a sales

presentation. The salesperson should demonstrate in the presentation how well he/she

understands the client’s needs found in the needs analysis step. The salesperson should

be able to effectively communicate how their product or service can benefit the prospect.

A good sales presentation is informative, persuasive and convincing. The fifth step,

Answering Objections, handles objections and answers questions. Salespeople should

fully understand the objections and questions before responding. Once all questions and

objections are cleared, the salesperson reaches the sixth step, Closing/Implementation.

This is when sales are closed. How and when the salesperson chooses to close the sale is

important. The salesperson should be prepared to make trial closes and handle more

8

objections, in case the prospect rejects the first order. After closing a sale, the seventh

and final step is Relationship Management. This step is when the salesperson follows up

with the customer to ensure that the customer is satisfied and thank them for their

business. This helps maintain strong relationships with the customer and should be used

to handle any issues that the customer is having. This step is vital in relationship building

and creating repeat customers. According to Shane (1999), the level of importance of all

seven stages may fluctuate depending on each salesperson’s personal preference and the

situation.

Advertising Sales Industry

Advertising sales involves helping clients reach their sales and marketing goals

through the communication of an advertising message (Shane, 1999). The advertising

sales industry’s U.S. ad sales expenditures have increased from 2001 to 2004, totaling

$145,585 million sales dollars over all media forms (Macleod, 2006). Total industry

revenues equal $231.3 billion, and there are 125,000 total salespeople working in the

industry (Warner & Buchman, 2004).

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (2006) describes advertising salespeople as either

inside or outside sellers. Outside salespeople sell to clients at their business, while inside

salespeople sell to clients on a phone or walk-in basis. These sales representatives sell

anything from advertising space, to time, to art work. However, most ad sales employees

work for media companies, such as television stations or magazine publications (Bureau

of Labor Statistics, 2006).

Advertising salespeople can be involved in selling print, broadcast, interactive or

outdoor media formats. Print and broadcast are the most dominant media because they

have the highest number of salespeople and revenue dollars compared to other media

9

types (Warner & Buchman, 2004). Magazines, newspapers and directories are

considered print media, while broadcast media is made up of television and radio

(Croteau & Hoynes, 2003). Warner and Buchman (2004) say that newspaper leads all

media with $44.3 billion advertising revenue, followed by television with $38.9 billion

advertising revenue, and radio with $17.9. In terms of the number of salespeople, radio is

on top with 45,000 total salespeople, followed by newspaper with 30,000, and television

with 15,000. The magazine medium is also significant with 10,000 total advertising

salespeople and $11.1 billion advertising revenue (Warner & Buchman, 2004). Table 2-1

below shows the number of salespeople and revenue for the print and broadcast media

types.

Table 2-1. Advertising Salespeople Number and Revenue for Each Media Type

Media Type # of Salespeople Revenue $ (in billion dollars)

% of Total

Print 53,000 69.00 29.90 Broadcast 67,000 72.30 31.20 Other 5,000 10.90 4.70 (Warner & Buchman, 2004, p. 9)

Adverting Sales vs. Other Selling

Advertising sales has its similarities and differences compared to other areas of

sales. Shane (1999) proposes that advertising sales is different from most types of selling

because it can involve selling intangibles rather than only tangible products. Examples of

electronic media intangibles are airtime, impressions and rating points (Shane, 1999).

For print media, salespeople sell intangibles such as circulation, markets and readership

(Pattis, 2004). However, the tangible value of print media can be found. For example, a

newspaper or magazine ad displayed in a store window shows the tangible value of the

medium. The tangible value of advertising is the actual, physical newspaper or magazine

10

ad. The main difference between intangibles and tangible products is that tangible

products can be counted when inventory is conducted. Advertising sales does not sell

tangible products, such as clothing or automobiles from retail sales (Shane, 1999).

Similar to other types of selling, advertising sales representatives follow similar

stages of the selling process. Shane (1999) claims that his sales cycle for selling

electronic media is made up of seven steps that are presented in most other sales lists.

The main goal of an advertising sales representative is also similar to other types of

salespeople. Advertising salespeople and other types of salespeople succeed in sales by

identifying customer needs, fulfilling those needs, and closing the sale (Shane, 1999).

Success in Sales

Predictors of Success

A salesperson’s level of success can depend on their personality characteristics.

Bartkus and Howell (1999) found that salespeople who are motivated and able to get

along with others make successful salespeople for the travel industry. To develop these

conclusions, Bartkus and Howell (1999) administered a questionnaire to 78 travel

agencies. Their study’s results suggest that achievement motivation was related to sales

performance.

Rasmusson (1999) also identified traits that are critical determinants of success in

sales. In order to find the top ten traits of leading salespeople he surveyed 209

individuals. These respondents suggested that the top ten traits of successful sellers

include assertiveness, ego drive, empathy, ego strength, sense of urgency, willingness to

take risks, sociable, abstract reasoning, healthy sense of skepticism, and creativity.

An article from the Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management (1992) found

that the traits of successful versus unsuccessful salespeople varied. The more successful

11

salespeople were more likely to establish the trait of trust by first learning about their

customer, while less successful salespeople first shared information about themselves

before learning about their customers (Macintosh, Anglin, Szymanski, & Gentry, 1992)

Further, time management was also found to be an important trait in achieving success in

sales. The data results from 102 salespeople suggested that time management predicts

car sales performance when motivation is high (Barling, Kelloway, & Cheung, 1996).

Warner and Buchman (2004) present the AESKOPP system, which is a simplified

sales method. If a salesperson has the personality characteristics of Attitude (A),

Emotional Intelligence (E), Skills (S), Knowledge (K), Opportunities (O), Preparation

(P), and Persistence (P), he/she will succeed in sales (Warner & Buchman, 2004). The

seven elements and their core competencies help define the responsibilities of a

salesperson and what is required to be successful. All seven elements of the AESKOPP

system are made up of a set of core competencies.

The element of Attitude includes the core competencies of honesty, optimism,

commitment, confidence, competitiveness, motivation, assertiveness and nurture (Warner

& Buchman, 2004). Emotional Intelligence is made up of the core competencies of self-

awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (Warner &

Buchman, 2004). The element of Skills deals with a salesperson’s ability to

communicate, listen, present, negotiate, close and service (Warner & Buchman, 2004). A

salesperson who has the element of Knowledge understands their market, product, and

competitive media (Warner & Buchman, 2004). The element of Opportunities includes

the core competencies of prospecting and identifying problems, while the element of

Preparation includes the competencies of strategic thinking, problem-solving,

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organization, planning, and time management (Warner & Buchman, 2004). Last, if a

salesperson has the element of Persistence he/she is determined to close sales and follows

up on completed sales (Warner & Buchman, 2004). In order to achieve success in sales,

salespeople are expected to have the AESKOPP elements and their core competencies

(Warner & Buchman, 2004).

In one study that tested the roles and characteristics of advertising sales

representatives, Bichard and Chambers (2006) used an electronic questionnaire

administered on the World Wide Web to assess how different media buyers perceived

advertising sales representatives. The results found that knowledgeable, informative,

reliable and honest were all rated as important characteristics of advertising salespeople.

Other responses expressed how being able to understand client needs was important in

the advertising sales process, while creativity, pleasantness, likeableness and

aggressiveness were not important characteristics (Bichard & Chambers, 2006).

Pickens (2003) suggests that every successful salesperson shares similar

characteristics based on his opinion rather than research. He explains how every

salesperson’s personality is made up 51% enthusiasm, 25% empathy, 10%

manners/charm, 7% fun, and 7% product knowledge. More specifically, Pickens (2003)

believes that all successful salespeople have the following nine traits:

• Know how to convince customers that their product is of high quality • Are creative with how they describe the benefits of their products • Are entrepreneurs who sell their own way • Have strong customer service skills • Ambitious and motivated to reach sales goals • Care about their customers’ wants and needs • Are self-starters that are aggressive and positive • Enjoy being team players • Personable and able to win customers over with their personality

13

Hopkins and Edwards (1982) presents another list of 12 sources of successful

selling. His list explains the 12 most important characteristics of top sellers based on his

opinion. The 12 traits are as follows:

• Reflect individuality and self-worth through their appearance • Prideful in themselves and their career • Are confident • Care about their customers and satisfy customers’ needs in order to close sales • Depend on themselves for self-assurance and focus on goals that are achievable • Are motivated by money to make sales • Have a strong desire to achieve • Are able to conquer their fears • Are able to deal with failure • Personable with their clients and able to build relationships • Do not take rejection personally • Believe in continuing education and are always willing to learn new skills

According to Gitomer (2003), credibility is an important characteristic necessary

for success because it helps the customer trust the salesperson. When a salesperson is

credible, customers are more likely to take his/her business seriously and are more likely

to favor the product (Gaizo, 2004). A salesperson must build their credibility first by

convincing the customer that they are a trustworthy person selling a great product

(Gitomer, 2003). If salespeople convince their customers that they are trustworthy and

honest, they will more easily build a successful business relationship. Customers are

more likely to buy and continue to buy from salespeople they can trust (Gaizo, 2004).

Further, a salesperson that is personable is believed to be able of achieving success in a

career in sales. Salespeople who are personable have the ability to relate to their

customers through speaking, listening and conversation skills (Garner, 1997). A

salesperson must also have a competitive drive. A competitive salesperson is someone

who strives to succeed over other salespeople and takes advantage of every sales

opportunity (Eades, 2004).

14

After reviewing previous literature on the important characteristics of sales success,

a list of the ten most commonly mentioned characteristics can be developed. The ten

major traits mentioned by most authors include sociability, motivation, assertiveness,

trust, ego drive, interpersonal skills, empathy, independence, aggressiveness and

efficiency. Based on this literature review, successful salespeople are expected to have

these ten personality traits.

Measures of Success

Success can generally be defined as a performance and self-confidence level that

results from execution and achievement (Hopkins & Edwards, 1982). In terms of success

in sales, there are three commonly used measures: sales volume, sales manager

evaluations and salesperson self-evaluations (Levy & Sharma, 1993). Sales volume is

defined as a level of achievement in terms of total sales revenue or units sold by a

salesperson (Colt, 2004). An evaluation is defined as a tool for measuring performance

that provides feedback on ways to improve the strengths and weaknesses of employees

(Cleveland, Murphy, & Williams, 1989; Ilgen, Fisher, & Taylor, 1979; Jaworski & Kohli,

1991; Taylor, Taylor, Renard, Harrison, & Carroll, 1995, as cited in Sharma, Rich, &

Levy, 2004).

Sharma, Rich and Levy (2004) suggest that salesperson self-evaluations and

manager evaluations can be used to measure success. In their research, self-evaluations

were completed by a salesperson to compare his/her performance to other salespeople on

staff, and managers completed evaluations to evaluate salespeople’s performance for the

last annual period. When compared to sales manager evaluations, self-evaluations are

less biased and more highly related to objective performance. Both types of evaluations

had the weakness of overestimation, meaning that both salespeople and sales managers

15

tend to overestimate success levels (Sharma, Rich, & Levy, 2004). Huffman and Cain

(2000) suggest that it is important to ensure the accuracy, fairness and usefulness of

performance evaluations because poorly designed evaluations can result in a decrease in

success levels. In order to improve evaluations, Huffman sales managers can make

adjustments to sales territory (Huffman & Cain, 2000). Sales territory is defined as the

assignment of customers to salespeople (Zoltners, Sinha, & Zoltners, 2001). Huffman

and Cain (2000) believe that sales territory effects sales performance evaluations. They

wrote that sales managers can subjectively make changes to territory difficulty by

calculating sales divided by territory size. These territory difficulty adjustments improve

the fairness and usefulness of the salesperson and sales manager evaluations (Huffman &

Cain, 2000).

Schiffman (2006) suggests that success can be measured through whether or not the

sales team has met quota. A quota, which is a pre-set sales goal, can be set in number of

accounts or amount of sales dollars. Sales managers can evaluate based on whether or

not a salesperson has met or exceeded quota (Schiffman, 2006). Further, Ziglar (2003)

proposes that a salesperson’s level of happiness and satisfaction in their chosen career

can also be used to measure success. He believes that happiness and satisfaction can be

achieved if a salesperson enjoys their job. If a salesperson is satisfied completing sales

tasks and reaching their sales goals, they have achieved success through their own

personal perspective. They accomplish what they need to do by their set deadlines, while

being happy and satisfied at the same time. From a salesperson’s perspective, success in

sales can be achieved if they enjoy helping clients get what they want (Ziglar, 2003).

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Assessments for Salespeople

In order to find top performing salespeople, many organizations rely on pre-

employment testing (Borofsky, 1993). Various psychological, personality or sales tests

help companies select and hire the best employees by assessing cognitive ability,

personality, and other non-demographic variables. (Cron, Marshall, Singh, Spiro, &

Sujan, 2005).

One company that specializes in employee assessment is Profiles International, Inc.

(2006). Profiles International claims that their Profiles Sales Indicator can help

companies identify successful salespeople. The Profiles Sales Indicator measures five

characteristics of successful salespeople that Profiles International believes are important:

Competitiveness, Self-reliance, Persistence, Energy, and Sales Drive (Profiles

International, 2006). It also tests seven critical sales behaviors that Profiles International

(2006) suggests are predictors of success: Prospecting, Closing Sales, Call Reluctance,

Self-starting, Teamwork, Building and Maintaining Relationships, and Compensation

Preference. Profiles Sales Indicator’s report explains if the candidate is likely to succeed

in sales (Profiles International, 2006).

Salestestonline.com (2001) is a service that tests the personalities of sales

candidates on the web. The company’s online test is designed to study the suitability of

potential sales employees for a career in sales. Salestestonline.com measures personality

traits based on a company’s specified job criteria. Salestestonline.com works with

companies to identify the traits of successful salespeople, who currently work for the

company. Based on the company’s most commonly found traits of successful

salespeople, Salestestonline.com measures the traits of Assertiveness, Sociability,

Patience, Dependence, Emotional Control, and Stamina (Salestestonline.com, 2001). The

17

degree of importance for each trait may be higher or lower depending on the company’s

profile of successful salespeople. Salestestonline.com also studies the sales skills of

Prospecting, Closing, Organization, Response to Incentives, Need for Direction, and

Turnover Propensity (Salestestonline.com, 2001). Salestestonline.com does not publicly

provide information on studies that explain how the traits or tasks are related to success

because the information is for private company consumption only (Salestestonline.com,

2001).

Shane (1999) presented the Omnia Profile, which is another tool used for employee

assessment. The profile helps select the best job candidates and analyzes the strengths

and weakness of the employees. The Omnia Profile rates behavioral characteristics,

which include needs to win, needs security, needs acceptance, needs proof, needs change,

needs stability, needs autonomy, and needs structure. Shane wrote that Omnia’s vice

president for marketing and communication claimed that successful salespeople have

high levels of the “needs to win” behavioral characteristic and low levels of the “needs

security” characteristic. The Profile also places salespeople into groups based on their

sales personalities. Salespeople can end up as a part of the Persuasive, Problem Solver,

Persistent, Passive Charmer, or Technician groups (Shane, 1999). Shane says that

Omnia’s vice president for marketing and communication also claimed that Passive

Charmer salespeople are not the most successful.

18

Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP)

Wonderlic (2006) is a service that specializes in employee recruitment and

assessment. Wonderlic helps companies identify, hire and keep the right employees.

Their services include employment screening, testing, hiring, evaluation, and workforce

development. Companies can benefit from Wonderlic’s services when looking for the

most suitable people for a specific career. Wonderlic’s tests supposedly measure a

person’s personality, behaviors, strengths and weaknesses (Wonderlic, 2006).

One of Wonderlic’s (2006) tests is the Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP).

The CPP is a personality test that assesses personality and job compatibility. The

purpose of the CPP is to help companies find candidates with personality characteristics

that are suitable for a particular job. The CPP can be used to improve employee

selection, development, and team building (Wonderlic, 2006). The main benefit of the

CPP is that it improves employee performance while decreasing the costs of employee

turnover (Wonderlic, 1999).

Wonderlic (1999) measures seven CPP primary personality traits and ten CPP

secondary traits. The primary traits include Emotional Intensity, Intuition, Recognition

Motivation, Sensitivity, Assertiveness, Trust and Exaggeration. The secondary traits

include Ego Drive, Interpersonal Warmth, Stability, Empathy, Objectivity, Independence,

Aggressiveness, Decisiveness, Tolerance and Efficiency (Wonderlic, 1999).

Wonderlic’s Comprehensive Personality Profile test is a reliable and valid tool for

screening general sales candidates. The CPP is a helpful tool for sales and other

occupations that involve client interaction. When used to test salespeople, the CPP

assesses sales style and effective management techniques (Wonderlic, 2006).

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Origins of the Wonderlic CPP

The CPP was developed to test individuals’ personality characteristics in terms of

job compatibility (Wonderlic, 1999). In order to understand job candidate’s behavior, the

seven primary personality traits were chosen to represent the core personality traits of the

general population. Wonderlic began with 400 items, which represented a broad range of

personality types. Factor analysis was conducted on these items to find the relationships

among the variables, group similar variables, and reduce the number of variables

represented. CPP questions then underwent principal axis factor analysis to narrow the

variables down to seven factors that corresponded to the seven CPP scales. The purity of

the factors was kept by changing items that were strongly correlated with more than one

factor. In the end, each scale represented only one factor (Wonderlic, 1999).

After this factor analysis was completed, each item’s ability to function

appropriately and item content was evaluated. This process eliminated extraneous

sources of variance in order to strengthen the CPP. Last, comparative norm data was

developed by administering the CPP to individuals from various occupations and

industries. Individuals were chosen from 1,350 employees, job applicants and college

students (Wonderlic, 1999). Table 2-2 shows the occupational representativeness of the

normative sample.

20

Table 2-2. CPP Normative Sample Characteristics

Occupation # of People in the Sample

Accounting/Bookkeeping 41 Artistic Design 4 Data Processing 28 Engineers/Drafting 32 Farming/Agricultural 2 Financial Management 5 Health/Human Services 82 Legal Profession 4 Manual Labor/Construction 19 Mechanical/Technical 45 Office Management 17 Personnel Administration 49 Personnel Consulting 267 Purchasing/Buying 8 Reception/Secretarial 73 Sales (Inside) 124 Sales (Outside) 168 Sales Management 87 Science and Research 5 Teaching/Training 29 Other 261 (Wonderlic, 1999, p. 53)

Wonderlic CPP Content

The CPP questionnaire consists of 88 True/False questions that are designed to

describe the job candidates’ personality (Wonderlic, 1999). The CPP prompts candidates

to provide Ideal and Real responses based on their job. These responses help understand

what is important for success in a specific career (Wonderlic, 1999).

Wonderlic (1999) allows candidates to complete the CPP either online or in paper

format. After completion, a 37-page report of the results is sent to the administrator. The

results are explained numerically, verbally and graphically. The report is divided into

five main sections: selection criteria, supervisory considerations, sales performance,

sales training and personal development. The CPP report describes the participant’s

21

personality in terms of their characteristics, strengths and weaknesses. Management

reports are also provided that suggest ways to improve the workforce (Wonderlic, 1999).

The Ideal/Real Match Percentage is provided on the first page of the result printout

(Wonderlic, 1999). The Ideal/Real Match Percentage is calculated by dividing the

number of CPP items with identical Ideal and Real responses by the number of items

with different responses. This percentage describes how the candidates’ ideal and real

understandings of the job match. High percentages confirm that the candidates’

personality matches the demands of the job (Wonderlic, 1999).

Wonderlic (1999) also presents a CPP Accuracy Index on the first page of the

results. This number shows the validity of the CPP results. If respondents fake,

contradict or exaggerate their test items, the validity of the CPP results can be affected.

High Accuracy Index scores demonstrate that the candidate was honest when completing

the CPP. The accuracy scores range from 0 to 10: 7 to 10 representing high accuracy, 4

to 6 representing questionable accuracy, and 0 to 3 representing low accuracy. High

Accuracy Indexes are better because low Accuracy Indexes may not be valid due to

probable participant response bias. Wonderlic recommends not using low Accuracy

Indexes because the respondents may have been ‘faking’ their answers (Wonderlic,

1999).

Wonderlic CPP Primary and Secondary Personality Traits

The CPP results are further described through seven primary and ten secondary

personality traits. According to Wonderlic (1999), traits are trends in an individual’s

personality in terms of feelings, actions and thoughts. The seven primary personality

traits were chosen through a factor analytical process and include Emotional Intensity,

22

Intuition, Recognition Motivation, Sensitivity, Assertiveness, Trust, and Exaggeration

(Wonderlic, 1999).

Emotional Intensity measures a salesperson’s energy level. A salesperson’s

physical, mental and social energy is measured through this primary trait (Wonderlic,

1999). The primary trait of Intuition measures how a salesperson makes their decisions.

For example, the salesperson could base their decisions on experience and feelings

(Wonderlic, 1999). Recognition Motivation measures how a salesperson is motivated by

status, prestige or acknowledgement (Wonderlic, 1999). Sensitivity measures how a

salesperson is loving or helpful to others (Wonderlic, 1999). Assertiveness is a

salesperson’s ability to control others (Wonderlic, 1999). The primary trait of Trust deals

with how a salesperson is conscious of what is occurring around him/her (Wonderlic,

1999). Last, Exaggeration measures if a salesperson presents an inaccurate portrayal of

his/her strengths or weaknesses (Wonderlic, 1999).

Unlike the primary traits, the ten secondary personality traits come from

observation, experience and literature review (Wonderlic, 1999). The secondary traits are

mixes of the primary traits and include Ego Drive, Interpersonal Warmth, Stability,

Empathy, Objectivity, Independence, Aggressiveness, Decisiveness, Tolerance, and

Efficiency (Wonderlic, 1999).

A salesperson with an Ego Drive is motivated to achieve short-term goals. They

are determined, impatient, creative and inventive (Wonderlic, 1999). The secondary trait

of Interpersonal Warmth measures how a salesperson shows love and concern for others

(Wonderlic, 1999). A salesperson with Stability is patient, calm and predictable

(Wonderlic, 1999). The trait of Empathy measures if a salesperson is intuitive and

23

sensitive to others (Wonderlic, 1999). Objectivity deals with how a salesperson makes

decisions without being bias. A salesperson that is objective makes decisions without

being personally involved or prejudice (Wonderlic, 1999). An Independent salesperson

is the leader of a group and is not dependent upon others (Wonderlic, 1999). A

salesperson that has Aggressiveness is also likely to lead and control. An aggressive

salesperson aims to complete tasks and achieve results (Wonderlic, 1999). The

secondary trait of Decisiveness measures how a salesperson is confident in their

decisions. Decisive salespeople make quick decisions by using their intuition

(Wonderlic, 1999). The trait of Tolerance measures how a salesperson is supportive,

trustworthy and patient (Wonderlic, 1999). Last, Efficiency measures how a salesperson

is self-disciplined. Efficient salespeople are organized and have strong time management

skills (Wonderlic, 1999).

As mentioned previously, the CPP traits are all believed to be typical of most

salespeople based on normative statistical analyses. Wonderlic’s (1999) normative data

provide general population averages for each personality trait and specific jobs. The

traits are core personality characteristics of the general population and are influencers of

success (Wonderlic, 1999).

Moreover, a majority of the CPP traits are similar to the characteristics of

successful salespeople mentioned by most authors, which were previously presented in

Table 2-2. Ten of the CPP traits share similar meanings to the major traits mentioned

before. This makes Wonderlic a good tool because it measures a majority of traits that

are believed to be important for successful salespeople. Table 2-3 lists each major

characteristic next to its similar CPP trait.

24

Table 2-3. Major Characteristics Mentioned by Most Authors and Similar CPP Traits

Other CPP Measures

Further, Wonderlic (1999) assigns a percentile score to each primary and secondary

CPP trait and then places the participant into a common personality types: Driver,

Supporter, Thinker or Motivator. The CPP also measures combinations of the primary

traits that foresee management, sales and administrative performance. These traits

include a salesperson’s ability to perceive buyers' needs, ability to close the sale, desire to

provide after-the-sale service, desire to conform to management objectives, and tolerance

for staying at one work station (Wonderlic, 1999). Interaction profiles are also presented

in the CPP. Interaction profiles show how the job candidate is likely to work with other

employees. The three main interaction traits include Temperament, Ego Style and Social

Style (Wonderlic, 1999)

Wonderlic CPP Reliability and Validity

The Wonderlic CPP has been used by thousands of companies for years

(Wonderlic, 1999). A variety of leading companies such as American First Credit Union,

North Mississippi Medical Center, and Automotive Training Institute use Wonderlic

tests. A few companies in the sales industry that use the Wonderlic CPP include

Mastercraft Interiors, Wheel City Auto, and Apple Chevrolet. These companies use the

Characteristics Mentioned by Most Authors CPP Traits that Matched

Social Skills Emotional Intensity Motivation Recognition Motivation Assertiveness Assertiveness Trust Trust Ego Drive Ego Drive Interpersonal Skills Interpersonal Warmth Empathy Empathy Independence Independent Aggressiveness Aggressive Efficiency Efficiency

25

CPP to improve their employment decision-making process (Wonderlic, 2006).

Companies remain loyal to Wonderlic’s services because its assessments are successful

in finding the best candidates for a job, hiring quality employees, and reducing turnover

rates (Wonderlic, 1999).

Wonderlic (2006) claims that all tests meet the following Equal Employment

Opportunity Commission (EEOC) guidelines:

• The test must be valid. • The test must be fair. • The test must be job-related. Reliability of the Wonderlic CPP

Wonderlic (1999) used two methods to test the reliability of the CPP. First,

internal consistency was checked by administering the CPP to 30,826 people.

Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was used for standardized variables in order to examine

each scale, divide the scale in half, and find how strongly the two halves were related.

Coefficient alpha tests reliability based on the average correlation among scale items

(Wonderlic, 1999).

Another reliability test required a total of 128 participants to take the CPP

(Wonderlic, 1999). The same participants retook the CPP six weeks later. The two sets

of questionnaire scores were then compared. This method allowed Wonderlic to test the

CPP’s test-retest reliability, which determines the stability of the test results over time.

For this test-retest process, Wonderlic (1999) used 1.00 to represent perfect reliability and

.00 to indicate unreliability. The results of the test-retest reliability showed that the CPP

was consistent when measuring personality. Coefficient alpha internal consistency

reliability fell between .73 and .85. For students and consultants, the reliabilities fell

26

between .65 and .85. These high scores suggest that the CPP is reliable by yielding

consistent results over time (Wonderlic, 1999).

Validity of the Wonderlic CPP

Wonderlic (1999) also tested the validity of the CPP. Exploratory factor analysis

checked the validity of the test’s seven scales (Wonderlic, 1999). This was done by

assessing the cohesiveness and purity of the scales. Wonderlic (1999) also checked the

CPP’s construct validity by testing the relationships between the CPP and other tests’

personality measures. The CPP’s scale scores were compared with the 16 PF, the Myers-

Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI), and

the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) test’s results. The CPP was administered

with these tests in order to gather construct validity results (Wonderlic, 1999).

Wonderlic (1999) showed significant correlations at the .05 level, and the majority

was also significant at the .01 level. The results from the Wonderlic tests showed

convergent and discriminant validity of the CPP’s seven scales. When Wonderlic tested

the CPP and the 16PF, a positive relationship between the 16PF personality measures of

Social Boldness (r=.23) and Liveliness (r=.39) and the CPP trait of Recognition

Motivation was found. The Assertiveness CPP scale was also positively related with the

16 PF Dominance (r=.33) and Social Boldness (r=.37) scales. On the other hand, a

negative relationship was found between the CPP scale of Assertiveness and the 16 PF

scales of Privateness (r=.22) and Apprehension (r=-.38). Recognition Motivation was not

significantly related to the 16 PF scales of Reasoning, Emotional Stability, Vigilance,

Abstractedness and Apprehension (Wonderlic, 1999). For Wonderlic’s Millon Clinical

Multiaxial Inventory study, the Antisocial (r=-.28) and Paranoid (r=-.30) personality

traits had negative relationships with the CPP trait of Trust (Wonderlic, 1999).

27

In addition, Wonderlic (1999) compared the CPP to other accurate questionnaires.

Hundreds of people took these questionnaires and the CPP (Wonderlic, 1999). The

questionnaires tested items such as Locus of Control, Type A Behavior, and Social

Desirability. The results found significant relationships, convergent validity, and

discriminant validity. Criterion related validity was also checked through several

research studies that found the CPP to be a valid tool in predicting sales, productivity and

work quality (Wonderlic, 1999).

Normative Database for the Wonderlic CPP

In addition to proving reliability and validity of the CPP, Wonderlic (1999)

developed normative databases. The normative databases provide general population

averages by job positions. The CPP’s normative data provides the primary personality

tendencies for different jobs. Individuals and companies who take the CPP can compare

their results to these norms (Wonderlic, 1999).

Wonderlic (1999) has a database that includes personality profiles for more than

42,000 employees, 500 jobs and 500 companies. The normative sample is made up of

about 63% males and 37% females. Further, the Dictionary of Occupational Titles

(D.O.T.) provides occupational codes for the different CPP job titles. Individuals taking

the CPP can use the D.O.T. to compare their results to other job positions (Wonderlic,

1999).

In terms of advertising sales, Wonderlic (1999) included media sales

representatives from publications, radio and television in the normative sample. A total

of 51 advertising sales representatives are included in the normative sample; 26

publication sales representatives and 25 radio/television sales representatives. Wonderlic

found that compared to salespeople from print media companies, broadcast salespeople

28

have higher CPP trait percentile averages for Emotional Intensity, Sensitivity and

Exaggeration. Print media salespeople have higher means for the CPP traits of Intuition,

Recognition Motivation, Assertiveness and Trust (Wonderlic, 1999). Table 2-4 lists the

CPP primary traits average percentile scores for the broadcast and print sample norms.

Table 2-4. Advertising Salespeople CPP Norms for Primary Traits CPP Primary Traits Broadcast

CPP Norms

Print CPP Norms

Emotional Intensity 51.00 49.00 Intuition 38.00 52.00 Recognition Motivation 44.00 49.00 Sensitivity 71.00 67.00 Assertiveness 63.00 70.00 Trust 62.00 69.00 Exaggeration 66.00 47.00 (Wonderlic, 1999, p. 103)

Wonderlic CPP Study

Several case studies have been conducted on the CPP and sales performance.

According to Wonderlic (1999), a study was conducted in order to examine the

relationships among the CPP scores, sales performance and job tenure. Job tenure was

the number of months each salesperson was employed, and sales performance was

measured through total sales commissions divided by number of months working. This

study tested 124 insurance agents within the U.S. from an insurance company

(Wonderlic, 1999).

In order to analyze the data, a correlation was tested based on the CPP scores, job

tenure and performance. Multiple regression analysis checked the statistical significance

of the correlations between high accuracy CPP scores and sales performance, and another

regression analysis tested job tenure as an independent variable (Wonderlic, 1999).

29

The Wonderlic (1999) study’s results showed that a significant relationship

between high accuracy CPP scores and sales performance existed. The regression

analysis found a significant relationship between sales performance and the seven

primary CPP traits (r=.38, p<.01). For high accuracy scores, the CPP traits explained

almost 15% of sales performance variance. Thus, high accuracy CPP scores were

positively related to sales performance. The results propose that companies should

consider how accurately personality tests measure traits. Moreover, job tenure was

shown to be predictive of job performance (Wonderlic, 1999).

Hypotheses

After assessing the information gathered during the literature review, it can be

concluded that literature on the important characteristics of successful advertising

salespeople needs to be updated (Bichard & Chambers, 2006). Further, although the CPP

was previously found to be a reliable and valid tool for testing general salespeople, the

CPP’s ability to test advertising sales representatives’ needs to be studied further.

Wonderlic’s ability to identify important characteristics of successful versus unsuccessful

advertising salespeople needs to be studied (Wonderlic, 1999). Thus, this has developed

a basis for research opportunities of the following hypothesis (H1):

H1: The Wonderlic CPP is an appropriate tool for identifying successful advertising sales representatives.

H1 suggests that as the CPP was found to be an appropriate tool for testing general

salespeople, it should also be an appropriate test for identifying the characteristics of

successful advertising salespeople. If there are significant relationships, the hypothesis

will be supported.

30

Chapter Summary

Success in sales can be measured through sales volume, sales manager evaluations,

and salesperson self-evaluations (Levy & Sharma, 1993). Among the various factors

affecting success, personality characteristics such as assertiveness, ego drive and empathy

have been suggested to be important (Rasmusson, 1999). In order to find top performing

salespeople with similar traits, companies have turned to employee assessments

(Borofsky, 1993). The Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP) is a tool for

testing salespeople because it measures most traits of successful salespeople, and it is

reliable and valid (Wonderlic, 1999).

Although some literature discusses the Wonderlic CPP’s reliability and validity for

testing general salespeople, no literature discusses whether or not the CPP is a good tool

for testing successful versus unsuccessful advertising sales representatives (Wonderlic,

1999). Further, previous research on the CPP’s ability to test advertising salespeople was

conducted on a small sample (Wonderlic, 1999). Thus, this thesis further examines the

Wonderlic CPP’s ability to identify the important characteristics of successful advertising

sales representatives.

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CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

Wonderlic’s Involvement in the Study

This study involved a cooperative effort with Wonderlic. A Research Agreement

for Wonderlic Assessments application was submitted to Wonderlic. Wonderlic

approved the application because it was an independent research study on the Wonderlic

Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP). All CPP questionnaires and reports were

donated, free of costs, to this study under certain terms and conditions.

The research agreement specified that all donated test materials and test scores

must be used as described in the application, and individual test scores are not allowed to

be used outside of this study. Wonderlic did not make endorsements on the study’s

design, implementation, analysis or conclusions. After the study’s participants completed

the CPP, all responses were sent to Wonderlic. Wonderlic may use the returned tests and

scores for inclusion in normative and item analysis research, while maintaining the

information in strict confidence. Within one month after the study is completed, a copy

of the study’s results, analyses, conclusions and raw date file must be sent to Wonderlic

in order to avoid charges for all CPP items used. A complete list of the terms and

conditions are presented in Appendix B.

With agreement of all terms and conditions, Wonderlic provided a maximum of 90

CPP questionnaires in the online format. Wonderlic provided a username and password

for access to the CPP online testing system. Through this system, an e-mail invitation for

the CPP was sent out to each participant. After the participants completed the CPP, all

32

online test sheets and scores were returned to Wonderlic via the Internet. Wonderlic then

scored the responses and sent the CPP reports to the study’s administrator via e-mail.

The administrator received a 37-page report for each completed CPP. The report

included the percentile scores for each CPP trait and did not include the raw data for the

traits.

Survey Research Method

A survey is a research method for gathering data that analyzes a sample through a

questionnaire format (Babbie, 2001). Balnaves and Caputi (2001) suggest that this type

of research is beneficial because it provides more statistical accuracy compared to other

methods. They say that the survey method provides accurate information and makes

numerical comparisons between specific groups. Another advantage of the survey

method is that it costs less and takes less time but still manages to cover all issues present

in the study (Balnaves & Caputi, 2001). Since the Wonderlic CPP questionnaire was

conducted online, the sales representatives were able to complete the CPP conveniently

and quickly.

Online data collection method conducts primary research through the Internet

(Hewson, Yule, Laurent, & Vogel, 2003). Best and Krueger (2004) presents a few major

advantages of the online data collection method. First, online questionnaires transmit and

receive information more quickly and conveniently compared to traditional

communication modes. Another advantage of online data collection is that it provides

access to millions of potential research participants. Best and Krueger (2004) also say

that online data collection facilitates alternative question formats and various sequencing

options. Last, conducting a survey online is less expensive compared to other methods

(Best & Krueger, 2004).

33

A mixture of both paper and online survey methods was chosen because it was the

most feasible way to gather responses from the participants. A total of three

questionnaires were used in this study and two are presented in Appendix A. In order to

study the advertising sales representatives, a paper-pencil questionnaire about their job

and the Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP) online was administered to

them. When this study’s administrator asked whether the Wonderlic CPP online or on

paper was preferred, most sales manager participants said that an online questionnaire

would be easiest for their sales representatives. With the sales representatives all being

full-time workers, the Wonderlic CPP online questionnaire allowed them to complete the

study in less than 20 minutes. Participants were able to provide their responses quickly

without having to leave their offices.

The second sales representative’s questionnaire was one-page about their job (see

Appendix A). This questionnaire was in paper format and attached to the informed

consent form which they had to sign as well. The purpose of having two questionnaires

for the sales representatives was to measure each advertising salesperson’s level of

success and his/her personality characteristics. The instruments required participants to

answer questions which reflected their levels of success and characteristics of their

personalities. The responses from both questionnaires allowed for an evaluation of the

Wonderlic’s ability to identify characteristics of advertising salespeople likely to lead to

success in the profession.

In order to study advertising sales managers, a paper questionnaire tested

advertising sales managers’ perceptions of the performance level and personality

characteristics of advertising sales representatives whom they supervise (see Appendix

34

A). The relationship between the sales managers’ opinions and the Wonderlic CPP

results was determined. A paper questionnaire was given to the sales managers because

they had to fill out one questionnaire for each sales representative on staff. The paper

survey method allowed the sales managers to quickly fill out all questionnaires at once.

Operational Definitions

Independent Variables

The independent variables were the different Wonderlic characteristics: Primary

Traits- Emotional Intensity, Intuition, Recognition Motivation, Sensitivity, Assertiveness,

Trust and Exaggeration, and Secondary Traits- Ego Drive, Interpersonal Warmth,

Stability, Empathy, Objectivity, Independence, Aggressiveness, Decisiveness, Tolerance

and Efficiency.

The Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP) was used to

operationalize the independent variables. The CPP operationalized the independent

variables through 88 True/False questions. Each individual’s raw scores were converted

into percentiles of each characteristic, which were compared with thousands of applicants

and employees who have previously completed the CPP. The percentiles ranged from 0

to 100%. To explain, if a respondent received the percentile score of 50, 50% of the

respondent’s peers scored higher than them and 50% scored lower than them (Wonderlic,

1999).

Dependent Variables

This study looked at the dependent variable of success, measured through five

success indicators: the number of accounts gained, number of accounts lost, total sales

dollars for 2005, total sales dollars for 2006, and sales manager rating. Two questions in

the sales manager questionnaire were used to create the success indicator of “sales

35

manager rating.” One question asked sales managers to rate each salesperson in

comparison to others on staff as either needing improvement or consistently exceeding

expectations on a 1 to 10 scale, with 1=“needs improvement” and 10=“consistently

exceeds expectations.” The second question asked the sales managers to rank the

salesperson in comparison to other salespeople on a 1 to 10 scale, with 1=“low” and

10=“high.” These two questions were summed and divided by two to produce the sales

manager’s success indicator.

For each success indicator, the sales representatives were placed in a performance

level group of either “high,” “medium,” or “low” performers. The 20/80 rule was used to

divide the sales performance level groups. This rule states that 20% of a salesperson’s

customers will be responsible for 80% of a salesperson’s sales (Trivers, 1996). With this

rule in mind, the groups were made up of approximately 20% “high,” 80% “medium,”

and 20% “low” performers. The sales representatives whom fell in the “high”

performance level group were considered to be top performers, while sellers in the “low”

group were less successful.

For the success indicator of “accounts lost,” salespeople in the “high” performance

group lost the least amount of accounts, totaling 1 or less accounts, during their last

annual sales period. Salespeople in the “medium” performance group lost 2 to 15

accounts during their last annual period, while salespeople in the “low” performance

group lost the highest amount of accounts, losing 16 or more.

For the success indicator of “accounts gained,” salespeople in the “high”

performance group gained the most accounts, adding 100 or more, during their last

annual sales period. Salespeople in the “medium” performance group gained 7 to 99

36

accounts during their last annual period, while salespeople in the “low” performance

group gained the least amount of accounts of 6 or less.

For the success indicator of “total sales 2005,” salespeople in the “high”

performance group had a high 2005 total sales dollars of $100,000 or more. Salespeople

in the “medium” performance had total sales dollars equaling $50,000 to $99,999, while

the “low” performance group’s sales were less than $50,000.

For the success indicator of “total sales 2006,” salespeople in the “high”

performance group had the highest 2006 total sales dollars of $80,000 or more.

Salespeople in the “medium” performance group had total sales dollars equaling $50,000

to $79,999, while the “low” performance group’s sales were less than $50,000.

For the success indicator of “sales manager rating,” salespeople in the “high”

performance group earned a high combined rating that ranged from 8.5 to 10.

Salespeople with “medium” performance received a sales manager rating of 6 to 8, while

salespeople in the “low” performance group received a rating less than 6. Table 3-1

shows in detail how each success indicator’s performance level groups were divided.

37

Table 3-1. Success Indicators and Performance Level Groups Success Indicators

Performance Level Groups

Accounts Lost (n=66)

High: 0-1 Med: 2-15 Low: ≥16

Accounts Gained (n=66)

High: ≥100 Med: 99-7 Low: 6-0

Total Sales 2005 (n=52)

High: ≥$100,000 Med: $99,999-$50,000 Low: <$50,000

Total Sales 2006 (n=53)

High: ≥$80,000 Med: $79,999-$50,000 Low: <$50,000

Sales Manager Rating (n=67)

High: ≥8.5 Med: 8-6 Low: <6

Study Design

Participants

Data was gathered from salespeople and their sales managers from various print

and broadcast media companies from the Southeast U.S. The participants were gathered

through a convenience sample method. Convenience sampling means that participants

are chosen based on their accessibility and convenience (Davis, 1997). A total of 84

participants, both male and female were recruited, 67 were advertising sales

representatives and 17 participants were sales managers. Table 3-2 presents the number

of sales representatives that belonged to each sales manager.

Table 3-2. Sales Managers and Representatives Media Type Sales Managers

# % Sales Representatives # %

Television 3 17.65 14 20.89 Radio 6 35.29 21 31.34 Newspaper 5 29.41 14 20.90 Magazine 3 17.65 18 26.87 Total 17 100.00 67 100.00

38

The sales manager sample included 70.59% males and 29.41% females. The 67

sales representatives included 35 advertising sales representatives who worked for a

broadcast media and 32 sales representatives who worked in print advertising sales. The

representatives ranged from the ages of 25 to 71. Fifty-five percent of the respondents

were male and 45% were female. The sample’s ethnicity report was made of 86.6%

Caucasian, 6% African-American, 3% Hispanic, and 4.5% other. The participants

voluntarily completed the study and received no form of compensation.

The Study

Both sales managers and sales representatives signed an informed consent form.

This form ensured that participants were provided with all the information needed to

decide whether or not to participate in the study. The informed consent forms were

approved by the University of Florida’s Internal Review Board (see Appendix C).

The study was conducted between the dates of June 19, 2006 to June 30, 2006. The

sales representatives were allotted 20 minutes to complete their questionnaires, and the

sales managers were given approximately 5 minutes for each questionnaire. The sales

managers completed a questionnaire that rated individual sales representatives who work

for their company. A questionnaire for each sales representative on staff was completed.

The sales representatives first completed a paper questionnaire about their job. After

finishing this questionnaire, they were asked to complete the Wonderlic Personality

Profile (CPP) online. The sales representatives received and e-mail invitation from

Wonderlic Online Services that provided the link to the Wonderlic CPP online. The CPP

results were sent to the principal investigator via the Internet, and the principal

investigator picked up all paper questionnaires after completion.

39

Questionnaires

A total of 3 questionnaires were administered. The sales representatives completed

two questionnaires, including the Wonderlic CPP online and an additional paper-pencil

questionnaire about their job history. Sales managers completed one questionnaire,

where they provided their opinions on their sales representatives. The questionnaires

used a variety of question types, such as scales, True/False and fill in the blank. The

questions were used to assess salespeople’s characteristics and traits, as well as their level

of success in advertising sales.

Analysis

In order to analyze the questionnaires’ responses, the Statistical Package for Social

Sciences (SPSS) version 14.0 was used (SPSS, 2006). ANOVA was the main analysis

used for this study. Davis (1997) says that the purpose of ANOVA is to examine the

mean differences and variability of sample values. ANOVA separates the total

variability of a data set into different sources of variation (Davis, 1997). A one-way

ANOVA analysis was completed for each success indicator and Wonderlic characteristic,

which examined a single measure for each analysis.

To further examine the relationships among variables, a Pearson Correlation was

completed on the success indicators and Wonderlic characteristics (Cho, 2006).

Correlations help determine the relationships or associations between variables. Davis

(1997) says that this type of statistical measure has correlation coefficient values ranging

from -1 to +1. The sign of the coefficient indicates the association, with positive values

representing a positive relationship and negative values representing a negative

relationship. A positive relationship indicates that as one variable increases the other

40

variable increases as well. Conversely, a negative relationship shows how as one

variable increases the other variable decreases (Davis, 1997).

41

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS

Sample

As mentioned before, a total of 84 participants from the Southeast U.S. were used

in this study. Sixty-seven of the participants were advertising sales representatives and

the remaining 17 participants were their sales managers. The sales manager participants

were composed of 70.59% males and 29.41% females. The sales managers came from

various print and broadcast media, including television, radio, newspaper and magazine

companies.

Out of the 67 sales representatives, 35 of the advertising sales representatives

worked for a broadcast media while 32 worked in print advertising sales. The sales

representatives’ average age was 42. The sales representative sample was composed of

55.2% males and 44.8% females. In terms of ethnicity, the sample was made of 86.5%

Caucasian, 6% African-American, 3% Hispanic, and 4.5% other. Table 4-1 lays out the

sample profile of sales representatives.

Table 4-1. Sample Profile of Sales Representatives Broadcast Print Characteristics Television

# % Radio # %

Newspaper # %

Magazine # %

Total

Age 42.08 43.80 40.23 38.17 41.14 Gender:

Male 8 57.14 13 61.90 4 28.57 12 66.67 55.20 Female 6 42.86 8 38.10 10 71.43 6 33.33 44.80

Race: Caucasian 13 92.86 18 85.72 11 78.57 16 88.88 86.50

African-American 0 0.00 2 9.52 2 14.29 0 0.00 6.00 Hispanic 0 0.00 1 4.76 0 0.00 1 5.56 3.00

Other 1 7.14 0 0.00 1 7.14 1 5.56 4.50

42

Wonderlic (1999) provided CPP norms for the seven primary traits. When

comparing this sample’s means to the means of CPP norms, it is important to note that

this sample scores highest for the primary traits of Intuition and Assertiveness. This

sample is typically assertive and confident when dealing with others, and they are

thoughtful in their decision-making and problem-solving processes. On the other hand,

this sample scores lowest on average for the primary trait of Trust. Thus, this sample is

skeptical and distrusting of acquaintances because they fear that others are selfish and

dishonest. Table 4-2 compares this sample’s means to the CPP general, broadcast and

print salespeople’s norms for the seven primary traits.

Table 4-2. Sample Means and CPP Norms for Primary Traits

CPP Primary Traits Sample Means

General CPP Norms

Broadcast CPP Norms

Print CPP Norms

Emotional Intensity 50.00 59.50 51.00 49.00 Intuition 61.00 38.30 38.00 52.00 Recognition Motivation 52.00 63.70 44.00 49.00 Sensitivity 66.00 72.50 71.00 67.00 Assertiveness 73.00 57.10 63.00 70.00 Trust 44.00 59.80 62.00 69.00 Exaggeration 62.00 50.10 66.00 47.00 (Wonderlic, 1999)

To measure sales representatives’ success, the success indicators of the number of

accounts lost, number of accounts gained, total sales for 2005, total sales for 2006, and

sales manager rating were tested. As previously mentioned, each sales representative was

placed into a performance level group of either “high,” “medium,” or “low” performers.

On average, the participants lost 14.32 accounts within their last annual sales

period, placing the sample in the “medium” performance level group for accounts lost.

Likewise, the sample fell in the “medium” performance group for accounts gained,

averaging 42.18 accounts added within their last annual period. The sample is considered

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to be “high” performers in terms of the total sales success indicator, with total sales for

2005 averaging $549,148.46 and total sales for 2006 averaging $459,078.27. Last,

participants received an average sales manager rating of 6.99, placing the sample in the

“medium” performance level group. Table 4-3 presents each success indicator group’s

mean, median and standard deviation.

Table 4-3. Success Indicators Success Indicators Mean Median Std. Dev. Performance Level

Accounts Lost (n=66) 14.32 4.00 30.99

High: 0-1 Med: 2-15 Low: ≥16

Accounts Gained (n=66)

42.18 13.00 55.28 High: ≥100 Med: 99-7 Low: 6-0

Total Sales 2005 (n=52)

549148.46 392919.00 687920.39 High: ≥$100,000 Med: $99,999-$50,000 Low: <$50,000

Total Sales 2006 (n=53)

459078.27 240000.00 517845.46 High: ≥$80,000 Med: $79,999-$50,000 Low: <$50,000

Sales Manager Rating (n=67)

6.99 7.00 1.70 High: ≥8.5 Med: 8-6 Low: <6

Next, the sample’s mean, median and standard deviation for each Wonderlic

characteristic were found (Table 4-4). The traits of Assertiveness, Exaggeration and

Sensitivity received the highest average percentile scores. Thus, this sample is typically

confident and nurturing. They also tend to over-exaggerate a favorable self-image.

Conversely, the traits of Trust and Recognition Motivation received the lowest average

percentile scores. This suggests that this sample is typically distrusting of others and

prefer private recognition.

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Table 4-4. Statistics for Wonderlic Characteristics

CPP Traits n Mean Median Std. Dev.

Emotional Intensity 67 53.31 50.00 27.85 Intuition 67 58.91 61.00 25.61 Recognition Motivation 67 49.22 52.00 29.03 Sensitivity 67 62.48 66.00 30.35 Assertiveness 67 66.85 73.00 26.09 Trust 67 49.94 44.00 29.45 Exaggeration 67 63.58 62.00 23.26 Ego Drive 67 55.63 55.00 17.39 Interpersonal Warmth 67 55.94 56.00 21.45 Stability 67 56.63 57.00 19.11 Empathy 67 57.46 57.00 15.12 Objectivity 67 51.79 52.00 14.54 Independence 67 51.76 49.00 17.83 Aggressiveness 67 54.61 52.00 14.50 Decisiveness 67 60.54 64.00 16.24 Tolerance 67 51.34 53.00 17.84 Efficiency 67 45.12 46.00 14.84

Hypotheses Testing

For this study’s hypothesis testing, one representative was deleted because he/she

had an Accuracy Index score of 1, which is considered low. As explained before, the

accuracy scores range from 0 to 10: 7 to 10 representing high accuracy, 4 to 6

representing questionable accuracy, and 0 to 3 representing low accuracy. Wonderlic

(1999) recommends not using low Accuracy Index scores because the respondents may

have been ‘faking’ their answers. Only scores ranging from 4 to 10 were used, resulting

in 66 participants out of the total 67 used in the analyses. Table 4-5 presents the

percentage of the sample that received high, questionable, or low Accuracy Index scores.

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Table 4-5. Accuracy Index Scores

Accuracy Index Scores # of Sample

% of Sample

High Accuracy 40 59.70 Questionable Accuracy 26 38.81 Low Accuracy 1 1.49

SPSS 14.0 was used to analyze the data. Hypothesis 1 (H1) was tested using

ANOVA analyses. Correlations were also completed to see if variables were related. As

mentioned before, the hypothesis is as follows:

H1: The Wonderlic CPP is an appropriate tool for identifying successful advertising sales representatives.

Hypothesis Results

In order to test the hypothesis, a one-way ANOVA analysis was completed for each

success indicator and Wonderlic Characteristic. This allowed for the testing of mean

differences and the examining of variability of sample values (Cho, 2006). The first

ANOVA test ran was for the “accounts lost” group (Table 4-6). The dependent variable

(DV) of success measured through the number of accounts lost was divided into the

“high,” “medium,” and “low” performance level groups, and the independent variable

(IV) was the sample’s Wonderlic characteristic percentile scores for each trait tested. By

using these variables, the differences between performance level groups in terms of the

Wonderlic percentiles could be examined.

The analysis showed that the Wonderlic percentile scores among the “high,”

“medium,” and “low” groups did not differ significantly among the groups across the 17

Wonderlic traits. The Wonderlic CPP did not differentiate advertising salespeople with

different degrees of “accounts lost.”

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Table 4-6. Wonderlic Characteristics by Accounts Lost Groups

CPP Traits High (n=15)

Med. (n=39)

Low (n=11)

Total (n=65) Sig.

Emotional Intensity 44.47 57.97 50.73 53.63 NS Intuition 52.60 60.00 64.00 58.97 NS Recognition Motivation 53.60 49.13 47.18 49.23 NS Sensitivity 67.93 62.82 53.91 62.49 NS Assertiveness 72.00 63.59 73.73 67.25 NS Trust 47.33 48.62 52.00 48.89 NS Exaggeration 60.53 63.90 62.09 62.82 NS Ego Drive 53.67 56.87 55.45 55.89 NS Interpersonal Warmth 57.40 55.44 52.64 55.42 NS Stability 63.87 52.59 61.27 56.66 NS Empathy 54.93 57.79 58.36 57.23 NS Objectivity 52.53 50.56 57.00 52.11 NS Independence 50.33 50.87 57.64 51.89 NS Aggressiveness 53.00 55.23 57.00 55.02 NS Decisiveness 61.13 58.77 65.73 60.49 NS Tolerance 56.53 48.72 51.09 50.92 NS Efficiency 45.33 45.28 45.18 45.28 NS

To test the significance of the “accounts gained” success indicator, a one-way

ANOVA analysis was completed (Table 4-7). This analysis also showed that there were

no significant differences among the “high,” “medium,” and “low” groups across the

Wonderlic characteristics. The Wonderlic percentile scores among the performance level

groups were not significantly different. The Wonderlic CPP did not differentiate

advertising salespeople with different degrees of “lost gained.”

Table 4-7. Wonderlic Characteristics by Accounts Gained Groups

CPP Traits High (n=14)

Med. (n=37)

Low (n=14)

Total (n=65) Sig.

Emotional Intensity 49.07 57.03 46.50 53.05 NS Intuition 61.21 60.03 56.29 59.48 NS Recognition Motivation 36.86 54.59 43.43 48.37 NS Sensitivity 45.79 64.81 68.36 61.48 NS Assertiveness 60.50 64.11 77.21 66.15 NS Trust 48.43 47.89 50.50 48.57 NS Exaggeration 69.43 59.95 64.71 63.02 NS

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Table 4-7. Continued Ego Drive 48.79 58.11 53.50 55.11 NS Interpersonal Warmth 46.93 56.08 59.07 54.75 NS Stability 55.57 53.32 65.43 56.42 NS Empathy 54.14 58.08 57.71 57.15 NS Objectivity 53.93 49.81 55.86 52.00 NS Independence 59.36 48.22 55.36 52.15 NS Aggressiveness 54.00 54.86 54.86 54.68 NS Decisiveness 57.57 58.78 65.64 60.00 NS Tolerance 48.86 49.57 56.36 50.88 NS Efficiency 51.57 42.92 46.79 45.62 NS

The results for the “total sales” success indicators yielded similar results. Both

analyses for total sales 2005 (Table 4-8) and total sales 2006 (Table 4-9) showed no

significant differences among the groups across the Wonderlic traits.

Table 4-8. Wonderlic Characteristics by Total Sales 2005 Groups

CPP Traits High (n=7)

Med. (n=37)

Low (n=8)

Total (n=52) Sig.

Emotional Intensity 47.29 58.84 59.00 57.31 NS Intuition 61.43 58.05 54.88 58.02 NS Recognition Motivation 30.14 47.73 57.63 46.88 NS Sensitivity 69.00 58.03 70.00 61.35 NS Assertiveness 78.71 64.22 64.00 66.13 NS Trust 42.00 49.24 41.00 47.00 NS Exaggeration 69.86 63.95 54.13 63.23 NS Ego Drive 50.71 57.32 59.88 56.83 NS Interpersonal Warmth 55.14 53.35 55.25 53.88 NS Stability 65.57 52.46 52.13 54.17 NS Empathy 58.29 55.78 55.13 56.02 NS Objectivity 57.71 51.84 49.25 52.23 NS Independence 59.57 52.89 45.50 52.65 NS Aggressiveness 56.71 56.38 55.63 56.31 NS Decisiveness 65.14 58.78 55.75 59.17 NS Tolerance 54.00 47.32 48.00 48.33 NS Efficiency 50.86 46.78 43.88 46.88 NS

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Table 4-9. Wonderlic Characteristics by Total Sales 2006 Groups

CPP Traits High (n=10)

Med. (n=34)

Low (n=8)

Total (n=52) Sig.

Emotional Intensity 42.10 58.62 54.88 54.87 NS Intuition 53.00 62.09 53.13 58.96 NS Recognition Motivation 39.90 44.79 68.13 47.44 NS Sensitivity 77.20 55.47 65.75 61.23 NS Assertiveness 68.50 65.29 60.25 65.13 NS Trust 46.30 50.94 40.00 48.37 NS Exaggeration 68.40 63.12 50.63 62.21 NS Ego Drive 48.10 56.74 59.75 55.54 NS Interpersonal Warmth 61.40 52.97 52.63 54.54 NS Stability 63.00 53.15 52.88 55.00 NS Empathy 57.30 57.56 52.88 56.79 NS Objectivity 50.40 53.50 47.63 52.00 NS Independence 50.30 55.09 42.63 52.25 NS Aggressiveness 49.50 56.82 54.25 55.02 NS Decisiveness 58.90 60.79 53.88 59.37 NS Tolerance 59.70 47.21 48.75 49.85 NS Efficiency 48.40 46.53 41.88 46.17 NS

The final ANOVA analysis tested the success indicator of sales manager rating

(Table 4-10). Similar to the previous analyses, the analysis shows that the Wonderlic

percentile scores among the “high,” “medium,” and “low” groups were not significantly

different. The Wonderlic CPP did not differentiate advertising salespeople with different

degrees of “sales manager ratings.”

Table 4-10. Wonderlic Characteristics by Sales Manager Rating Groups

CPP Traits High (n=13)

Med. (n=39)

Low (n=14)

Total (n=66) Sig.

Emotional Intensity 56.69 56.49 42.07 53.47 NS Intuition 66.38 57.62 57.71 59.36 NS Recognition Motivation 46.38 49.05 49.57 48.64 NS Sensitivity 66.77 57.23 70.79 61.98 NS Assertiveness 57.62 69.18 66.93 66.42 NS Trust 45.23 50.33 50.00 49.26 NS Exaggeration 63.62 63.46 62.57 63.30 NS Ego Drive 54.31 57.79 50.00 55.45 NS

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Table 4-10. Continued Interpersonal Warmth 55.77 53.49 60.14 55.35 NS Stability 50.23 56.26 62.21 56.33 NS Empathy 61.08 55.62 58.93 57.39 NS Objectivity 47.77 53.85 50.29 51.89 NS Independence 48.08 54.41 48.86 51.98 NS Aggressiveness 52.69 57.28 49.43 54.71 NS Decisiveness 56.38 61.56 60.29 60.27 NS Tolerance 49.54 48.59 58.93 50.97 NS Efficiency 43.77 46.41 43.93 45.36 NS

A Pearson’s Correlation showed that Recognition Motivation and Ego Drive were

negatively related to 2005 sales (Table 4-11). This indicates that the higher the

salesperson’s Recognition Motivation and Ego Drive scores were, the more likely the

salesperson had lower sales for 2005. In terms of Recognition Motivation, participants

with higher sales typically prefer private recognition. Even though participants with high

levels of Ego Drive are motivated toward short-term goals, their 2005 sales were more

likely to be lower. Another negative relationship existed between Tolerance and sales

manager rating. Participants with higher Tolerance levels were more likely to receive

lower sales manager ratings. The more tolerant a salesperson, the lower he/she was rated

by his/her sales manager. Overall, these results suggest that Recognition Motivation, Ego

Drive and Tolerance are not strong predictors of success.

Based on these correlation results, it can be concluded that hiring salespeople who

score high on Recognition Motivation, Ego Drive and Tolerance would be risky since

these traits are negatively associated with success. Participants who received high scores

for these traits were more likely to receive lower sales and sales manager ratings.

Conversely, hiring salespeople who scored high on Efficiency would be a safer decision

because efficiency was positively related to 2005 sales. This positive correlation

suggests that the higher a salesperson’s Efficiency score, the more likely the salesperson

50

received higher total sales for 2005. This indicates that Efficiency is a good predictor of

success.

Table 4-11. Wonderlic Characteristics’ Pearson Correlations with Success Indicators

CPP Traits Accounts Lost (n=65)

Accounts Gained (n=65)

Total sales for 2005 (n=52)

Total sales for 2006 (n=52)

Manager Rating (n=66)

Emotional Intensity NS NS NS NS NS Intuition NS NS NS NS NS Recognition Motivation NS NS -.31* NS NS Sensitivity NS NS NS NS NS Assertiveness NS NS NS NS NS Trust NS NS NS NS NS Exaggeration NS NS NS NS NS Ego Drive NS NS -.28* NS NS Interpersonal Warmth NS NS NS NS NS Stability NS NS NS NS NS Empathy NS NS NS NS NS Objectivity NS NS NS NS NS Independence NS NS NS NS NS Aggressiveness NS NS NS NS NS Decisiveness NS NS NS NS NS Tolerance NS NS NS NS -.28* Efficiency NS NS .29* NS NS

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Given all analyses’ results, H1 is not supported. The results suggest that the

Wonderlic CPP variables do not differentiate any advertising sales representatives with

different levels of success. ANOVA results found no significant relationship among the

Wonderlic characteristics and the success indicators. Further, there was no significant

difference across media types.

51

CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION

Summary of Results

This thesis studied the Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile’s ability to

test advertising sales representatives. The CPP’s ability to predict the characteristics of

successful versus unsuccessful advertising salespeople was examined. The results of this

study did not support H1 by suggesting that the Wonderlic CPP was not a strong tool for

differentiating advertising salespeople with different levels of success.

H1 proposed that because the Wonderlic CPP is a reliable and valid tool for testing

salespeople in general, it would also be a reliable and valid measure for advertising sales

representatives. Although the CPP has been previously known to be an effective tool for

testing personality characteristics and job fit for general salespeople and other

occupations, it may not be as useful in assessing the personality characteristics that lead

to success for advertising salespeople, specifically (Wonderlic, 1999). If H1 is supported,

there would be significant relationships between the sales representatives’ Wonderlic

characteristic percentiles and their success indicators.

The ANOVA results did not support H1. The analyses revealed that the variables

did not differentiate with different levels of success. The Wonderlic percentiles and the

success indicators had no significance. Based on findings from this sample, the

Wonderlic CPP is not a good predictor of successful advertising sales representatives’

characteristics.

52

These results could have been influenced by a couple of factors. One factor may

have been the fact that the sample was not randomized. The sample’s small size may be

another reason for insignificant results because a smaller sample size makes it more

difficult to yield significant results.

Implications

Although the Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP) has previously

provided evidence that CPP scores are related to the job performance of certain

occupations and general salespeople, the CPP does not differentiate successful from

unsuccessful advertising sales representatives.

Based on the results from this study’s sample, the CPP may be useful for

identifying personality characteristics, but is not good for predicting the success or the

strengths and weaknesses of advertising salespeople. Media companies should use the

CPP cautiously, while keeping in mind that the results do not accurately determine the

characteristics of successful advertising sellers. Media companies may want to consider

other employee assessment tools. Different success indicators, other than the ones used

in this study, could also help predict the success of advertising sales representatives.

Contributions to Advertising Sales Literature

The knowledge gained from this thesis benefits both advertising and sales

literature by providing evidence that the Wonderlic CPP is not an effective tool for

testing the characteristics of successful advertising salespeople. Before this thesis,

Wonderlic was only a reliable and valid tool for testing general salespeople. The results

from this thesis contribute to previous literature by discovering that the Wonderlic CPP is

not a reliable or valid tool for measuring the characteristics of advertising salespeople

that are critical determinants of success.

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Although some literature discusses psychological tests, the sales process (Shane,

1999), and personal characteristics of salespeople (Warner & Buchman, 2004), only a

few focus on the area of advertising sales. Little research has also been conducted on the

success of advertising salespeople specifically. No studies have been conducted on the

important characteristics of successful versus unsuccessful advertising salespeople in

terms of the Wonderlic CPP. Thus, this thesis adds valuable information to this

literature.

Further, Borofsky (1993) proposes that it is important to study the characteristics

that lead to success for salespeople recruiting, hiring, training and motivating.

Personality characteristics are believed to affect employee productivity, turnover and job

satisfaction. Many companies use assessment instruments as a tool for predicting job

performance and to enhance the employment processes (Borofsky, 1993). Top

performing candidates can be found through questions and responses of pre-employment

tests (Gitomer, 2003). Moreover, when sampling error and measurement unreliability are

low, psychological tests are a valid way to predict job performance and analyze employee

strengths and weaknesses. Sales tests can also be used to assess cognitive ability,

personality, and other non-demographic variables (Cron, Marshall, Singh, Spiro, &

Sujan, 2005).

Without the proper understanding of personality traits, advertising salespeople

will be unsuccessful in their careers and companies will be negatively affected by this.

By studying this topic, media companies can significantly improve their ability to

identify, hire and retain qualified job candidates. Company managers can use this

research when looking to hire the most effective advertising sales staff. This thesis

54

suggests to media companies that the Wonderlic CPP may not be the best tool to use for

identifying the characteristics of successful advertising salespeople.

Limitations

A few limitations are present in the method of this study. One limitation deals with

how the participants were gathered through a convenience sampling method. As a result

of this method, the sample was not random and too small. A sample that is not random

makes it difficult to generalize the results to the larger population, and a sample that is

too small increases the possible margin of error (Cho, 2006). Further, the fact that a

majority of the sample was Caucasian could also serve as a potential limitation. This

unequal balance of ethnic backgrounds makes the sample less representative of the

general population (Babbie, 2001).

The fact that the Wonderlic (1999) CPP scores were percentiles serves as another

limitation. Since the CPP scores were not actual raw data, variability was reduced. This

makes it more difficult to find significant differences among variables. Moreover, the

CPP results of salespeople who scored 4 to 6 Accuracy Indexes, which represent

questionable accuracy, were included in the study. This serves as a possible limitation

because questionable accuracy scores could have decreased the potential validity of the

study’s results (Wonderlic, 1999).

Future Research

Future research on this topic should improve its methodology. A larger and more

random sample should be gathered. A larger sample increases the confidence level of the

results by providing a more powerful test of the hypothesis. With a more random sample,

the results can be projected to the general population. Different success indicators or

sales tests could also be used in future research in order to better understand the

55

important characteristics that are critical determinants of success for advertising sales

representatives. Other indicators and assessments may help find a relationship between

personality characteristics and sales success. Future research should use the raw CPP

scores and should only use the responses of salespeople who have high Accuracy Index

scores.

One possible topic for future research could be a comparison between media

types. For example, the characteristics and levels of success between print versus

broadcast advertising salespeople could be studied. This type of study could look for

differences between media sales representatives from different types of media.

When conducting future research, recent trends in sales should be taken into

consideration. Sales industry trends have changed since previous studies were

conducted. For example, new selling techniques and strategies may have been developed

to improve old ones. Future research should explore the changes and improvements of

sales, in order to more clearly identify important traits.

Last, future research on advertising sales and related topics should help improve

media companies hiring, developing and training processes. Further, new instruments for

measuring potential employee’s compatibility with an advertising sales career can be

developed with this research as well. These instruments can help media companies

predict future job performance through reliable and valid assessments of advertising sales

representative characteristics.

Conclusions

In conclusion, the results of this study suggest that the Wonderlic Comprehensive

Personality Profile (CPP) may be a good tool for testing salespeople in general but is not

good for testing advertising sales representatives. The findings of this thesis are

56

beneficial to the advertising sales industry because media companies now know to use

the CPP cautiously. For future research, the study’s methodology should be improved in

order to yield more significant results and other related topics should be addressed.

57

APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRES

Sales Manager Questionnaire

Please take your time completing the following survey. We want you to provide us with the most truthful and accurate answers. 1) Sales representative’s name of whom you are evaluating: __________________________ 2) How long have you known this person? __________________________ 3) Did you hire this person (circle)?

Yes No 4) Compared to other advertising sales representatives on staff, I believe this person

Needs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Consistently Improvement Exceeds Expectations 5) Compared to other sales representatives, I would rank this person as

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 6) What combined level of physical, mental and social energy does this person have?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 7) To what degree does this person rely upon experience and feelings to make a decision?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 8) To what degree is this person motivated by a need for status, prestige or acknowledgement?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High

9) To what degree does this person demonstrate warmth and love for others? Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High

10) To what degree does this person have the ability to control the actions of others?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 11) To what degree is this person aware of what is happening in his/her surrounding world?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 12) To what degree does this person exaggerate his/her strengths or downplays weaknesses in order to appear more favorable to you?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High

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13) To what degree does this person have an ego drive? Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High

14) To what degree does this person have interpersonal warmth?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 15) To what degree is this person stable?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 16) To what degree is this person empathetic?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High

17) To what degree is this person objective? Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High

18) To what degree is this person independent?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 19) To what degree is this person aggressive?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 20) To what degree is this person decisive?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 21) To what degree is this person tolerant?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 22) To what degree is this person efficient?

Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 High 23) Based upon your observations of this person, which of the following personality types best describes his/her sales personality (circle one)? A. Driver, a seller who is task oriented and impatient.

Drivers are characterized by a low need for close interpersonal relationships and by a high activity level. Their greatest asset is their desire to excel in competitive situations.

B. Thinker, a seller who is task oriented and patient. Thinkers are analytical and introspective and rely upon structure and procedures to

complete job duties. They have a low need for acceptance or approval and an activity level that is even-paced and consistent.

C. Motivator, a seller who is people oriented and impatient. Motivators are most easily recognized by their free-flowing, highly expressive

communication skills. They enjoy any type of social interaction and thoroughly enjoy meeting new people, exploring new places, developing new concepts, and thrive on variety and change.

D. Supporter, a seller who is people oriented and patient. Supporters are characterized by high degrees of interpersonal warmth and

patience. They are even-paced, consistent, predictable and enjoy relationships

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that are open and honest.

Thank you for your participation!

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Sales Representative Questionnaire

Please take your time completing the following survey. We want you to provide us with the most truthful and accurate answers. 1) How many accounts do you currently manage? _______ 2) Over the past 12 months, how many accounts did you lose? _______ 3) Over the past 12 months, how many new accounts have you added? _______ 4) What were your total sales dollars for…

2005? ________________ 2006? ________________

5) How many total years have you worked in media sales? _______ 6) How many years have you ever worked for the following media…

Television? ________________ Radio? ________________ Magazine? ________________ Newspaper? ________________ Other? ________________

7) What is the name of the medium for which you currently work? __________________________ 8) How many years have you worked with this current medium? _______ 9) Gender (circle): Male Female 10) Age on your last birthday: _______ 11) Race: A. Caucasian B. African-American C. Hispanic D. Other 12) Name: __________________________ Please return your completed survey to your sales manager and take the Wonderlic CPP online.

Thank you for your participation!

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APPENDIX B RESEARCH AGREEMENT FOR WONDERLIC ASSESSMENTS

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APPENDIX C IRB PROTOCOL AND INFORMED CONSENT FORMS

IRB Protocol

1. TITLE OF PROTOCOL: Characteristics of Successful Advertising Sales Representatives

2. PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR(s): Kathleen Villaruel, Master of Advertising, Student, Advertising, 2810 SW 34th St., Apt. 252, Gainesville, FL 32608, (850) 341-8108, katvilla@ufl.edu

3. SUPERVISOR (IF PI IS STUDENT): John Sutherland, 2086 Weimer, (352) 392-9172, jsutherland@jou.ufl.edu

4. DATES OF PROPOSED PROTOCOL: From June 7, 2006 To June 14, 2006

5. SOURCE OF FUNDING FOR THE PROTOCOL: None.

6. SCIENTIFIC PURPOSE OF THE INVESTIGATION: Although some literature discusses the sales process, characteristics of salespeople and psychological tests, few literatures focus on advertising sales. There are issues and trends of advertising sales that need to be updated and some that have never been studied. This paper studies the characteristics of advertising sales representatives and those of successful sellers. The research questions and hypothesis that I will be testing are as follows:

RQ 1: What are the important characteristics that are critical determinants of success for advertising sales representatives? In other words, what is the relationship between each characteristic and success? RQ 2: Are there differences between media sales representatives, i.e. broadcast versus print, across the Wonderlic CPP indicators? RQ 3: Are sales managers’ opinions of their sales representatives predictive of the Wonderlic CPP results? In other words, do sales managers inherently know the Wonderlic CPP results? H1: The Wonderlic CPP may be good for testing salespeople in general but is not good for testing advertising sales representatives.

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7. DESCRIBE THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN NON-TECHNICAL LANGUAGE. Data will be gathered from advertising sales representatives and their sales managers, from various print and broadcast media companies. The advertising sales representatives will complete the Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP), as well as a survey designed by the principal investigator online. The instruments prompt participants to answer questions which reflected their level of success and characteristics of their personalities. In order to study the sales managers, a different survey designed by the principal investigator will be administered to them. The sales manager survey will assess the relationship between the sales managers’ opinions and the Wonderlic CPP results. Sales managers will answer questions that reflect their opinions of individual sales representative’s level of success and personal characteristics. Thus, the study will consist of both the sales managers rating the sales representatives, and the sales representatives completing their own separate surveys.

8. POTENTIAL BENEFITS AND ANTICIPATED RISK. By partaking in the study, the participants will be given an aggregate report of the surveys’ results. Participants and their companies will benefit from the study’s results because they will provide information on employee personalities and job fit. Job-related strengths and weaknesses will also be assessed. Further, employee productivity and performance can increase with the help of provided management reports that suggest improved job structures and tools. The study involves no risks that can affect the participants.

9. DESCRIBE HOW PARTICIPANT(S) WILL BE RECRUITED, THE NUMBER AND AGE OF THE PARTICIPANTS, AND PROPOSED COMPENSATION (if any): I am seeking approximately 68 participants from various print and broadcast media companies around the North Central Florida area. Sixty of the participants will be advertising sales representatives, and the remaining 8 participants will be their sales managers. I will recruit them by proposing the benefits of the study first to the sales managers. All participants will be 18+. No monetary compensation will be given. The incentive provided is the aggregate report of the surveys’ results mentioned above.

10. DESCRIBE THE INFORMED CONSENT PROCESS. INCLUDE A COPY OF THE INFORMED CONSENT DOCUMENT (if applicable). The informed consent process allows potential research participants to receive all the information needed to help them decide whether or not to participate in the study. The process can also obtain voluntary agreement to participate in the research. (See two attached inform consent forms) Please use attachments sparingly. Please see the following attached documents: informed consent forms, sample surveys, research agreement for Wonderlic, and methods section.

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__________________________

Principal Investigator's Signature

_________________________ Supervisor's Signature

I approve this protocol for submission to the UFIRB:

____________________________

Dept. Chair/Center Director Date

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Informed Consent Form for Sales Managers

Informed Consent Protocol Title: Characteristics of successful advertising sales representatives

Please read this consent document carefully before you decide to participate in this study.

Purpose of the research study:

The purpose of this study is to determine advertising sales managers’ perceptions of the personality characteristics of advertising sales representatives whom they supervise.

What you will be asked to do in the study:

You will be asked to complete a survey that rates individual sales representatives who work for your company. A survey for each sales representative on your staff will be completed. The survey consists of 23 questions.

Time required:

Approximately 5 minutes per survey.

Risks and Benefits:

The study involves no risks that can affect the participants. You and your company will benefit from the study’s results because they will provide updated information on the characteristics of advertising sales representatives and those of successful sellers. The information gained from this study can be used as a guideline for identifying, evaluating, and improving the strengths and weaknesses of salespeople. Companies can use this research when looking to hire the most effective advertising sales staff.

Compensation:

You will not be given compensation for participating in this study.

Confidentiality:

Your identity will be kept confidential to the extent provided by law. Your information will be assigned a code number. The list connecting your name to this number will be kept in a locked file in my faculty supervisor's office. When the study is completed and the data have been analyzed, the list will be destroyed. Your name will not be used in any report.

Voluntary participation:

Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. There is no penalty for not participating.

Right to withdraw from the study:

You have the right to withdraw from the study at anytime without consequence.

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Whom to contact if you have questions about the study:

Kathleen Villaruel, Graduate Student, Department of Advertising, PO Box 118400, Gainesville, FL 32611, (850) 341-8108, katvilla@ufl.edu.

John Sutherland, Supervisor/Department Chair, 2086 Weimer, PO Box 118400, Gainesville, FL 32611, (352) 392-9172, jsutherland@jou.ufl.edu.

Whom to contact about your rights as a research participant in the study:

UFIRB Office, Box 112250, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2250; ph 392-0433.

Agreement:

I have read the procedure described above. I voluntarily agree to participate in the procedure and I have received a copy of this description.

Participant: ___________________________________________ Date: _________________

Principal Investigator: ___________________________________ Date: _________________

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Informed Consent Form for Sales Representatives

Informed Consent Protocol Title: Characteristics of successful advertising sales representatives

Please read this consent document carefully before you decide to participate in this study.

Purpose of the research study:

The purpose of this study is to examine the characteristics of advertising sales representatives and to assess Wonderlic’s ability to identify characteristics of advertising salespeople likely to lead to success in the profession.

What you will be asked to do in the study:

First, you will complete the attached survey about your job. Please return this paper survey to your sales manager after completion. After finishing this survey, you will be asked to complete the Wonderlic Comprehensive Personality Profile (CPP) online. You will receive an e-mail invitation from Wonderlic Online Services that will provide you the link to the Wonderlic CPP survey online. The Wonderlic CPP survey consists of 88 True/False statements.

Time required:

Approximately 20 minutes.

Risks and Benefits:

The study involves no risks that can affect the participants. You and your company will benefit from the study’s results because they will provide updated information on the characteristics of advertising sales representatives and those of successful sellers. The information gained from this study can be used as a guideline for identifying, evaluating, and improving the strengths and weaknesses of salespeople. Companies can use this research when looking to hire the most effective advertising sales staff.

Compensation:

You will not be given compensation for participating in this study.

Confidentiality:

Your identity will be kept confidential to the extent provided by law. Your information will be assigned a code number. The list connecting your name to this number will be kept in a locked file in my faculty supervisor's office. When the study is completed and the data have been analyzed, the list will be destroyed. Your name will not be used in any report. Further, Wonderlic may use the returned CPP test sheets and test scores for inclusion in normative and item analysis research. Wonderlic will maintain the individual scores, their source, and the names of tested individuals in strict confidence.

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Voluntary participation:

Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. There is no penalty for not participating.

Right to withdraw from the study:

You have the right to withdraw from the study at anytime without consequence.

Whom to contact if you have questions about the study:

Kathleen Villaruel, Graduate Student, Department of Advertising, PO Box 118400, Gainesville, FL 32611, (850) 341-8108, katvilla@ufl.edu.

John Sutherland, Supervisor/Department Chair, 2086 Weimer, PO Box 118400, Gainesville, FL 32611, (352) 392-9172, jsutherland@jou.ufl.edu.

Whom to contact about your rights as a research participant in the study:

UFIRB Office, Box 112250, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2250; ph 392-0433.

Agreement:

I have read the procedure described above. I voluntarily agree to participate in the procedure and I have received a copy of this description.

Participant: ___________________________________________ Date: _________________

Principal Investigator: ___________________________________ Date: _________________

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Candidate, Kathleen Villaruel, attended the University of Florida for five

consecutive years. In Spring of 2005, Kathleen graduated magna cum laude with a

Bachelor of Advertising degree and a minor in business. Kathleen will complete her

Master of Advertising degree, with a minor in sales by December 2006.