Characteristics and properties of Bitlis ignimbrites and

Materiales de ConstruCCioacuten

Vol 70 Issue 338 AprilndashJune 2020 e214ISSN-L 0465-2746

httpsdoiorg103989mc202006519

Characteristics and properties of Bitlis ignimbrites and their environmental implications

E Işıka A Buumlyuumlksaraccedilb E Avşarc M F Kuluoumlztuumlrkd M Guumlnaye

a Bitlis Eren University Civil Eng Dept Bitlis Turkeyb Canakkale Onsekizmart University Can Vocational School Canakkale Turkey

c Bitlis Eren University Environmental Eng Dept Bitlis Turkeyd Bitlis Eren University Electric and Electronic Eng Dept BitlisTurkey

e Bitlis Eren University Pure and Applied Science Institute Civil Eng Dept Bitlis Turkey eisikbeuedutr

Received 2 May 2019 Accepted 24 September 2019 Available on line 6 April 2020

ABSTRACT Bitlis rock is used as a construction material and comes from the lava emitted by volcanoes and their subsequent transformation into ignimbrites This type of rocks has been characterized physically chemi-cally toxicologically and radioactively using different procedures including determination of the coefficient of thermal conductivity gamma spectrometry ultrasonic speed test ICP masses and metal extraction The results indicate that Bitlis rocks have an ACI greater than 1 although their content of radon is lower than other rocks of volcanic origin Leaching of metals from these rocks indicates that Pb and Cd can provide an infiltration level in the field higher than the level permitted by TCLP and they have undesired toxicological risks The percent-ages of extraction of other metals also point to this infiltration problem Despite this the material offers good qualities for usage as a building material such as its thermal coefficients

KEYWORDS Bitlis Thermal Analysis Physical properties Mechanical properties Ignimbrite Heavy metals

CitationCitar como Işık E Buumlyuumlksaraccedil A Avşar E Kuluoumlztuumlrk MF Guumlnay M (2020) Characteristics and properties of Bitlis ignimbrites and their environmental implications Mater Construcc 70 [338] e214 httpsdoiorg103989mc202006519

RESUMEN Caracteriacutesticas y propiedades de los ignimbritos de Bitlis y sus implicaciones ambientales La roca Bitlis se utiliza como material de construccioacuten y proviene de la lava emitida por los volcanes y su posterior trans-formacioacuten en ignimbritas Este tipo de rocas se ha caracterizado fiacutesica quiacutemica toxicoloacutegica y radioactivamente utilizando diferentes procedimientos incluida la determinacioacuten del coeficiente de conductividad teacutermica espec-trometriacutea gamma prueba de velocidad ultrasoacutenica ICP masas y extraccioacuten de metales Los resultados indican que las rocas Bitlis tienen un ACI mayor que 1 aunque su contenido de radoacuten es maacutes bajo que el de otras rocas de origen volcaacutenico La lixiviacioacuten de metales de estas rocas indica que el Pb y el Cd pueden proporcionar un nivel de infiltracioacuten en el campo maacutes alto que el nivel permitido por TCLP y tener riesgos toxicoloacutegicos no deseados Los porcentajes de extraccioacuten de otros metales tambieacuten apuntan a este problema de infiltracioacuten A pesar de esto el material ofrece buenas cualidades para su uso como material de construccioacuten como pueden ser sus coeficientes teacutermicos

PALABRAS CLAVE Bitlis Anaacutelisis teacutermico Propiedades fiacutesicas Propiedades mecaacutenicas Ignimbrita Metales pesados

ORCID ID E Işık (httpsorcidorg0000-0001-8057-065X) A Buumlyuumlksaraccedil (httpsorcidorg0000-0002-4279-4158) E Avşar (httpsorcidorg0000-0001-6249-4753) MF Kuluoumlztuumlrk (httpsorcidorg0000-0001-8581-2179)M Guumlnay (httpsorcidorg0000-0003-3242-4900)

Copyright copy 2020 CSIC This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 40 International (CC BY 40) License

2 bull E Işık et al

Materiales de Construccioacuten 70 (338) AprilndashJune 2020 e214 ISSN-L 0465-2746 httpsdoiorg103989mc202006519

1 INTRODUCTION

Granular volcanic rocks are formed due to vol-canic eruptions with high gas pressure One of these products is pyroclastic rocks Pyroclastics are volca-nic materials coming from a volcanic chimney to the surface through volcanic mechanisms and wind by means of a sedimentation to bring to gather with the temperature of more than 500ndash600 degC in boiling or fusion form of glass or glassy parts as a result of the rotation of the product with minerals (zeo-lite) that are from the rocks formed Ignimbrite is a pyroclastic flow unit that contains large amounts of pumice volcanic glass and a small amount of lithic particles with a flowing in high temperature lami-nar flow system and gravity control (1ndash10) Locally Bitlis stone is found in the volcanic tuff group Bitlis ignimbrite is found in different thicknesses by spreading the lava from the Nemrut volcano to the environment Bitlis ignimbrite is one of the most widely used natural building stones in the city of Bitlis due to its low unit weight and easy form-ability Bitlis stone used in historical artefacts in the province of Bitlis may be in different colours Bitlis stone was used widely in historical buildings such as Bitlis Castle baths tombs mosques minarets and

traditional Bitlis houses Today it areas of usage are limited with the development of concrete tech-nology Nowadays it is used especially in renewed buildings and rural areas Bitlis stone obtained from quarries is used in the production area or at the con-struction site by cutting

Bitlis ignimbrite is composed of shard pumice and pumice parts crystal and crystal pieces and lytic components in terms of its petrographic components The mineralogical composition of the sanidine + pla-gioclase + anorthoclase + pyroxene (augite) + opaque minerals are seen On some levels of Bitlis ignimbrite micro-scale cracks resulting from sudden cooling of the volcanic glass are seen (11) Microscopic images of the mineralogical components of the Bitlis ignim-brite are shown in Figure 1 Bitlis stone may be used as a lightweight concrete or as a stone wall for insula-tion purposes because of its independent pores in the macro and micro dimensions

In the context of this multidisciplinary study the physical and chemical properties of ignimbrite rocks as a building material were determined and compared to other rocks of volcano origin The rocksrsquo toxicological and radioactive characteristics were also investigated in terms of environmental and public health concerns

Figure 1 Microphotographs of mineral components of Bitlis ignimbrite a b) slight pleochroism and FendashTi oxide inclusions in pyroxene c) rock fragments are angular in shape d) fibrous shape shard components (snd sanidine plg plagioclase

prx pyroxene opq m opaque mineral rf rock fragment vrf volcanic rock fragment mrf metamorphic rock fragment q quartz shd shard) (7 11)

Characteristics and properties of Bitlis ignimbrites and their environmental implications bull 3


Therefore Bitlis stone samples were obtained from a quarry and then brought to the dimensions to be used in the study by using stone cutting machin-ery Dry unit volume weight wet unit weight water absorption percentage thermal conductivity coef-ficient specific heat pressure and tensile strength were determined by standard tests In addition to physical and chemical properties of building materi-als determination of radiological parameters such as mass attenuation coefficient gamma and radon gas emission is important for human health (12ndash14) In this study the mass attenuation coefficient gamma radioisotope concentration and radon gas emission of Bitlis stone were determined by using nuclear methods Likewise environmental toxicity in terms of heavy metal leaching characteristics was tested according to TCLP method described by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)

This study is important in terms of being com-prehensive on the topic of ignimbrites that form as a result of volcanic activity In this study the envi-ronmental toxicity and radiological characteristics of Bitlis ignimbrite were investigated and evaluated together with the physical and mechanical proper-ties of the ignimbrite

There has been no study on Bitlis stone in this context There are studies on ignimbrite (Ahlat stone) which is a product of the Nemrut and Suphan Volcanoes in general However the scope of these studies is not as broad as the scope of our study

2 MATERIAL AND METHODS

Bitlis stone samples obtained from quarries were brought to 15 cm times 15 cm times 15 cm dimensions by using a stone cutting machine determine their mechanical and physical properties The images of these samples are given in Figure 2 Some samples were also milled with Bitlis stone using a grinder

The experiments were carried out at four different lab-oratories (Bitlis Provincial Environmental Directorate Building Laboratory Dicle University Material Laboratory Agri Ibrahim Cecen University Center Research and Application Laboratory and Firat University Laboratory) The mean values obtained from the different samples were analyzed and ignim-brite (Bitlis stone) properties were determined

The number of samples taken for each experi-ment is shown in the results and discussion sec-tion Tests were carried out in accordance with the procedures laid out in the Suggested Methods and Turkish Standards (15)

Bitlis stone samples were prepared as two types for radiological analysis Firstly the samples were cut in the shape of rectangular prisms with approxi-mately 5cm times 5cm times 1cm dimensions for determi-nation of their linear attenuation coefficients (16) Then the samples were crushed and sieved by a 40 mesh sieve The sieved samples were placed in a marinelli beaker in 1 L of volume and a cylindri-cal container with a CR-39 passive radon detector tightly closed and stored for about 40 days to reach final equilibrium between 222Rn and its short-lived daughters for gamma radioisotope and radon anal-ysis (17 18)

The experimental study for environmental prop-erties was carried out according to the EPA Test Method 1311 TCLP procedure TCLP (Toxicity characteristic infiltration procedure) was developed to determine the mobility of organic and inorganic analyses present in solid liquid or multi-phase wastes (19) Rainwater and other liquids can inter-act with wastes while they are drained from storage areas In this process they can solve the pollut-ants in the waste content This poses a health and environmental risk TCLP is a preliminary step in identification of non-volatile pollutants in solids and waste (20) Thus the TCLP method is used to

Figure 2 Images of samples prepared in dimensions of 15 cm times 15 cm times 15 cm



determine the maximum heavy metal concentration that can leak from the waste or any material as a worst-case scenario (21) According to procedure at first the material was crushed and passed through a sieve with a mesh size 95 mm Then 100 g of the material was shaken in 2 L extraction liquid for 18 hours At the end of the shaking period the sample was filtered by means of a glass fiber filter with a pore size of 08 microm (19 21) The filtratersquos pH was determined as 486

The extraction fluid was filtered through a 045-microm membrane filter and the trace metal concentrations in the leakage were measured by ICP MS according to the EPA 2008 method (22)

3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

31 Physical Properties

While determining the physical and chemi-cal properties of Bitlis stone a sufficient amount of sample was used for each property Firstly the chemical composition values for Bitlis stone were obtained by the method (11) described by Koralay et al (2014) In this study three different levels of chemical analysis were used for Bitlis stone The val-ues obtained for three different levels were averaged (Table 1)

SEM experiments were performed to understand the morphology of the surfaces Microstructural analysis of the sample was carried out by taking scanning electron microscope (SEM ZEISS EVO MA10) images supported by energy-dispersive x-ray spectrometer (EDX) spectra Sample sizes were selected as 1times1times01cm EDS measurements were performed to reveal the basic composition of Bitlis ignimbrites in the samples The EDS results obtained for three different points are given in Figure 3 There were the elements of O Si Fe Al K and Na for three randomly selected points

The percentage values of the elements were consid-ered to differ from point to point This shows that the material was not homogeneous For example the element K was located at the first and third points but not at point 2 A high amount of Si was observed at all three points

Unit volume weight (UVW) measurements were performed for the samples that were obtained The mean unit volume weight values obtained from the samples are shown in Table 2 UVW values were quite small and this was an indication that the stone was quite light and porous

Samples prepared for determination of water absorption properties were kept in a water bath for 24 hours (Figure 2b) The weights of water absorp-tion were then determined for samples extracted from the pool The water absorption properties of Bitlis stone for 10 different samples are shown in Table 3

The water absorption rate in natural building stones should not be less than 75 (23) The water absorption rate of the Bitlis stone was significantly higher than this value This shows that Bitlis stone has a very porous and hollow structure

One of the important properties of Bitlis stone is good thermal insulation For these purposes the mean thermal conductivity coefficient (λ) and spe-cific heat values were obtained for all samples The thermal properties obtained for the samples are given in Table 4 The coefficient of thermal conduc-tivity is designed to be used in a laboratory The coef-ficient of thermal conductivity values was obtained at our laboratory with a steady-state test apparatus designed and produced in the Mining Engineering Department of Dicle University

The thermal conductivity coefficient for any material refers to the amount of heat transmitted by the physical and chemical properties of the mate-rial Its low thermal conductivity value was a sign that Bitlis stone conveyed very little heat and it was determined that it is a material that may be used for thermal insulation

Five different samples were used for measure-ments in the specific weight experiments (Table 5) Bitlis stone was dried and ground into a fine pow-der The values required for specific weight were obtained with the pycnometer

32 Mechanical Properties

In general natural stones may be used as a load-bearing in structures In this context the pressure and tensile strength of these stones are important The compressive strength values obtained from 10 different samples at two different institutions are given in Table 6

Five different samples were used for testing the flexural strength of Bitlis stone The obtained flexural strength results are given in Table 7

Table 1 Chemical properties of Bitlis stone (11)

Characteristic Value

SiO2 () 6470

Al2O3 () 1306

Fe2O3 () 455

CaO () 240

MgO () 045

P2O5 () 024

K2O () 462

Na2O () 511

MnO () 012

TiO2 040

Loss on Ignition () 324



Non-destructive testing (NDT) has an impor-tant place in determining the strength properties of natural stones and concretes that are used in con-struction Destructive and non-destructive tests are widely used for testing the strength properties of nat-ural stones and concretes For example Vasconcelos et al (2007) (24) used non-destructive techniques for testing the elastic properties and strength of granitic rocks Ultrasonic velocity (Vp) and the Schmidt ham-mer were used to determine the strength characteris-tics of many different granites at two architectural heritage monuments (25 26) Sharma et al (2011) (26) established a statistical relationship between the

P-wave velocity and rebound numbers of the Schmidt hammer with the impact strength index Karakuş and Tuumltmez (2006) (27) used uniaxial compressive strength point loading index test Schmidt hammer stiffness and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) tests for nine different rocks Sharma and Singh (2008) (28) determined the mechanical properties of three metamorphic sedimentary and magmatic rocks depending on P-wave velocity Kurtuluş et al (2010) (29) analyzed the mechanical and physical proper-ties of andesites in Goumlkccedileada Ahlat natural stones (ignimbrites) were studied for industrial use (30 31) Pamuk and Buumlyuumlksaraccedil (2017) (32) used destructive

Figure 3 EDS results for 3 different points at room temperature



and non-destructive methods to determine the mechanical properties of natural rocks in the vicin-ity of Urgup (Nevşehir)

The propagation changes of the UPV wave are analyzed and applied without creating a defor-mation in the material in the UPV method This method which enables investigation of material homogeneity may be considered as an impor-tant method in evaluation of concrete or natural stone structures (33) In this method based on the propagation speed of the ultrasonic sound waves at the specific frequencies in the sample an idea of is obtained about the strength of the sample Sound waves provide an idea of the cracks in the sample Ultrasonic pulse is applied to one side of the sample by an ultrasonic tester and pressure waves (P wave) are created and recorded from the other side of the sample The ultrasonic tester

measures the travel time between the surface of the ultrasonic wave and the surface from which the sample is returned UPV equipment consists of a receiver a transmitter and a display (26) Equation [1] presents determination of the impact speed The propagation times of the waves read from the instrumentrsquos gauge were divided by the size of the sample as indicated in the equation and the propagation rates were determined for each sample

UPV test was applied on 10 cube samples before the 15cmtimes15cmtimes15cm cube samples were pre-pared for destructive pressure tests (Figure 1) UPV

Table 2 Values of unit volume weight of Bitlis stone (sample size 15times15times15 cm)

Sample ID

Wet Weight

(gr)

Dry Weight

(gr)Dry Density

(grcm3)Wet Density

(grcm3)

B1 6050 4981 148 179

B2 5950 4896 145 176

B3 5850 4760 141 173

B4 6150 5051 150 182

B5 6190 5093 151 183

B6 5904 4854 144 175

B7 5948 4893 145 176

B8 6122 5042 149 181

B9 5990 4893 145 177

B10 5995 4920 146 178

Average 146plusmn003 178plusmn003

Table 3 Water absorption properties of Bitlis stone

Sample IDWet Weight

(gr)Dry Weight

(gr)Water Saturated

Weight (gr)Water Absorption


Percentage by Weight (Sa)Water Absorption

Percentage as Volume (Sh)

B1 6050 4981 6100 1119 2247 3316

B2 5950 4896 6000 1104 2255 3271

B3 5850 4760 5950 1190 2500 3526

B4 6150 5051 6200 1149 2275 3404

B5 6190 5093 6250 1157 2271 3427

B6 5904 4854 5980 1126 2321 3337

B7 5948 4893 6070 1177 2405 3487

B8 6122 5042 6215 1173 2326 3476

B9 5990 4893 6080 1187 2426 3517

B10 5995 4920 6085 1165 2368 3452


Table 4 Thermal conductivity and specific heat values of Bitlis stone

Sample ID λ (WmK)CP

(Jm3K) 106Ambient

temperature (degC)

1 0513 - 16

2 0463 157

3 046 191

4 0513 137 194

5 0697 1875

6 0446 213

7 0511 21

8 0532 14 204

9 0611 2003

10 0487 2001

11 0556 155 203

12 0467 2036

13 0413 204

14 05 147 2046

15 0888 139 2047

16 0573 2013

Average 054plusmn012 144plusmn007 1961plusmn16



measurements were performed using the direct transmission method with Pundit Plus and 1 MHz probes The measurements were made on cubic samples along the x y and z directions and three measurements were taken for each direction 54 kHz piezoelectric transceiver probes were used to deter-mine the longitudinal wave velocities The speed was calculated directly using Equation [1] The average velocity values were calculated based on the number of measurements made for each direction It can be seen that the variability of the UPV results depended on the measurement direction Impact velocities are determined using a direct method used for opposite faces for samples Table 8 reports the average speed

values of P-waves recorded in three directions for each sample

Vp= Ltp [1]

WhereVp Pwave velocity (kms)L Distance between the surface where the sound wave is sent and the surface where the wave is received (km)Tp P-Wave propagation duration (s)

UPV values with breaking load and pressure stress were compared and the polynomial relation-ships calculated between them are shown in Figure 4 All physical and mechanical properties are summa-rized in Table 9

33 Radioactivity Properties

331 Gamma-ray Measurement

226Ra 232Th 40K and137Cs radionuclide activ-ity concentrations were determined by using an n-type HP Ge detector with energy resolution of 21 keV at 133 MeV and a relative efficiency of 50 Detector energy and efficiency calibrations were performed by using a standard multi-nuclide source with 17 gcmminus3 of density and an activity of 1365 mCi (57Co 60Co 88Y 109Cd 139Ce 137Cs203Hg 210Pb and 241Am) Sample and background counts were performed in 86400 s (1 day) intervals and the spectra were analyzed on the Gamma Vision (ORTEC) software (34) for226Ra 232Th 40K and 137Cs radionuclides For determination of specific activities the daughter radionuclide gamma ray lines of 35193 and 60932 keV (214Pb and214Bi) for 226Ra and 9112 keV (228Ac) for 232Th were used Characteristic gamma peaks at 14608 keV and

Table 5 Specific weight values

Sample ID Psample Full volume Specific weight

1 50 2400 208

2 50 2450 204

3 50 2600 192

4 50 2500 200

5 50 2550 196

Average 2plusmn0063

Table 6 Bitlis stone compressive strength values (sample size 15times15times15 cm)

Sample ID Breaking Load (kN) Pressure Strain (MPa)

B1 1665 740

B2 1725 767

B3 1756 780

B4 1722 765

B5 1795 798

B6 1638 728

B7 1464 651

B8 1532 681

B9 1648 732

B10 1702 756

Average 740plusmn0426

Table 7 Flexural strength values for Bitlis stone (sample size 15times15times15 cm)

Sample ID Breaking Load (kN) Tensile Strength (MPa)

B1 231 103

B2 262 116

B3 265 118

B4 242 108

B5 255 113


Table 8 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity tests (sample size 15times15times15 cm)

Sample ID UPV (kmsminus1)

B1 156

B2 187

B3 193

B4 156

B5 169

B6 178

B7 161

B8 139

B9 179

B10 154




66166 keV were used for determination of 40K and 137Cs respectively (35)

The gamma-ray activity (Bqkg) for each radio-nuclide may be calculated with Equation [2]

AN NP t m

1S B=minus

ε times timestimes

γ

[2]

where A NS NBε Pg t and m are the activity (Bqkg) the counts of the sample the background count the absolute Photoelectric efficiency the branching ratio the counting live time (s) and the mass of the sample (kg or L) respectively for cer-tain radionuclides in a gamma ray with the energy E (34) The minimum detectable activity (MDA) of the system was calculated by Equation [3]

MDAN

P t271 465 B

ε=

+times timesγ

[3]

where NB ε Pg and t are count of background absolute efficiency branching ratio counting live time for certain radionuclides in a gamma ray with the energy E respectively (35)

332 Radon Concentration Measurement

CR-39 passive detector of 1 cm times 1 cm dimen-sions with a diffusion chamber was placed into a cylindrical sample beaker and stored for 40 days Then the chemical etching process of exposed CR-39 detector was carried out for 45 hours in a 625 M NaOH solution at 70degC Etched detectors were counted in the RadoSYS auto-mated counting system and count results were taken from the system as track density (trackmmminus2) Then the sample activity was calculated from Equation [4]

)( = times timesminusC Bq m TD CF t 1000 Rn3 [4]

Figure 4 Comparing UPV breaking load and pressure stress

Table 9 Physical and mechanical characteristics of Bitlis stone for ten samples

B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10

Dry Density (grcmminus3) 148 145 141 150 151 144 145 149 145 146

Wet Density (grcmminus3) 179 176 173 182 183 175 176 181 177 178

Water Absorption Percentage by Weight (Sa) 2247 2255 25 2275 2271 2321 2405 2326 2426 2368

Water Absorption Percentage as Volume (Sh) 3316 3271 3526 3404 3427 3337 3487 3476 3517 3452

Breaking Load (kN) 1665 1725 1756 1722 1795 1638 1464 1532 1648 1702

Pressure Strain (MPa) 74 767 78 765 798 728 651 681 732 756

Tensile Strength (MPa) 103 116 118 108 113 No Data

UPV (kmsminus1) 156 187 193 156 169 178 161 139 179 154



Where CRn is the radon activity concentration (Bqmminus3) TD is the track density (trackmmminus2) CF is the calibration factor for CR-39 detectors provided by the manufacturer (4447 hkBq[m3(trackmmminus2)]minus1) and t is the exposure time (h) (36)

333 Photon Attenuation Coefficient Experiment

The mass attenuation coefficient (mr) of Bitlis stone was determined by measuring the transmission of g-rays with different energies through targets of different thicknesses of the sample (Figure 5) (16) The gamma activity concentrations of Bitlis stone are presented in Tables 10 and 11 The gamma activ-ity concentrations were higher than other building materials such as Ahlat stone pumice and perlite which are extracted from or produced in the same region

The radon concentration of Bitlis stone was determined as 49766 Bqmminus3 This value was higher than the permitted indoor radon gas activ-ity level that was determined as 400 Bqmminus3 for Turkey by the Turkish Atomic Energy Authority (37) Additionally the radon concentration of Bitlis stone was lower in comparison to the radon levels in building materials such as Ahlat stone and pumice which are extracted from or produced in the same region (Table 12)

The mass attenuation coefficients of Bitlis stone were determined for an 80ndash1332 keV energy range (Figure 6) The mass attenuation characteristics of

Bitlis stone were lower than some concrete types used in constructions (Table 13)

34 Determination of Environmental Toxicity Leaching Characteristics

At another stage of the study the toxicity char-acteristics of Bitlis stone which is specific to the Bitlis Region extracted from quarries and used as a building material were investigated The mate-rial known as Bitlis ignimbrite includes significant amount of main oxides such as SiO2 Al2O3 K2O Fe2O3 Na2O (by respectively approx 65 14 5 4 4) (11)

Trace metal analysis results obtained in the study are given in Table 14 When the results are compared to the TCLP limits it is seen that the limit values for

Figure 5 Experimental setup of mass attenuation coefficient determination

Table 10 Point sources their energies and activities for linear attenuation experiment

Radioisotope Energy (keV) Activity (microCi)133Ba 80 071133Ba 356 07122Na 511 027137Cs 662 09260Co 1173 05222Na 1274 02760Co 1332 052



Cd and Pb heavy metals exceeded the TCLP limits In this case it is considered that this material can release these heavy metals to the environment in extreme environmental conditions (ie acid rain) which may pose a risk In this context the worst-case scenario is that the material was considered as waste material In this case metal leakage from Bitlis ignimbrite was examined in terms of waste landfilling criteria In comparison to the USEPA Land Disposal Limits the Cd (approximately 13 times) and Pb (75 times) amounts leached from the material exceeded the limit values Considering the

limitations specified in the Regulation on Land fill-ing of Wastes (RLW) for Turkey it was noted that the Ni (11 times) Cu (101 times) Zn (114 times) Cd (28 times) Ba (37 times) and Pb (112 times) trace metals were seen to exceed the limit values in terms of land filling hazardous wastes These over-all environmental results indicated that this volcanic material should be carefully investigated in terms of toxicity before being used as a construction material

4 CONCLUSIONS

Bitlis natural stone is appropriate for isola-tion due to the optimal thermal permeability coef-ficient (quantitygt32) Its porosity indicates a good percentage of water absorption what is opti-mal for maintaining the humidity in the buildings The value of the thermal permeability coefficient revealed the usability of this stone for insulation The unit volume weight and specific gravity values were very low and may be evaluated within the scope of reduction of stone structure loads Considering the compressive strength values obtained for Bitlis stone it was observed that it corresponded to a low

Table 11 Gamma activity concentrations of Bitlis stone

Radioisotope

Gamma activities of Bitlis stone (Bqkgminus1)

Reference226Ra 232Th 40K 137Cs

Ahlat stone 943 plusmn 1925 237 plusmn 1415 10266 plusmn 2631 (14)

Pumice 1808 plusmn 775 236 plusmn 59 2493 plusmn 1247 (14)

Perlite 2282 plusmn 381 955 plusmn 261 6424 plusmn 2753 (14)

Bitlis stone 118854 plusmn 0962 141376 plusmn 1964 3031758 plusmn 14255 ltMDA Present Study

MDA 1012 0639 7818 0092

Figure 6 The mass attenuation coefficient of Bitlis stone

Table 12 Radon concentrations of construction materials from the Bitlis Region

Construction MaterialRadon Concentration

(Bqmminus3) Reference

Ahlat stone (mean) 6414 plusmn 12497 (14)

Pumice 11028 plusmn 2345 (14)

Perlite 11410 plusmn 2550 (14)

Bitlis stone 49766 plusmn 854 Present Study



resistance rock group According to the porosity values Bitlis stone was located in the group with a lot of gaps Since Bitlis stone is a light material according to concrete it will be able to reduce the load values in buildings under earthquake effects

The high extractability of toxic metals (Pb and Cd) indicates that in the last step of the useful life of our studied material it could be produced environ-mental contamination of the land where the wastes are deposited The ACI of Bitlis stone is higher

Table 13 The mass attenuation characteristics of stones in the region

Sample Density (gcmminus3) 662 keV 1173 keV 1332 keV Reference

BC0 246 0257 0174 0165 (38)

BC50 299 0287 0175 0167 (38)

BC100 346 0297 0180 0170 (38)

Bitlis stone 200 0056 0039 0037 Present Study

Table 14 Trace metal analysis results for crushed sample and TCLP extraction liquid in the context of the experimental study

Metals

Crushed stone

Amount leached to TCLP liquid TCLP EPA Land

Disposal Restriction

Limits (mgL) (21)(22)

Turkish Regulation on Landfilling of Wastes (39)

Stone (mgkg)

Stone (mgkg)

Leached ()

TCLP liquid

(mgL)Limit

(mgL)

Landfilling criteria for inert wastes (mgL)

Landfilling criteria for non-hazardous

wastes (mgL)

Landfilling criteria for hazardous wastes (mgL)

Be 24 0067 27 33 - - - - -

B 2567 364 142 1819 - - - - -

Na 302139 ND ND ND - - - - -

Al 43378 55 01 276 - - - - -

K 369861 3524 10 17619 - - - - -

Ca 22865 7347 321 36735 - - - - -

V 439 0053 01 2644 - - - - -

Cr 49 ND ND ND 5 06 005 1 7

Mn 4007 196 49 980 - - - - -

Fe 27196 12 00 62 - - - - -

Co 0846 0021 25 11 - - - - -

Ni 33 0086 26 43 11 004 1 4

Cu 44 0202 45 101 - - 02 5 10

Zn 658 46 70 229 43 04 5 20

As 48 ND ND ND 5 - 005 02 25

Se ND ND ND ND - - 001 005 07

Sr 222 59 266 296 - - - - -

Cd 0146 0028 194 141 1 011 0004 01 05

Ba 4956 22 05 112 - - 2 10 30

Pb 95 11 118 56 5 075 005 1 5

Si 312891 7066 0023 353 - - - - -

Ti 3218 00086 0003 0430 - - - - -

Mo 0188 ND ND ND - - 005 1 3

Sn 0423 000634 15 0317 - - - - -

Sb 0049 000012 02 0006 - - 0006 007 05

W 0179 ND ND ND - - - - -

Hg 0004 ND ND ND 02 - 0001 002 02

Bi 0004 ND ND ND - - - - -

ND Not detected



than 10 although the radon concentration is lower than other similar volcanic rocks which means there are some difficulties to use it directly indoor applications

When the toxicity potential of Bitlis ignimbrite obtained from volcanic terrain was examined it was seen that the limit values of TCLP were exceeded for the Pb and Cd heavy metals Moreover the Ni Cu Zn Cd Ba and Pb concentrations exceeded the limit values given for the land filling of hazardous waste in Turkey This indicated that detailed toxicological investigations should be conducted before the mate-rial is used as a construction material The results also demonstrate that environmental research is important in terms of volcanic materials which are used as construction purposes and should be con-ducted before the marketing step When the UPV results were obtained P-wave velocities ranged from 139 kmsminus1 to 193 kmsminus1

According to radiological characteristics of Bitlis stone 226Ra 232Th 40K and 137Cs gamma radio-isotope concentrations were relatively higher than Ahlat stone pumice and perlite in the same region On the contrary radon gas emission of Bitlis stone was relatively lower than that of Ahlat Stone pumice and perlite The mass attenuation characteristics of Bitlis stone were lower than some concrete types like BC0 BC50 and BC100 that are used in construction

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Authors would like to thank Mr Kemal AY for reading and critiquing the manuscript Authors extend their thanks to the anonymous reviewers for their constructive critiques

REFERENCES

1 Van Zalinge ME Cashman KV Sparks RSJ (2018) Causes of fragmented crystals in ignimbrites a case study of the Cardones ignimbrite Northern Chile Bull Volcanol 80 [3] 22 httpsdoiorg101007s00445-018-1196-2

2 Şimşek O Erdal M (2004) Ahlat Taşının (ignimbrit) bazı mekanik ve fiziksel oumlzelliklerinin araştırılması GU J Sci 17 [4] 71ndash78

3 Jordan N J Rotolo SG Williams R Speranza F McIntosh WC Branney M J Scaillet S (2018) Explosive eruptive history of Pantelleria Italy Repeated caldera collapse and ignimbrite emplacement at a peralka-line volcano J Volcano Geoth Res 349 47ndash73 httpsdoiorg101016jjvolgeores201709013

4 Liszewska K M White J C Macdonald R Bagiński B (2018) Compositional and thermodynamic variability in a stratified magma chamber Evidence from the Green Tuff Ignimbrite (Pantelleria Italy) J Petrol 59 [12] 2245ndash2272 httpsdoiorg101093petrologyegy095

5 Avery MS Gee JS Bowles JA Jackson M J (2018) Paleointensity estimates from ignimbrites The Bishop Tuff Revisited Geochem Geophy Geosy 19 [10] 3811ndash3831 httpsdoiorg1010292018GC007665

6 Yuumlksek S (2019) Mechanical properties of some building stones from volcanic deposits of mount Erciyes (Turkey) Mater Construc 69 [334] e187 httpsdoiorg103989mc201904618

7 Koralay T Oumlzkul M Kumsar H Celik S B Pektaş K (2011) The effect of welding degree on geotechnical properties of an ignimbrite flow unit The Bitlis castle case (eastern Turkey) Environ Earth Sci 64 [3] 869ndash881 httpsdoiorg101007s12665-011-0931-1

8 Barbero-Barrera M M Flores-Medina N Moreno-Fernaacutendez E (2019) Thermal physical and mechanical characterization of volcanic tuff masonries for the restora-tion of historic buildings Mater Construcc 69 [333] e179 httpsdoiorg103989mc201912917

9 Burgos D Guzmaacuten A Hossain KMA Delvasto S (2017) The use of a volcanic material as filler in self-com-pacting concrete production for lower strength applications Mater Construcc 67 [325] e111 httpsdoiorg103989mc201709315

10 Wang X Shen X Wang H Gao C Zhang T (2016) Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of freeze-thaw dam-age in natural pumice concrete Mater Construcc 66 [322] e087 httpsdoiorg103989mc201609014

11 Koralay T Oumlzkul M Kumsar H Ccedilelik SB Pektaş K (2014) The Importance of Mineralogical Petrographic and Geotechnical Studies in Historical Heritage The Bitlis Castle Case (Bitlis-Eastern Anatolia) Selcuk University J Engineer Sci Technol 2 [3] 54ndash68 httpsdoiorg1015317Scitech201439631

12 Ivanović MD Kljajević LM Nenadović M Bundaleski N Vukanac I Todorović BŽ Nenadović SS (2018) Physicochemical and radiological characterization of kaolin and its polymerization products Mater Construcc 68 [330] e155 httpsdoiorg103989mc201800517

13 Merdanoglu B Altınsoy N (2006) Radioactivity con-centrations and dose assessment for soil samples from Kestanbol granite area Turkey Radiat Prot Dosim 121 [4] 399ndash405 httpsdoiorg101093rpdncl055

14 Kayakoumlkuuml H Karatepe Ş Dogru M (2016) Measurements of radioactivity and dose assessments in some building materials in Bitlis Turkey Appl Radiat Isotopes 115 172ndash179 httpsdoiorg101016japradiso 201606020

15 ISRM (2007) The complete ISRM suggested methods for rock characterization testing and monitoring 1974ndash2006 In Ulusay R Hudson JA (Eds) Suggested Methods Prepared by the ISRM Commission on Testing Methods Compilation Arranged by the ISRM Turkish National Group Kozan Ofset Ankara 628 pp

16 Erdem M Baykara O Dogru M Kuluoumlztuumlrk F (2010) A novel shielding material prepared from solid waste containing lead for gamma ray Radiat Phys Chem 79 [9] 917ndash922 httpsdoiorg101016jradphyschem 201004009

17 Baykara O Karatepe Ş Doǧru M (2011) Assessments of natural radioactivity and radiological hazards in con-struction materials used in Elazig Turkey Radiat Measur 46 [1] 153ndash158 httpsdoiorg101016jradmeas2010 08010

18 Trevisi R Leonardi F Risica S Nuccetelli C (2018) Updated database on natural radioactivity in building materials in Europe J Environ Radioactiv 187 90ndash105 httpsdoiorg101016jjenvrad201801024

19 EPA 1992 Test Method 1311 - TCLP Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure

20 httpswwwbureauveritascomservices+sheetmetals-mineralstoxicity-characteristic-leaching-procedure-tclp Access on 26032019

21 Bayraktar CA Avşar E Toroumlz İ Alp K Hanedar A (2015) Stabilization and solidification of electric arc fur-nace dust originating from steel industry by using low grade MgO Arch Environ Prot 41 [4] 62ndash66 httpsdoiorg101515aep-2015-0040

22 EPA (1994) Determination of Trace Elements in Waters and Wastes by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry httpswwwepagovsitesproductionfiles2015-08documentsmethod_200-8_rev_5-4_1994pdf Access on 26032019

23 TSE 1987 Doğal yapı taşlarının muayene ve deney metotları (in Turkish) Tuumlrk Standartları Enstituumlsuuml Ankara



24 Vasconcelos G Lourenccedilo P B Alves C A Pamplona J (2007) Prediction of the mechanical properties of granites by ultrasonic pulse velocity and Schmidt hammer hardness North American Masonry Conference June 3ndash7 Missouri USA

25 Fort R de Buergo M A Perez-Monserrat E M (2013) Non-destructive testing for the assessment of granite decay in heritage structures compared to quarry stone Int J Rock Mech Min 61 296ndash305 httpsdoiorg101016jijrmms201212048

26 Sharma P K Khandelwal M Singh T N (2011) A cor-relation between Schmidt hammer rebound numbers with impact strength index slake durability index and P-wave velocity Int J Earth Sci 100 [1] 189ndash195 httpsdoiorg101007s00531-009-0506-5

27 Karakuş M Tuumltmez B (2006) Fuzzy and multiple regres-sion modelling for evaluation of intact rock strength based on point load Schmidt hammer and sonic velocity Rock Mech Rock Eng 39 [1] 45ndash57 httpsdoiorg101007s00603-005-0050-y

28 Sharma P K Singh T N (2008) A correlation between P-wave velocity impact strength index slake durability index and uniaxial compressive strength B Eng Geol Environ 67 [1] 17ndash22 httpsdoiorg101007s10064-007-0109-y

29 Kurtuluş C Irmak T S Sertccedilelik I (2010) Physical and mechanical properties of Gokceada Imbros (NE Aegean Sea) island andesites B Eng Geol Environ 69 [2] 321ndash324 httpsdoiorg101007s10064-010-0270-6

30 Işık E Bakış A Akıllı A Hattaoğlu F (2015) Usability of Ahlat Stone as Aggregate in Reactive Powder Concrete Int J App Sci Eng Res 4 [4] 507ndash514

31 Dinccediler İ Oumlzvan A Akın M Tapan M Oyan V (2012) İgnimbiritlerin kapiler su emme potansiyellerinin değerlendirilmesi Ahlat Taşı oumlrneği YYUFBED 17 [2] 64ndash71 httpsdergiparkorgtrtrpubyyufbedissue21967235855

32 Pamuk E Buumlyuumlksaraccedil A (2017) Investigation of strength characteristics of natural stones in Uumlrguumlp (NevşehirTurkey) BUSciTech 7 [2] 74ndash79 httpsdoiorg1017678beuscitech305653

33 Lorenzi A Tisbierek FT Silva L C P (2007) Ultrasonic pulse velocity anaacutelysis in concrete specimens In IV Conferencia Panamericana de END Buenos Aires

34 Karakaya M C Dogru M Karakaya N Vural H C Kuluoumlztuumlrk F Bal S Ş (2015) Radioactivity concentra-tions and dose assessments of therapeutic peloids from some Turkish spas Clay Miner 50 [2] 221ndash232 httpsdoiorg101180claymin2015050206

35 Karakaya M Ccedil Dogru M Karakaya N Kuluoumlztuumlrk F Nalbantccedilılar M T (2017) Radioactivity and hydrochemical properties of certain thermal Turkish spa waters J Water Health 15 [4] 591ndash601 httpsdoiorg102166wh2017263

36 Rado SYS (2011) Radosys User Manuel Hungary37 Turkish Atomic Energy Authority (TAEK) (2000)

Unofficial Translation (May) 1ndash5 httpswwwoecd-neaorglawlegislationturkeypdf

38 Akkurt I Akyıldırım H Mavi B Kilincarslan S Basyigit C (2010) Photon attenuation coefficients of con-crete includes barite in different rate Ann Nucl Energy 37 [7] 910ndash914 httpsdoiorg101016janucene201004001

39 RLW (2010) Regulation on Landfilling of Wastes Turkish Ministry of Environment and Forestry Official gazette date and number 26032010 27533



1 INTRODUCTION

Granular volcanic rocks are formed due to vol-canic eruptions with high gas pressure One of these products is pyroclastic rocks Pyroclastics are volca-nic materials coming from a volcanic chimney to the surface through volcanic mechanisms and wind by means of a sedimentation to bring to gather with the temperature of more than 500ndash600 degC in boiling or fusion form of glass or glassy parts as a result of the rotation of the product with minerals (zeo-lite) that are from the rocks formed Ignimbrite is a pyroclastic flow unit that contains large amounts of pumice volcanic glass and a small amount of lithic particles with a flowing in high temperature lami-nar flow system and gravity control (1ndash10) Locally Bitlis stone is found in the volcanic tuff group Bitlis ignimbrite is found in different thicknesses by spreading the lava from the Nemrut volcano to the environment Bitlis ignimbrite is one of the most widely used natural building stones in the city of Bitlis due to its low unit weight and easy form-ability Bitlis stone used in historical artefacts in the province of Bitlis may be in different colours Bitlis stone was used widely in historical buildings such as Bitlis Castle baths tombs mosques minarets and

traditional Bitlis houses Today it areas of usage are limited with the development of concrete tech-nology Nowadays it is used especially in renewed buildings and rural areas Bitlis stone obtained from quarries is used in the production area or at the con-struction site by cutting

Bitlis ignimbrite is composed of shard pumice and pumice parts crystal and crystal pieces and lytic components in terms of its petrographic components The mineralogical composition of the sanidine + pla-gioclase + anorthoclase + pyroxene (augite) + opaque minerals are seen On some levels of Bitlis ignimbrite micro-scale cracks resulting from sudden cooling of the volcanic glass are seen (11) Microscopic images of the mineralogical components of the Bitlis ignim-brite are shown in Figure 1 Bitlis stone may be used as a lightweight concrete or as a stone wall for insula-tion purposes because of its independent pores in the macro and micro dimensions

In the context of this multidisciplinary study the physical and chemical properties of ignimbrite rocks as a building material were determined and compared to other rocks of volcano origin The rocksrsquo toxicological and radioactive characteristics were also investigated in terms of environmental and public health concerns

Figure 1 Microphotographs of mineral components of Bitlis ignimbrite a b) slight pleochroism and FendashTi oxide inclusions in pyroxene c) rock fragments are angular in shape d) fibrous shape shard components (snd sanidine plg plagioclase

prx pyroxene opq m opaque mineral rf rock fragment vrf volcanic rock fragment mrf metamorphic rock fragment q quartz shd shard) (7 11)

































SiO2 () 6470

Al2O3 () 1306

Fe2O3 () 455

CaO () 240

MgO () 045

P2O5 () 024

K2O () 462

Na2O () 511

MnO () 012

TiO2 040














Sample ID

Wet Weight

(gr)

Dry Weight

(gr)Dry Density

(grcm3)Wet Density

(grcm3)

B1 6050 4981 148 179

B2 5950 4896 145 176

B3 5850 4760 141 173

B4 6150 5051 150 182

B5 6190 5093 151 183

B6 5904 4854 144 175

B7 5948 4893 145 176

B8 6122 5042 149 181

B9 5990 4893 145 177

B10 5995 4920 146 178



Sample IDWet Weight

(gr)Dry Weight

(gr)Water Saturated





B1 6050 4981 6100 1119 2247 3316

B2 5950 4896 6000 1104 2255 3271

B3 5850 4760 5950 1190 2500 3526

B4 6150 5051 6200 1149 2275 3404

B5 6190 5093 6250 1157 2271 3427

B6 5904 4854 5980 1126 2321 3337

B7 5948 4893 6070 1177 2405 3487

B8 6122 5042 6215 1173 2326 3476

B9 5990 4893 6080 1187 2426 3517

B10 5995 4920 6085 1165 2368 3452




(Jm3K) 106Ambient

temperature (degC)

1 0513 - 16

2 0463 157

3 046 191

4 0513 137 194

5 0697 1875

6 0446 213

7 0511 21

8 0532 14 204

9 0611 2003

10 0487 2001

11 0556 155 203

12 0467 2036

13 0413 204

14 05 147 2046

15 0888 139 2047

16 0573 2013






Vp= Ltp [1]








1 50 2400 208

2 50 2450 204

3 50 2600 192

4 50 2500 200

5 50 2550 196

Average 2plusmn0063



B1 1665 740

B2 1725 767

B3 1756 780

B4 1722 765

B5 1795 798

B6 1638 728

B7 1464 651

B8 1532 681

B9 1648 732

B10 1702 756




B1 231 103

B2 262 116

B3 265 118

B4 242 108

B5 255 113




B1 156

B2 187

B3 193

B4 156

B5 169

B6 178

B7 161

B8 139

B9 179

B10 154






AN NP t m

1S B=minus

ε times timestimes

γ

[2]


MDAN

P t271 465 B

ε=

+times timesγ

[3]







B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10





Breaking Load (kN) 1665 1725 1756 1722 1795 1638 1464 1532 1648 1702



UPV (kmsminus1) 156 187 193 156 169 178 161 139 179 154



















4 CONCLUSIONS



Radioisotope







MDA 1012 0639 7818 0092















BC0 246 0257 0174 0165 (38)

BC50 299 0287 0175 0167 (38)

BC100 346 0297 0180 0170 (38)



Metals

Crushed stone





Stone (mgkg)

Stone (mgkg)

Leached ()

TCLP liquid

(mgL)Limit

(mgL)



wastes (mgL)


Be 24 0067 27 33 - - - - -

B 2567 364 142 1819 - - - - -

Na 302139 ND ND ND - - - - -

Al 43378 55 01 276 - - - - -

K 369861 3524 10 17619 - - - - -

Ca 22865 7347 321 36735 - - - - -

V 439 0053 01 2644 - - - - -

Cr 49 ND ND ND 5 06 005 1 7

Mn 4007 196 49 980 - - - - -

Fe 27196 12 00 62 - - - - -

Co 0846 0021 25 11 - - - - -

Ni 33 0086 26 43 11 004 1 4

Cu 44 0202 45 101 - - 02 5 10

Zn 658 46 70 229 43 04 5 20

As 48 ND ND ND 5 - 005 02 25

Se ND ND ND ND - - 001 005 07

Sr 222 59 266 296 - - - - -

Cd 0146 0028 194 141 1 011 0004 01 05

Ba 4956 22 05 112 - - 2 10 30

Pb 95 11 118 56 5 075 005 1 5

Si 312891 7066 0023 353 - - - - -

Ti 3218 00086 0003 0430 - - - - -

Mo 0188 ND ND ND - - 005 1 3

Sn 0423 000634 15 0317 - - - - -

Sb 0049 000012 02 0006 - - 0006 007 05

W 0179 ND ND ND - - - - -

Hg 0004 ND ND ND 02 - 0001 002 02

Bi 0004 ND ND ND - - - - -

ND Not detected






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


REFERENCES










































































SiO2 () 6470

Al2O3 () 1306

Fe2O3 () 455

CaO () 240

MgO () 045

P2O5 () 024

K2O () 462

Na2O () 511

MnO () 012

TiO2 040














Sample ID

Wet Weight

(gr)

Dry Weight

(gr)Dry Density

(grcm3)Wet Density

(grcm3)

B1 6050 4981 148 179

B2 5950 4896 145 176

B3 5850 4760 141 173

B4 6150 5051 150 182

B5 6190 5093 151 183

B6 5904 4854 144 175

B7 5948 4893 145 176

B8 6122 5042 149 181

B9 5990 4893 145 177

B10 5995 4920 146 178



Sample IDWet Weight

(gr)Dry Weight

(gr)Water Saturated





B1 6050 4981 6100 1119 2247 3316

B2 5950 4896 6000 1104 2255 3271

B3 5850 4760 5950 1190 2500 3526

B4 6150 5051 6200 1149 2275 3404

B5 6190 5093 6250 1157 2271 3427

B6 5904 4854 5980 1126 2321 3337

B7 5948 4893 6070 1177 2405 3487

B8 6122 5042 6215 1173 2326 3476

B9 5990 4893 6080 1187 2426 3517

B10 5995 4920 6085 1165 2368 3452




(Jm3K) 106Ambient

temperature (degC)

1 0513 - 16

2 0463 157

3 046 191

4 0513 137 194

5 0697 1875

6 0446 213

7 0511 21

8 0532 14 204

9 0611 2003

10 0487 2001

11 0556 155 203

12 0467 2036

13 0413 204

14 05 147 2046

15 0888 139 2047

16 0573 2013






Vp= Ltp [1]








1 50 2400 208

2 50 2450 204

3 50 2600 192

4 50 2500 200

5 50 2550 196

Average 2plusmn0063



B1 1665 740

B2 1725 767

B3 1756 780

B4 1722 765

B5 1795 798

B6 1638 728

B7 1464 651

B8 1532 681

B9 1648 732

B10 1702 756




B1 231 103

B2 262 116

B3 265 118

B4 242 108

B5 255 113




B1 156

B2 187

B3 193

B4 156

B5 169

B6 178

B7 161

B8 139

B9 179

B10 154






AN NP t m

1S B=minus

ε times timestimes

γ

[2]


MDAN

P t271 465 B

ε=

+times timesγ

[3]







B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10





Breaking Load (kN) 1665 1725 1756 1722 1795 1638 1464 1532 1648 1702



UPV (kmsminus1) 156 187 193 156 169 178 161 139 179 154



















4 CONCLUSIONS



Radioisotope







MDA 1012 0639 7818 0092















BC0 246 0257 0174 0165 (38)

BC50 299 0287 0175 0167 (38)

BC100 346 0297 0180 0170 (38)



Metals

Crushed stone





Stone (mgkg)

Stone (mgkg)

Leached ()

TCLP liquid

(mgL)Limit

(mgL)



wastes (mgL)


Be 24 0067 27 33 - - - - -

B 2567 364 142 1819 - - - - -

Na 302139 ND ND ND - - - - -

Al 43378 55 01 276 - - - - -

K 369861 3524 10 17619 - - - - -

Ca 22865 7347 321 36735 - - - - -

V 439 0053 01 2644 - - - - -

Cr 49 ND ND ND 5 06 005 1 7

Mn 4007 196 49 980 - - - - -

Fe 27196 12 00 62 - - - - -

Co 0846 0021 25 11 - - - - -

Ni 33 0086 26 43 11 004 1 4

Cu 44 0202 45 101 - - 02 5 10

Zn 658 46 70 229 43 04 5 20

As 48 ND ND ND 5 - 005 02 25

Se ND ND ND ND - - 001 005 07

Sr 222 59 266 296 - - - - -

Cd 0146 0028 194 141 1 011 0004 01 05

Ba 4956 22 05 112 - - 2 10 30

Pb 95 11 118 56 5 075 005 1 5

Si 312891 7066 0023 353 - - - - -

Ti 3218 00086 0003 0430 - - - - -

Mo 0188 ND ND ND - - 005 1 3

Sn 0423 000634 15 0317 - - - - -

Sb 0049 000012 02 0006 - - 0006 007 05

W 0179 ND ND ND - - - - -

Hg 0004 ND ND ND 02 - 0001 002 02

Bi 0004 ND ND ND - - - - -

ND Not detected






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


REFERENCES






























































SiO2 () 6470

Al2O3 () 1306

Fe2O3 () 455

CaO () 240

MgO () 045

P2O5 () 024

K2O () 462

Na2O () 511

MnO () 012

TiO2 040














Sample ID

Wet Weight

(gr)

Dry Weight

(gr)Dry Density

(grcm3)Wet Density

(grcm3)

B1 6050 4981 148 179

B2 5950 4896 145 176

B3 5850 4760 141 173

B4 6150 5051 150 182

B5 6190 5093 151 183

B6 5904 4854 144 175

B7 5948 4893 145 176

B8 6122 5042 149 181

B9 5990 4893 145 177

B10 5995 4920 146 178



Sample IDWet Weight

(gr)Dry Weight

(gr)Water Saturated





B1 6050 4981 6100 1119 2247 3316

B2 5950 4896 6000 1104 2255 3271

B3 5850 4760 5950 1190 2500 3526

B4 6150 5051 6200 1149 2275 3404

B5 6190 5093 6250 1157 2271 3427

B6 5904 4854 5980 1126 2321 3337

B7 5948 4893 6070 1177 2405 3487

B8 6122 5042 6215 1173 2326 3476

B9 5990 4893 6080 1187 2426 3517

B10 5995 4920 6085 1165 2368 3452




(Jm3K) 106Ambient

temperature (degC)

1 0513 - 16

2 0463 157

3 046 191

4 0513 137 194

5 0697 1875

6 0446 213

7 0511 21

8 0532 14 204

9 0611 2003

10 0487 2001

11 0556 155 203

12 0467 2036

13 0413 204

14 05 147 2046

15 0888 139 2047

16 0573 2013






Vp= Ltp [1]








1 50 2400 208

2 50 2450 204

3 50 2600 192

4 50 2500 200

5 50 2550 196

Average 2plusmn0063



B1 1665 740

B2 1725 767

B3 1756 780

B4 1722 765

B5 1795 798

B6 1638 728

B7 1464 651

B8 1532 681

B9 1648 732

B10 1702 756




B1 231 103

B2 262 116

B3 265 118

B4 242 108

B5 255 113




B1 156

B2 187

B3 193

B4 156

B5 169

B6 178

B7 161

B8 139

B9 179

B10 154






AN NP t m

1S B=minus

ε times timestimes

γ

[2]


MDAN

P t271 465 B

ε=

+times timesγ

[3]







B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10





Breaking Load (kN) 1665 1725 1756 1722 1795 1638 1464 1532 1648 1702



UPV (kmsminus1) 156 187 193 156 169 178 161 139 179 154



















4 CONCLUSIONS



Radioisotope







MDA 1012 0639 7818 0092















BC0 246 0257 0174 0165 (38)

BC50 299 0287 0175 0167 (38)

BC100 346 0297 0180 0170 (38)



Metals

Crushed stone





Stone (mgkg)

Stone (mgkg)

Leached ()

TCLP liquid

(mgL)Limit

(mgL)



wastes (mgL)


Be 24 0067 27 33 - - - - -

B 2567 364 142 1819 - - - - -

Na 302139 ND ND ND - - - - -

Al 43378 55 01 276 - - - - -

K 369861 3524 10 17619 - - - - -

Ca 22865 7347 321 36735 - - - - -

V 439 0053 01 2644 - - - - -

Cr 49 ND ND ND 5 06 005 1 7

Mn 4007 196 49 980 - - - - -

Fe 27196 12 00 62 - - - - -

Co 0846 0021 25 11 - - - - -

Ni 33 0086 26 43 11 004 1 4

Cu 44 0202 45 101 - - 02 5 10

Zn 658 46 70 229 43 04 5 20

As 48 ND ND ND 5 - 005 02 25

Se ND ND ND ND - - 001 005 07

Sr 222 59 266 296 - - - - -

Cd 0146 0028 194 141 1 011 0004 01 05

Ba 4956 22 05 112 - - 2 10 30

Pb 95 11 118 56 5 075 005 1 5

Si 312891 7066 0023 353 - - - - -

Ti 3218 00086 0003 0430 - - - - -

Mo 0188 ND ND ND - - 005 1 3

Sn 0423 000634 15 0317 - - - - -

Sb 0049 000012 02 0006 - - 0006 007 05

W 0179 ND ND ND - - - - -

Hg 0004 ND ND ND 02 - 0001 002 02

Bi 0004 ND ND ND - - - - -

ND Not detected






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


REFERENCES






















































Sample ID

Wet Weight

(gr)

Dry Weight

(gr)Dry Density

(grcm3)Wet Density

(grcm3)

B1 6050 4981 148 179

B2 5950 4896 145 176

B3 5850 4760 141 173

B4 6150 5051 150 182

B5 6190 5093 151 183

B6 5904 4854 144 175

B7 5948 4893 145 176

B8 6122 5042 149 181

B9 5990 4893 145 177

B10 5995 4920 146 178



Sample IDWet Weight

(gr)Dry Weight

(gr)Water Saturated





B1 6050 4981 6100 1119 2247 3316

B2 5950 4896 6000 1104 2255 3271

B3 5850 4760 5950 1190 2500 3526

B4 6150 5051 6200 1149 2275 3404

B5 6190 5093 6250 1157 2271 3427

B6 5904 4854 5980 1126 2321 3337

B7 5948 4893 6070 1177 2405 3487

B8 6122 5042 6215 1173 2326 3476

B9 5990 4893 6080 1187 2426 3517

B10 5995 4920 6085 1165 2368 3452




(Jm3K) 106Ambient

temperature (degC)

1 0513 - 16

2 0463 157

3 046 191

4 0513 137 194

5 0697 1875

6 0446 213

7 0511 21

8 0532 14 204

9 0611 2003

10 0487 2001

11 0556 155 203

12 0467 2036

13 0413 204

14 05 147 2046

15 0888 139 2047

16 0573 2013






Vp= Ltp [1]








1 50 2400 208

2 50 2450 204

3 50 2600 192

4 50 2500 200

5 50 2550 196

Average 2plusmn0063



B1 1665 740

B2 1725 767

B3 1756 780

B4 1722 765

B5 1795 798

B6 1638 728

B7 1464 651

B8 1532 681

B9 1648 732

B10 1702 756




B1 231 103

B2 262 116

B3 265 118

B4 242 108

B5 255 113




B1 156

B2 187

B3 193

B4 156

B5 169

B6 178

B7 161

B8 139

B9 179

B10 154






AN NP t m

1S B=minus

ε times timestimes

γ

[2]


MDAN

P t271 465 B

ε=

+times timesγ

[3]







B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10





Breaking Load (kN) 1665 1725 1756 1722 1795 1638 1464 1532 1648 1702



UPV (kmsminus1) 156 187 193 156 169 178 161 139 179 154



















4 CONCLUSIONS



Radioisotope







MDA 1012 0639 7818 0092















BC0 246 0257 0174 0165 (38)

BC50 299 0287 0175 0167 (38)

BC100 346 0297 0180 0170 (38)



Metals

Crushed stone





Stone (mgkg)

Stone (mgkg)

Leached ()

TCLP liquid

(mgL)Limit

(mgL)



wastes (mgL)


Be 24 0067 27 33 - - - - -

B 2567 364 142 1819 - - - - -

Na 302139 ND ND ND - - - - -

Al 43378 55 01 276 - - - - -

K 369861 3524 10 17619 - - - - -

Ca 22865 7347 321 36735 - - - - -

V 439 0053 01 2644 - - - - -

Cr 49 ND ND ND 5 06 005 1 7

Mn 4007 196 49 980 - - - - -

Fe 27196 12 00 62 - - - - -

Co 0846 0021 25 11 - - - - -

Ni 33 0086 26 43 11 004 1 4

Cu 44 0202 45 101 - - 02 5 10

Zn 658 46 70 229 43 04 5 20

As 48 ND ND ND 5 - 005 02 25

Se ND ND ND ND - - 001 005 07

Sr 222 59 266 296 - - - - -

Cd 0146 0028 194 141 1 011 0004 01 05

Ba 4956 22 05 112 - - 2 10 30

Pb 95 11 118 56 5 075 005 1 5

Si 312891 7066 0023 353 - - - - -

Ti 3218 00086 0003 0430 - - - - -

Mo 0188 ND ND ND - - 005 1 3

Sn 0423 000634 15 0317 - - - - -

Sb 0049 000012 02 0006 - - 0006 007 05

W 0179 ND ND ND - - - - -

Hg 0004 ND ND ND 02 - 0001 002 02

Bi 0004 ND ND ND - - - - -

ND Not detected






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


REFERENCES

















































Sample ID

Wet Weight

(gr)

Dry Weight

(gr)Dry Density

(grcm3)Wet Density

(grcm3)

B1 6050 4981 148 179

B2 5950 4896 145 176

B3 5850 4760 141 173

B4 6150 5051 150 182

B5 6190 5093 151 183

B6 5904 4854 144 175

B7 5948 4893 145 176

B8 6122 5042 149 181

B9 5990 4893 145 177

B10 5995 4920 146 178



Sample IDWet Weight

(gr)Dry Weight

(gr)Water Saturated





B1 6050 4981 6100 1119 2247 3316

B2 5950 4896 6000 1104 2255 3271

B3 5850 4760 5950 1190 2500 3526

B4 6150 5051 6200 1149 2275 3404

B5 6190 5093 6250 1157 2271 3427

B6 5904 4854 5980 1126 2321 3337

B7 5948 4893 6070 1177 2405 3487

B8 6122 5042 6215 1173 2326 3476

B9 5990 4893 6080 1187 2426 3517

B10 5995 4920 6085 1165 2368 3452




(Jm3K) 106Ambient

temperature (degC)

1 0513 - 16

2 0463 157

3 046 191

4 0513 137 194

5 0697 1875

6 0446 213

7 0511 21

8 0532 14 204

9 0611 2003

10 0487 2001

11 0556 155 203

12 0467 2036

13 0413 204

14 05 147 2046

15 0888 139 2047

16 0573 2013






Vp= Ltp [1]








1 50 2400 208

2 50 2450 204

3 50 2600 192

4 50 2500 200

5 50 2550 196

Average 2plusmn0063



B1 1665 740

B2 1725 767

B3 1756 780

B4 1722 765

B5 1795 798

B6 1638 728

B7 1464 651

B8 1532 681

B9 1648 732

B10 1702 756




B1 231 103

B2 262 116

B3 265 118

B4 242 108

B5 255 113




B1 156

B2 187

B3 193

B4 156

B5 169

B6 178

B7 161

B8 139

B9 179

B10 154






AN NP t m

1S B=minus

ε times timestimes

γ

[2]


MDAN

P t271 465 B

ε=

+times timesγ

[3]







B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10





Breaking Load (kN) 1665 1725 1756 1722 1795 1638 1464 1532 1648 1702



UPV (kmsminus1) 156 187 193 156 169 178 161 139 179 154



















4 CONCLUSIONS



Radioisotope







MDA 1012 0639 7818 0092















BC0 246 0257 0174 0165 (38)

BC50 299 0287 0175 0167 (38)

BC100 346 0297 0180 0170 (38)



Metals

Crushed stone





Stone (mgkg)

Stone (mgkg)

Leached ()

TCLP liquid

(mgL)Limit

(mgL)



wastes (mgL)


Be 24 0067 27 33 - - - - -

B 2567 364 142 1819 - - - - -

Na 302139 ND ND ND - - - - -

Al 43378 55 01 276 - - - - -

K 369861 3524 10 17619 - - - - -

Ca 22865 7347 321 36735 - - - - -

V 439 0053 01 2644 - - - - -

Cr 49 ND ND ND 5 06 005 1 7

Mn 4007 196 49 980 - - - - -

Fe 27196 12 00 62 - - - - -

Co 0846 0021 25 11 - - - - -

Ni 33 0086 26 43 11 004 1 4

Cu 44 0202 45 101 - - 02 5 10

Zn 658 46 70 229 43 04 5 20

As 48 ND ND ND 5 - 005 02 25

Se ND ND ND ND - - 001 005 07

Sr 222 59 266 296 - - - - -

Cd 0146 0028 194 141 1 011 0004 01 05

Ba 4956 22 05 112 - - 2 10 30

Pb 95 11 118 56 5 075 005 1 5

Si 312891 7066 0023 353 - - - - -

Ti 3218 00086 0003 0430 - - - - -

Mo 0188 ND ND ND - - 005 1 3

Sn 0423 000634 15 0317 - - - - -

Sb 0049 000012 02 0006 - - 0006 007 05

W 0179 ND ND ND - - - - -

Hg 0004 ND ND ND 02 - 0001 002 02

Bi 0004 ND ND ND - - - - -

ND Not detected






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


REFERENCES














































Vp= Ltp [1]








1 50 2400 208

2 50 2450 204

3 50 2600 192

4 50 2500 200

5 50 2550 196

Average 2plusmn0063



B1 1665 740

B2 1725 767

B3 1756 780

B4 1722 765

B5 1795 798

B6 1638 728

B7 1464 651

B8 1532 681

B9 1648 732

B10 1702 756




B1 231 103

B2 262 116

B3 265 118

B4 242 108

B5 255 113




B1 156

B2 187

B3 193

B4 156

B5 169

B6 178

B7 161

B8 139

B9 179

B10 154






AN NP t m

1S B=minus

ε times timestimes

γ

[2]


MDAN

P t271 465 B

ε=

+times timesγ

[3]







B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10





Breaking Load (kN) 1665 1725 1756 1722 1795 1638 1464 1532 1648 1702



UPV (kmsminus1) 156 187 193 156 169 178 161 139 179 154



















4 CONCLUSIONS



Radioisotope







MDA 1012 0639 7818 0092















BC0 246 0257 0174 0165 (38)

BC50 299 0287 0175 0167 (38)

BC100 346 0297 0180 0170 (38)



Metals

Crushed stone





Stone (mgkg)

Stone (mgkg)

Leached ()

TCLP liquid

(mgL)Limit

(mgL)



wastes (mgL)


Be 24 0067 27 33 - - - - -

B 2567 364 142 1819 - - - - -

Na 302139 ND ND ND - - - - -

Al 43378 55 01 276 - - - - -

K 369861 3524 10 17619 - - - - -

Ca 22865 7347 321 36735 - - - - -

V 439 0053 01 2644 - - - - -

Cr 49 ND ND ND 5 06 005 1 7

Mn 4007 196 49 980 - - - - -

Fe 27196 12 00 62 - - - - -

Co 0846 0021 25 11 - - - - -

Ni 33 0086 26 43 11 004 1 4

Cu 44 0202 45 101 - - 02 5 10

Zn 658 46 70 229 43 04 5 20

As 48 ND ND ND 5 - 005 02 25

Se ND ND ND ND - - 001 005 07

Sr 222 59 266 296 - - - - -

Cd 0146 0028 194 141 1 011 0004 01 05

Ba 4956 22 05 112 - - 2 10 30

Pb 95 11 118 56 5 075 005 1 5

Si 312891 7066 0023 353 - - - - -

Ti 3218 00086 0003 0430 - - - - -

Mo 0188 ND ND ND - - 005 1 3

Sn 0423 000634 15 0317 - - - - -

Sb 0049 000012 02 0006 - - 0006 007 05

W 0179 ND ND ND - - - - -

Hg 0004 ND ND ND 02 - 0001 002 02

Bi 0004 ND ND ND - - - - -

ND Not detected






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


REFERENCES














































AN NP t m

1S B=minus

ε times timestimes

γ

[2]


MDAN

P t271 465 B

ε=

+times timesγ

[3]







B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10





Breaking Load (kN) 1665 1725 1756 1722 1795 1638 1464 1532 1648 1702



UPV (kmsminus1) 156 187 193 156 169 178 161 139 179 154



















4 CONCLUSIONS



Radioisotope







MDA 1012 0639 7818 0092















BC0 246 0257 0174 0165 (38)

BC50 299 0287 0175 0167 (38)

BC100 346 0297 0180 0170 (38)



Metals

Crushed stone





Stone (mgkg)

Stone (mgkg)

Leached ()

TCLP liquid

(mgL)Limit

(mgL)



wastes (mgL)


Be 24 0067 27 33 - - - - -

B 2567 364 142 1819 - - - - -

Na 302139 ND ND ND - - - - -

Al 43378 55 01 276 - - - - -

K 369861 3524 10 17619 - - - - -

Ca 22865 7347 321 36735 - - - - -

V 439 0053 01 2644 - - - - -

Cr 49 ND ND ND 5 06 005 1 7

Mn 4007 196 49 980 - - - - -

Fe 27196 12 00 62 - - - - -

Co 0846 0021 25 11 - - - - -

Ni 33 0086 26 43 11 004 1 4

Cu 44 0202 45 101 - - 02 5 10

Zn 658 46 70 229 43 04 5 20

As 48 ND ND ND 5 - 005 02 25

Se ND ND ND ND - - 001 005 07

Sr 222 59 266 296 - - - - -

Cd 0146 0028 194 141 1 011 0004 01 05

Ba 4956 22 05 112 - - 2 10 30

Pb 95 11 118 56 5 075 005 1 5

Si 312891 7066 0023 353 - - - - -

Ti 3218 00086 0003 0430 - - - - -

Mo 0188 ND ND ND - - 005 1 3

Sn 0423 000634 15 0317 - - - - -

Sb 0049 000012 02 0006 - - 0006 007 05

W 0179 ND ND ND - - - - -

Hg 0004 ND ND ND 02 - 0001 002 02

Bi 0004 ND ND ND - - - - -

ND Not detected






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


REFERENCES




























































4 CONCLUSIONS



Radioisotope







MDA 1012 0639 7818 0092















BC0 246 0257 0174 0165 (38)

BC50 299 0287 0175 0167 (38)

BC100 346 0297 0180 0170 (38)



Metals

Crushed stone





Stone (mgkg)

Stone (mgkg)

Leached ()

TCLP liquid

(mgL)Limit

(mgL)



wastes (mgL)


Be 24 0067 27 33 - - - - -

B 2567 364 142 1819 - - - - -

Na 302139 ND ND ND - - - - -

Al 43378 55 01 276 - - - - -

K 369861 3524 10 17619 - - - - -

Ca 22865 7347 321 36735 - - - - -

V 439 0053 01 2644 - - - - -

Cr 49 ND ND ND 5 06 005 1 7

Mn 4007 196 49 980 - - - - -

Fe 27196 12 00 62 - - - - -

Co 0846 0021 25 11 - - - - -

Ni 33 0086 26 43 11 004 1 4

Cu 44 0202 45 101 - - 02 5 10

Zn 658 46 70 229 43 04 5 20

As 48 ND ND ND 5 - 005 02 25

Se ND ND ND ND - - 001 005 07

Sr 222 59 266 296 - - - - -

Cd 0146 0028 194 141 1 011 0004 01 05

Ba 4956 22 05 112 - - 2 10 30

Pb 95 11 118 56 5 075 005 1 5

Si 312891 7066 0023 353 - - - - -

Ti 3218 00086 0003 0430 - - - - -

Mo 0188 ND ND ND - - 005 1 3

Sn 0423 000634 15 0317 - - - - -

Sb 0049 000012 02 0006 - - 0006 007 05

W 0179 ND ND ND - - - - -

Hg 0004 ND ND ND 02 - 0001 002 02

Bi 0004 ND ND ND - - - - -

ND Not detected






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


REFERENCES














































4 CONCLUSIONS



Radioisotope







MDA 1012 0639 7818 0092















BC0 246 0257 0174 0165 (38)

BC50 299 0287 0175 0167 (38)

BC100 346 0297 0180 0170 (38)



Metals

Crushed stone





Stone (mgkg)

Stone (mgkg)

Leached ()

TCLP liquid

(mgL)Limit

(mgL)



wastes (mgL)


Be 24 0067 27 33 - - - - -

B 2567 364 142 1819 - - - - -

Na 302139 ND ND ND - - - - -

Al 43378 55 01 276 - - - - -

K 369861 3524 10 17619 - - - - -

Ca 22865 7347 321 36735 - - - - -

V 439 0053 01 2644 - - - - -

Cr 49 ND ND ND 5 06 005 1 7

Mn 4007 196 49 980 - - - - -

Fe 27196 12 00 62 - - - - -

Co 0846 0021 25 11 - - - - -

Ni 33 0086 26 43 11 004 1 4

Cu 44 0202 45 101 - - 02 5 10

Zn 658 46 70 229 43 04 5 20

As 48 ND ND ND 5 - 005 02 25

Se ND ND ND ND - - 001 005 07

Sr 222 59 266 296 - - - - -

Cd 0146 0028 194 141 1 011 0004 01 05

Ba 4956 22 05 112 - - 2 10 30

Pb 95 11 118 56 5 075 005 1 5

Si 312891 7066 0023 353 - - - - -

Ti 3218 00086 0003 0430 - - - - -

Mo 0188 ND ND ND - - 005 1 3

Sn 0423 000634 15 0317 - - - - -

Sb 0049 000012 02 0006 - - 0006 007 05

W 0179 ND ND ND - - - - -

Hg 0004 ND ND ND 02 - 0001 002 02

Bi 0004 ND ND ND - - - - -

ND Not detected






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


REFERENCES
















































BC0 246 0257 0174 0165 (38)

BC50 299 0287 0175 0167 (38)

BC100 346 0297 0180 0170 (38)



Metals

Crushed stone





Stone (mgkg)

Stone (mgkg)

Leached ()

TCLP liquid

(mgL)Limit

(mgL)



wastes (mgL)


Be 24 0067 27 33 - - - - -

B 2567 364 142 1819 - - - - -

Na 302139 ND ND ND - - - - -

Al 43378 55 01 276 - - - - -

K 369861 3524 10 17619 - - - - -

Ca 22865 7347 321 36735 - - - - -

V 439 0053 01 2644 - - - - -

Cr 49 ND ND ND 5 06 005 1 7

Mn 4007 196 49 980 - - - - -

Fe 27196 12 00 62 - - - - -

Co 0846 0021 25 11 - - - - -

Ni 33 0086 26 43 11 004 1 4

Cu 44 0202 45 101 - - 02 5 10

Zn 658 46 70 229 43 04 5 20

As 48 ND ND ND 5 - 005 02 25

Se ND ND ND ND - - 001 005 07

Sr 222 59 266 296 - - - - -

Cd 0146 0028 194 141 1 011 0004 01 05

Ba 4956 22 05 112 - - 2 10 30

Pb 95 11 118 56 5 075 005 1 5

Si 312891 7066 0023 353 - - - - -

Ti 3218 00086 0003 0430 - - - - -

Mo 0188 ND ND ND - - 005 1 3

Sn 0423 000634 15 0317 - - - - -

Sb 0049 000012 02 0006 - - 0006 007 05

W 0179 ND ND ND - - - - -

Hg 0004 ND ND ND 02 - 0001 002 02

Bi 0004 ND ND ND - - - - -

ND Not detected






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


REFERENCES















































ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS


REFERENCES




























































Documents

Characteristics and properties of Bitlis ignimbrites and