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Property!is!Not!Sovereignty:!

Barriers!to!Indigenous!Economic!Development!in!Aotearoa/New!Zealand’s!Fisheries!

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By!!

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Hekia!Ellen!Golden!Bodwitch!

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A!dissertation!submitted!in!partial!satisfaction!of!the!requirements!for!the!degree!of!!

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Doctor!of!Philosophy!

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in!!

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Environmental!Science,!Policy,!and!Management!!

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in!the!!

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Graduate!Division!!

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of!the!!

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University!of!California,!Berkeley!

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Committee!in!charge:!!

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Professor!Nancy!Peluso,!Chair!

Professor!Jake!Kosek!

Professor!Kate!O’Neill!!

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Summer!2017!

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©!Copyright!2017!Hekia!Bodwitch!All!rights!reserved!

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Abstract!

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Property!is!Not!Sovereignty:!

Barriers!to!Indigenous!Economic!Development!in!Aotearoa/New!Zealand’s!Fisheries!

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by!

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Hekia!Ellen!Golden!Bodwitch!

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Doctor!of!Philosophy!in!Environmental!Science,!Policy,!and!Management!

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University!of!California,!Berkeley!

!

Professor!Nancy!Peluso,!Chair!

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In!1986,!the!New!Zealand!government!implemented!one!of!the!world’s!first!

nationally!comprehensive!private!fisheries!management!systems,!or!Individual!

Transferable!Quota!(ITQ)!systems.!!However,!complete!implementation!was!only!

possible!after!Māori!groups!agreed!to!formally!renegotiate!their!Treaty!and!

Aboriginal!Title!rights!to!fisheries.!!These!negotiations!resulted!in!the!

internationally!acclaimed!1992!Treaty!of!Waitangi!(Fisheries!Claims)!Settlement!

Act.!!In!the!Settlement,!Māori!groups!obtained!commercial!fishing!rights!in!the!form!

of!Individual!Transferable!Quotas!(ITQs).!!They!also!received!subsistence!fishing!

rights,!and!later,!customary!governance!rights.!!Today,!Māori!groups!collectively!

own!some!50%!of!the!nation’s!Individual!Transferable!Quota.!!This!should!give!them!

unprecedented!formal!control!over!national!fisheries!and!related!fishing!revenues.!!

Yet,!few!Māori!can!make!a!living!by!fishing.!!!Māori!groups’!efforts!to!establish!

commercial!fishing!operations!and!to!govern!fisheries!have!been!unsuccessful!in!

addressing!the!uneven!development!seen!in!New!Zealand’s!fisheries!and!Māori!

communities.!!This!puzzle—of!how!an!indigenous!group!can!hold!rights!to!valuable!

commercial!and!subsistence!resources,!but!be!unable!to!fully!benefit!from!them—is!

what!underlies!the!histories!told!here.!

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In!this!dissertation,!I!identify!the!barriers!blocking!Māori!fishery!management!and!

precluding!Māori!from!realizing!the!benefits!that!ITQ!ownership!should!bring!them.!!

Drawing!on!over!two!years!of!ethnographic!research!and!extensive!interviews!in!

New!Zealand’s!South!Island,!with!Māori!and!non^Māori!fishers,!processors,!tribal!

leaders,!scientists,!and!state!regulators,!I!argue!that!conceptions!of!property!and!

sovereignty!are!at!the!heart!of!these!problems.!!In!the!Settlement,!Māori!groups!

were!not!granted!sovereignty!over!natural!resource!access!and!trade!arrangements.!!

Rather,!they!have!been!expected!to!re^organize!hundreds!of!years!of!practices!to!

meet!entirely!new!conditions!in!the!current!political!economic!regime.!!They!must!

also!adapt!their!management!strategies!to!additional!restrictions!imposed!by!the!

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government!on!their!fisheries.!!While!the!Fisheries!Settlement!granted!property!and!governance!rights!to!Māori!groups,!the!state!retains!authority!over!how,!when,!and!where!these!property!and!governance!rights!can!be!implemented.!!While!Māori!are!expected!to!comply!with!the!“full!and!final”!condition!of!the!Settlement,!the!New!Zealand!government!continues!to!change!the!physical,!social,!and!legal!environments!within!which!Māori!can!operate!their!fishing!rights.!!!Māori!groups’!restricted!control!over!their!fishing!practices!and!rights—the!barrier!to!their!development—is!made!visible!in!examining!the!effects!of!state!regulations!imposed!after!the!1992!Settlement.!!In!this!dissertation,!I!analyze!three!policy,!ecological,!and!practical!contexts!within!which!the!New!Zealand!government!has!created!barriers!that!constrain!Māori!access!to!the!benefits!from!the!fisheries!in!which!they!hold!legal!rights.!!First,!fish!processing!regulations!have!restricted!Māori!fishers’!access!to!markets,!even!though!they!hold!the!required!quota!rights!needed!to!sell!their!fish.!!Second,!government!subsidies!and!programs!supporting!predominately!non^Māori!dairy!farming!operations!upstream!from!Māori!fisheries!have!intensified!production!and!degraded!water!quality!downstream,!negatively!impacting!fishery!sustainability!and!development.!!Third,!the!government’s!establishment!of!new!marine!reserves!in!particular!regions!has!legally!excluded!Māori!from!fisheries!they!previously!managed!and!utilized!for!subsistence.!!These!findings!demonstrate!that!the!creation!and!allocation!of!private!property!rights!to!indigenous!groups,!without!granting!them!concurrent!authority!to!amend!the!regulations!affecting!the!broader!economic!and!ecological!contexts!in!which!these!rights!are!realized,!is!unlikely!to!redress!the!consequences!of!their!dispossession!from!land!and!marine!resources.!!!!

!i!

!!!

To!Don,!Bill,!Riki,!&!Pere,!!

whose!work!inspired!mine.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

!ii!

Table!of!Contents!!!List!of!Figures!……………………………………………………………………………….……………………iii!!!Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………………..…....iv!!!Chapter!One:!Introduction:+Fisheries+Privatization+and+Indigenous+Development+in+Aotearoa/New+Zealand………………………………………………………………………………………....1+!!Chapter!Two:!Challenges+for+New+Zealand’s+Individual+Transferable+Quota+System:++Processor+Consolidation,+Fisher+Exclusion,+&+Māori+Quota+Rights……………………….......20!!!Chapter!Three:!Indigenous+Rights+and+FreeMTrade+Agreements:+Limits+to+AntiMColonial+Development+Strategies+on+Te+Waihora/Lake+Ellesmere…………...………………...…………37!!!Chapter!Four:!The+Politics+of+Marine+Resource+Control+and+Limits+to+Ngāi+Tahu’s+Customary+Fishing+Rights………...………………………………………………………………………….61!++Chapter!Five:!Conclusion:+Exclusions,+Inclusions,+and+Implications+for+Resource+Management…………………………………………………………...………………………………………….86!!!Chapter!Six:!Afterword:+A+Reflection+on+Beginnings……………………….……………………...95!!!References…………………………………………………………………………………………………………99!!!Appendix!One:!Figures………………...………...…………...…………………………………………….108!!!Appendix!Two:!Glossary!of!Māori!Terms………………………………………………………...…111!!!!!!!!

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List!of!Figures!!!Figure!1:!Completed!Treaty!of!Waitangi!Settlements!and!Current!Negotiations…..109!!!Figure!2:!Te!Waihora/Lake!Ellesmere!Nutrient!Allocation!Zones……………………….110!++Figure!3:!Ngāi!Tahu!Rūnanga!Map…………………………………………………………………….111!+!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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Acknowledgements!!!This!process!involved!the!support!of!far!too!many!people!to!give!justice!to!here.!!First!and!foremost,!I!want!to!acknowledge!my!family.!!Patricia!Golden,!you!gave!me!the!gift!of!a!name!and!a!nationality.!!Thank!you!for!encouraging!me!to!travel.!!William!Bodwitch,!you!reminded!me!that!I!was!already!at!where!I!needed!to!be.!!Aron!and!Leigh,!you!were!excited!about!where!I!was!going,!even!when!I!wasn’t!sure.!!Ben,!you!showed!me!reasons!to!smile,!every!step!of!the!way.!!For!that!I!am!grateful.!!!!Thank!you!to!my!New!Zealand!family,!Auntie!Margaret,!Uncle!Duncan,!Auntie!Ngaire,!Uncle!Thomas,!Auntie!Julie,!Nicola,!Andrew,!Kathryn,!Grant,!Anna,!Guy,!Kenneth,!Pip,!Spencer,!Barbara,!Phillip,!Leigh,!and!whānau.!!Also,!Hekia,!Wira,!Rakaitemania,!Mihimaraea,!Sarah,!Matt,!Terra,!and!Nick,!as!well!as!Alicia!Kingi.!!You!housed!me,!fed!me,!and!made!it!easy!for!me!to!live!abroad.!!Thank!you!to!my!Milvia!family,!Charlotte,!Ashley,!Katie,!Paul,!Zach,!and!Herman,!who!lived!the!journey!with!me.!!!At!the!University!of!California,!Berkeley,!Professor!Nancy!Peluso,!you!showed!me!how!to!be!meticulous!and!bold.!!Thank!you!for!teaching!me!to!build!theory!from!the!ground!up.!!I!am!excited!to!continue!to!learn!with!you.!!Professor!Jake!Kosek,!thank!you!for!showing!me!how!to!understand!academia!as!a!genealogy!of!knowledge!production.!!Professor!Kate!O’Neill,!thank!you!for!your!unwavering!belief.!!Professor!Kimberly!TallBear,!thank!you!for!teaching!me!how!to!conduct!research!with!both!material!and!semiotic!worlds!ethically.!!Thank!you!to!Professor!Louise!Fortmann,!for!creating!a!community.!!!Also,!thank!you!to!Professors!Holly!Doremus!and!David!Winickoff!for!your!guidance!in!coursework!and!oral!qualifying!exams.!!I!am!grateful!for!my!academic!community!in!New!Zealand.!!You!hold!me!accountable!to!my!claims.!!At!the!Ngai!Tahu!Research!Centre,!at!the!University!of!Canterbury!in!Christchurch,!New!Zealand,!thank!you!Dr.!Te!Maire!Tau!and!Virginia!Irvine!for!creating!my!intellectual!home.!!Thank!you!Dr.!John!Reid!for!always!pushing!me!until!I!reach!the!practical!in!my!analyses.!!I!look!forward!to!our!upcoming!collaborations.!!Thank!you!Jymal!Morgan!for!supporting!several!of!the!cases!I!examine!in!this!dissertation.!!!Thank!you!Dr.!Brad!Coombes!at!the!University!of!Auckland!School!for!the!Environment,!for!encouraging!me!to!examine!fisheries.!!Thank!you!Dr.!Richard!Hill!at!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi!Institute!at!Victoria!University!in!Wellington!for!talking!me!through!the!Treaty!settlement!process.!!!I!feel!fortunate!to!have!received!feedback!from!a!number!of!graduate!students!in!the!Department!of!Environmental!Science,!Policy!and!Management!at!the!University!of!California,!Berkeley.!!Especially,!thank!you!to!Nancy!Peluso’s!Land!Lab,!including!Jennie!Durant,!Sebastian!Rubiano!Galvis,!Alice!Kelly,!Lisa!Kelly,!Brian!Klein,!Freyja!Knapp,!Matt!Libassi,!Juliet!Lu,!Annie!Shattuck,!Daniel!Suarez,!Ashton!Wesner,!Kevin!Woods,!and!Annah!Zhu.!!Thank!you!also!to!Karen!Andrade,!Patrick!Baur,!Erin!

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Bergren,!Alasdair!Cohen,!Laura!Dev,!Sibyl!Diver,!Guillermo!DouglassfJaimes,!Katie!Fiorella,!Ted!Grudin,!Esther!Kim,!Aghaghia!Rahimzadeh,!Daniel!Sarna,!and!Katy!Seto.!!!!I!am!grateful!for!the!generous!support!from!my!funders,!including!the!National!Science!Foundation!Doctoral!Dissertation!Research!Improvement!Grant!#1434284,!for!my!fieldwork!project!titled,!“Impacts!of!Transferable!Quota!Markets!and!Customary!Management!Areas!on!Fishery!Sustainability!and!Indigenous!Development!in!New!Zealand.”!!I!also!received!summer!funding,!from!the!National!Science!Foundation’s!East!Asian!and!Pacific!Summer!Institute!and!a!Social!Science!Research!Council!Doctoral!Dissertation!Development!Fellowship!in!the!field!of!Global!Indigenous!Politics.!!Additionally,!I!received!fieldwork!support!from!the!UC!Berkeley!Center!for!Race!and!Gender,!the!UC!Berkeley!Human!Rights!Center,!and!the!UC!Berkeley!Edward!A.!Coleman!Fellowship!in!Water!Management.!!!!Finally,!and!especially,!I!want!to!acknowledge!Donald!Brown,!Richard!Dawson,!William!Dawson,!and!Pere!Tainui.!!Thank!you!for!sharing!your!lives!with!me.!!!!Hekia!Bodwitch!Berkeley,!California!August!10,!2017!!

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Chapter(One((

Introduction:(Fisheries(Privatization(and(Indigenous(Development((in(Aotearoa/New(Zealand(

!!!“We’ll&get&it.&&We&have&to.&&We’re&the&development&story&that&has&to&succeed.”&&

Māori!commercial!eel!fisher,!Ed!Tamati1,!July!2015!!“Has&the&Clark&family&benefitted&at&all&from&the&Settlement?&&No.&&Not&one&cent.”&&

Former!Māori!commercial!eel!fisher,!Roger!Clark,!July!2015!!!!1.(Introduction((

(It!was!midBwinter,!July!2015,!and!Māori!commercial!eel!fishers!Ed!and!Ben!Tamati,!Ben’s!partner!Alicia,!threeByearBold!Gabriella,!and!I,!were!finishing!dinner.!As!was!typical!those!days,!the!conversation!turned!to!the!latest!challenge!Ed!and!son!Ben!had!encountered!in!their!effort!to!establish!a!fish!processing!plant.!!Ben!was!going!to!have!to!deBconstruct!the!refrigeration!unit!he!had!just!installed!when!the!builder!they!paid!several!months!prior!hadn’t!finished!the!job.!!The!refrigeration!unit!worked,!but!not!for!legal!fish!sales.!!!The!New!Zealand!government’s!fisheries!privatization!regulations!made!it!illegal!to!process!fish!for!commercial!sale!in!buildings!constructed!by!anyone!other!than!a!certified!builder.!!Ben’s!decadeBplus!of!building!experience!was!insufficient!for!plant!construction,!without!government!approval.!!The!goal!of!establishing!the!processing!plant!was!to!enable!Ben!and!Ed!to!negotiate!market!prices!for!their!fish.!!In!New!Zealand,!only!fishers!with!privatized!fishing!rights!can!sell!fish.2!!The!government!regulates!who!can!become!a!fish!processor!in!order!to!facilitate!monitoring!of!the!nation’s!privatized!fishery3!management!system,!an!internationally!celebrated!Individual!Transferable!Quota!(ITQ)!system!(Costello!et&al.!2008,!Worm!et&al.!2009).!!To!ensure!fishers’!compliance,!the!government!authorizes!Fisheries’!Officers!to!search!any!fishers’!premises!without!a!warrant.!!!(Unlike!police!in!New!Zealand,!fisheries!officers!carry!arms).!!To!monitor!the!ITQ!system,!the!government!made!it!illegal!for!anyone!other!than!a!certified!processor,!operating!in!a!government!approved!facility,!to!sell!fish!to!the!public.!!Despite!the!Tamati!family’s!generations!of!eel!processing!experience—and!no!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1!All!names!have!been!changed.!2!In!order!to!sell!fish!caught!in!New!Zealand,!fishers!must!possess!a!derivative!of!an!Individual!Transferable!Quota,!called!Annual!Catch!Entitlement!(ACE).!!ACE!is!a!specific!tonnage!that!a!quota!right!corresponds!to.!!ACE!and!quota!can!both!be!sold!or!leased!(see!Chapter!Two).!!!!!3!Here,!“fishery”!refers!to!a!geographical!region!inhabited!by!one!or!more!species!of!fish.!!

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Despite!the!Tamati!family’s!generations!of!eel!processing!experience—and!no!known!cases!of!fishBrelated!illness—Ben!and!Ed’s!outdoor!smoking!and!drying!facility!had!not!met!the!government’s!licensing!requirements.!!!Ben!and!Ed!sold!all!their!eel!to!a!European!processor!who!had!obtained!government!certification!for!fish!sales,!and,!as!one!of!the!few!eel!processors!in!New!Zealand,!had!almost!complete!control!over!offBboat!eel!sales!and!commercial!market!access.!!Ben!and!Ed’s!inability!to!access!markets!hurt!them!financially!the!year!before,!when!the!European!processor!had!prepared!almost!USD!100,000!of!Ben!and!Ed’s!eel!for!delivery!to!the!Russian!market.!!However,!shortly!thereafter,!the!United!States’!trade!embargo!with!Russia!precipitated!a!drop!in!the!value!of!the!Russian!currency.!!Already!processed!as!frozen,!and!thus!undesirable!in!Asian!markets,!Ben!and!Ed’s!fish!waited!for!a!market!at!the!processors’,!unpaid!for!by!the!processor,!for!over!twelve!months.!!Ed!and!Ben!had!few!alternatives,!thanks!to!the!consolidation!of!the!processing!sector,!which!took!place!after!fisheries!privatization!in!1986.!!!!A!processing!plant!would!enable!Ben!and!Ed!Tamati!to!build!their!own!market!relationships,!including!with!customers!who!pay!more!for!fish!caught!in!sustainable!ways!by!smallBscale!indigenous!fishers.!!That!evening,!Ben!was!concerned!about!finding!a!certified!builder!who!would!approve!their!plant!as!it!stood.!!Ed,!however,!commented!that!if!they!had!to,!they!would!pay!for!a!rebuild,!if!that!was!what!it!took!to!get!the!plant!up!and!running.!!“We’ll!get!it!done.!!We!have!to.”!!Then,!with!a!sly!halfBsmile,!he!glanced!at!me.!“We’re!the!development!story!that!has!to!succeed.”!!!!Ed’s!characterization!of!himself!as!a!“development!story”!was!a!reference!to!the!unusual!circumstances!that!gave!rise!to!Ben!and!Ed’s!standing!as!one!of!the!few!MāoriBowned!commercial!fishing!operations!in!New!Zealand’s!South!Island.!!!In!New!Zealand!today,!Māori!tribes,!called!iwi,!collectively!own!substantial!portions!of!the!nation’s!privatized!commercial!fishing!rights,!held!in!the!form!of!Individual!Transferable!Quotas!(ITQs).4!!!Māori!groups!obtained!commercial!quota!rights!through!the!1992!Treaty!of!Waitangi!(Fisheries!Claims)!Settlement!Act5.!!In!the!1992!Fisheries!Settlement,!Māori!representatives!agreed!to!absolve!their!claims!to!fisheries!made!over!150!years,!in!return!for!commercial!fishing,!customary!fishing,!and,!later,!limited!fishery!governance!rights!(Boast!1999).!!The!Settlement!made!possible!implementation!of!the!world’s!first!nationally!comprehensive!privatized!fisheries!management!scheme,!an!Individual!Transferable!Quota!(ITQ)!system.!!!!However,!as!of!2017,!few!Māori!fish!MāoriBowned!quota.!!Instead,!iwi&quota!managers!lease!out!most!of!their!quota!to!the!highest!bidding!fishing!companies,!almost!always!nonBMāori6!owned.!!They!use!lease!revenues!to!purchase!more!quota.!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!4!Exact!numbers!are!unclear,!but!it!is!likely!that!Māori!groups!today!own!almost!50%!of!the!nation’s!ITQ!rights!(McClurg!2013).!!5!Referred!to!here!as!the!“Fisheries!Settlement,”!or!the!“Settlement.”!!I!use!“settlements”!in!reference!to!Treaty!settlements!in!New!Zealand!more!broadly.!!!!6!NonBMāori!New!Zealanders!are!also!called!Pākehā.!!!

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!3!

Their!leaseBout!strategy!ensures!that!the!Fisheries!Settlement!assets!will!continue!to!grow!to!the!benefit!of!the!iwi!members!for!the!next!150!years.!!Yet,!it!excludes!Māori!fishers,!for!whom!the!government’s!provisions!in!the!ITQ!system!made!it!illegal!for!fishers!to!sell!fish!without!also!holding!quota.!!!Recently,!some!iwi!leaders!agreed!to!reBallocate!iwiBowned!quota!to!iwi!fishers.!!Ben!and!Ed!are!two!of!these!fishers.!!!This!dissertation!examines!barriers!and!opportunities!to!Māori!groups’!abilities!to!manage!their!Fisheries!Settlement!assets!to!mitigate!the!effects!of!Māori!fishers’!exclusion!following!fisheries!privatization.!!!In!it,!I!identify!regulatory!policies!that!the!New!Zealand!government!established!after!the!Settlement!that!limit!how!Māori!can!benefit!from!their!rights.!!These!include,!regulations!around!fish!processing!and!trade!that!limit!Māori!fishers’!access!to!markets!(Chapter!Two),!government!policies!to!divert!upstream!water!for!agricultural!intensification!that!result!in!degraded!water!quality!in!downstream!fisheries!(Chapter!Three),!and!the!government’s!establishment!of!marine!reserves!that!limit!Māori!access!to!fish!(Chapter!Four).!!!!(In!the!Fisheries!Settlement,!the!government!allocated!property!and!governance!rights!to!Māori!groups,!while!retaining!the!authority!to!regulate!other!forms!of!resource!access!and!trade.!What!is!atypical!about!the!New!Zealand!case!is,!first!and!foremost,!the!reBallocation!of!property!rights!to!Māori,!an!indigenous!group!that!had!been!deprived!of!the!rights!they!had!already!maintained!150!years!earlier!by!signing!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi!with!the!British!Crown.!!!Also!unusual!is!the!way!in!which!the!Settlement!embeds!Māori!practices,!customs,!and!economies!in!the!New!Zealand!capitalist!political!economy.!!Fishers!are!attempting!to!use!these!rights!to!establish!fishing!and!processing!operations!in!regions!that!experienced!economic!downturns!after!the!Settlement,!but!are!running!into!significant!structural!barriers.!!The!uneven!development!seen!in!New!Zealand’s!fisheries!after!privatization!has!not!been!alleviated.!!For!Māori,!property!rights!to!the!fisheries!resource!are!not!sovereignty.!!!Māori!groups’!ownership!of!ITQ!rights!does!not!covey!the!authority!to!determine!how!a!resource!is!accessed!or!governed!within!particular!contexts.!!Rather,!Māori!rights!to!fish!are!constrained!by!the!larger!political!ecological!contexts!of!resource!production!in!New!Zealand.!!!!!To!understand!the!opportunities!and!constraints!on!Māori!groups’!postBsettlement!development,!this!dissertation!examines!these!sets!of!barriers!encumbering!a!specific!form!of!postBSettlement!development—that!attempted!through!reBallocating!ITQ!fishing!rights!to!smallBscale!Māori!fishers!in!New!Zealand.!!From!2013!to!2015,!I!conducted!two!years!of!ethnographic!research!in!fishing!communities!in!New!Zealand’s!South!Island.!!I!interviewed!over!150!Māori!and!nonBMāori!fishers,!farmers,!fish!processors,!regulators,!scientists,!treaty!negotiators!and!tribal!leaders,!and!state!regulators!about!their!experiences!and!perspectives!on!postBsettlement!economic!development.!!In!addition,!I!spent!four!seasons!fishing!with!Ngāi!Tahu!Māori!around!the!South!Island.!!Ngāi!Tahu!was!the!first!Māori!iwi!to!receive!quota!in!the!national!Fisheries!Settlement.!!!With!an!enrollment!of!over!53,000!members,!Ngāi!Tahu!is!one!of!the!largest!iwi!by!population!and!geographical!area!in!New!Zealand!(We!Are!Ngāi!Tahu!2017).!!Today,!they!are!also!one!of!the!wealthiest!iwi!in!

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!4!

New!Zealand,!with!reported!shareholder!equity!of!approximately!USD!1!billion!(Te!Rūnanga!o!Ngāi!Tahu!2016).!!However,!they!are!still!struggling!to!use!their!new!rights!to!benefit!tribal!members!equitably!!!This!analysis!sheds!light!on!why!Māori!development!initiatives!have!failed!to!address!new!kinds!of!fishers’!dispossession!from!New!Zealand’s!fisheries!since!privatization.!!The!findings!reported!here!identify!government!actions!and!structural!barriers!that!constrain!Māori!groups’!abilities!to!use!their!privatized!fishing!rights!(ITQs)!and!fisheries!governance!rights!for!postBSettlement!development.!!These!regulations!shape!how!Māori!access!fisheries!and!trade!their!catch,!thereby!limiting!Māori!sovereignty,!or!the!ability!to!determine!how!their!property!can!be!used!and!governed.!!These!findings!indicate!that!internal!changes!to!Māori!quota!management!will!not!address!the!contextual!issue!of!fishers’!exclusion!from!fisheries!because!of!subsequently!imposed!conditions!on!their!access.!!!!In!identifying!structural!barriers!to!Māori!fishers’!development,!many!imposed!or!developed!after!the!Settlement!was!signed,!this!dissertation!challenges!the!dominant!notion!that!the!lack!of!benefit!redistribution!to!Māori!postBSettlement!is!due!to!Māori!leaders’!(mis)management!of!their!fishing!rights.!!This!narrative,!espoused!by!government!officials!and!Māori!leaders,!as!well!as!academics,!(mistakenly)!indicates!that!alternative!management!will!reverse!fishers’!exclusion!(De!Alessi!2012).!!The!notion!that!fishers’!exclusion!is!now!a!“Māori”!problem!is!limiting!for!indigenous!development!to!the!extent!in!which!it!supports!problematic!assumptions!about!the!inability!of!indigenous!peoples!to!negotiate!economic!markets!(e.g.!TallBear!2000,!Deloria!2002,!Li!2010).!!!In!addition,!by!examining!the!role!that!government!authorities!continue!to!play!in!shaping!opportunities!for!Māori!development!within!broader!New!Zealand!contexts,!this!dissertation!encourages!a!return!to!sovereignty!talk!in!stateBMāori!relations.!!In!New!Zealand,!a!move!away!from!sovereignty!talk!occurred!in!the!midB1990s!when!the!government!started!settling!Māori!grievance!claims!through!the!return!of!substantial!amounts!of!formerly!stateBowned!assets!to!landBbased!and!other!resources,!as!well!as!fisheries.!!Instead!of!debates!around!sovereignty,!which!I!define!here!as,!“absolute!governing!authority!over!human!and!natural!resource!access!and!trade,”!discussions!have!moved!to!“development.”!!Following!the!1992!Fisheries!Settlement,!the!government!completed!landBbased!settlements!with!the!majority!of!the!nation’s!iwi,!most!over!the!last!ten!years!(Fisher!2017).!!As!settlements!are!signed,!Māori!and!nonBMāori!groups!that!were!influential!in!the!negotiating!process!are!encouraging!iwi&and!Māori!individuals!to,!“move!beyond!grievance!mode”!(Tribunal!2011).!!Instead!of!advancing!sovereignty!claims,!the!government,!and!tribal!leaders,!are!attempting!ways!to!use!settlement!assets!for!“postBsettlement”7!development.!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!7!Here!I!use!“postBSettlement”!in!reference!to!development!efforts!after!the!Fisheries!Settlement.!!I!use!“postBsettlement”!to!reference!development!initiatives!deployed!through!land!and!fisheries!based!settlement!assets.!!

!

!5!

!The!remainder!of!this!Chapter!proceeds!as!follows.!!In!Part!Two,!I!explain!how!the!Fisheries!Settlement!and!other!Māori!settlements!made!possible!the!New!Zealand!government’s!shift!to!neoliberal!governing!practices!in!the!midB1980s.!!In!Part!Three,!I!discuss!the!broader!implications!of!this!dissertation’s!identification!of!barriers!to!Māori!development!for!indigenous!development!studies.!!In!Part!Four,!I!outline!the!constraints!on!Māori!fishers’!postBsettlement!development!that!I!analyze!in!subsequent!chapters.!!!&&2.(Neoliberalism,(Treaty(Settlements(and(Tribal(Politics(in(New(Zealand((!Prior!to!ITQ!system!implementation!in!New!Zealand,!it!is!estimated!that!up!to!80%!of!the!South!Island’s!inBshore!fishers!were!Māori!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!However,!without!recorded!catch!histories,!few!Māori!received!quota!rights!in!the!initial!allocation!precipitated!by!the!Settlement.!!Today,!Ed!and!Ben’s!fishing!operation!is!one!of!approximately!lessBthanBtwenty!MāoriBowned!commercial!fishing!boats!in!the!South!Island.!!NonBMāori!owned!commercial!fishing!boats!catch!almost!all!of!New!Zealand’s!fish!caught!for!commercial!sale.!!Yet,!collectively,!Māori!groups,!whose!members!represent!15%!of!the!nation’s!population!of!less!than!5!million,!own!approximately!50%!of!the!nation’s!commercial!fishing!rights!(McClurg!2013,!Macpherson!2015).!!These!ethnic!discrepancies!are!in!part!a!result!of!Māori!leasing!out!their!quota!rights!to!others!as!part!of!their!longBterm!economic!development!strategy.!!!!The!ITQ!system!made!sales!of!fish!illegal!without!a!concurrent!quota!right.!!To!establish!the!quota!system,!The!New!Zealand!government!allocated!quota!based!on!catch!histories.!!This!allocation!strategy!rewarded!past!overfishing,!and!excluded!those!who!had!fished!less,!or!sustainably,!including!many!Māori.!!Despite!dominating!inBshore!fisheries!at!the!time!of!quota!system!establishment,!few!Māori!fishers!received!quota!due!to!the!system’s!design!to!allocate!quota!only!to!boat!owners!who!reported!over!80%!of!their!income!from!fishing.!!This!excluded!those!Māori!who!did!not!regularly!report!their!locallyBmarketed!catches!to!government.!!Many!did!not!report!because!they!believed!that!the!inBshore!fisheries!they!fished!were!MāoriBowned,!especially!those!in!waters!adjacent!to!Māori!reserves8!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!Eel!was!one!of!those!fisheries!presumed!to!be!MāoriBowned,!a!catch!that,!within!New!Zealand,!was!almost!entirely!consumed!by!Māori.!!Like!property,!sustainability!is!not!sovereignty,!either.!!Māori!fishers’!lack!of!reported!catches!was!also!due!to!the!fact!that!many!Māori!fishers!were!unaware!of!the!potential!benefits!of!doing!so.!!Yet,!while!Māori!fishers!failed!to!report!catches!in!the!preBquota!years,!nonBMāori!fishing!companies!with!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!8!Starting!in!the!midB1800s,!Māori!were!pushed!to!coastal!reserves!to!make!way!for!British!colonial!farmers!upstream!farmers!to!farm!sheep!for!wool!to!send!back!to!Britain.!!Māori!reserve!land!in!New!Zealand!remains!under!the!territorial!jurisdiction!of!the!New!Zealand!government.!!

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knowledge!of!ITQ!system!implementation,!and!access!to!extra!boats!and!gear,!put!additional!boats!in!the!water!to!increase!their!reporting.!!The!government!took!account!of!this!increased!reporting!through!a!reduction!of!the!Total!Allowable!Commerical!Catch!(TACC),!or!fish!take!limits,!instituted!after!ITQ!system!establishment!(Sissenwine!and!Mace!1992).!!An!entity’s!quota!holdings!correspond!to!a!percentage!of!the!TACC.!!The!government!initially,!therefore,!allocated!quota!primarily!to!previously!stateBsubsidized!operations!blamed!for!the!depleted!state!of!the!fisheries!to!begin!with!(Mace!et&al.!2013).!!Some!nonBfishers!also!reported!catches.!!Excluded!fisher!Ed!Tamati!tells!a!story!from!several!years!back,!when!he!occupied!the!hospital!bed!next!to!a!truck!driver!who!used!to!pick!up!rock!lobster!(Jasus&edwardsii)!from!Māori!fishers!off!Kaikoura,!located!on!the!east!coast!of!the!South!Island.!!To!Ed’s!surprise,!the!truck!driver,!who!had!never!been!a!fisher,!had!made!millions!from!trading!ITQs.!!Initially,!he!got!the!quota!for!free.!!Unlike!Ed!and!other!Māori!fishers,!who!had!learned!from!their!elders!how!to!dive!without!oxygen!tanks!for!twoBfoot!long!lobster!hiding!in!caves!along!the!cold!coastal!waters!off!the!South!Island’s!east!coast,!the!nonBMāori!driver!did!not!know!how!to!dive!for!lobster.!!He!did,!however,!know!about!the!potential!benefit!of!reporting!catch!histories!in!the!preBquota!years.!!For!all!those!years,!the!driver!had!reported!the!lobster!he!bought!from!the!Māori!fishers!as!his!own.!!As!a!result,!he!received!substantial!amounts!of!fishing!quota.!!!He!managed!this!quota!as!an!investment!asset,!leasing!it!to!fishers!until!selling!it,!at!a!time!when!lobster!quota!was!trading!for!upwards!of!USD!80,000/tonne.!!!!Māori!were!also!excluded!through!changes!implemented!after!the!quota!system!and!the!Fisheries!Settlement!were!in!place.!Māori!processors!could!not!compete!with!larger,!capitalBrich,!vertically!integrated!processors.!!Without!quota,!and!thus!the!ability!to!sell!fish,!Māori!fishers!could!not!amass!the!capital!necessary!to!purchase!boats!and!gear!to!access!the!fishery,!even!for!subsistence!fishing.!!To!amend!fishers’!onBgoing!exclusion,!Ngāi!Tahu!leaders!have!agreed!to!lease!quota!for!certain!culturally!significant!species,!especially!eel,!to!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers,!including,!previously!excluded,!Ben!and!Ed!Tamati.!!!!At!a!time!when!Māori!still!report!disproportionately!low!health,!income,!and!education!statistics!(New!Zealand!2016),!Ed!Tamati’s!characterization!of!himself!as!“the!development!story!that!has!to!succeed”!is!an!acknowledgement!of!the!importance!of!his!fishing!operation!for!government!regulators!and!iwi&leaders!in!the!postBSettlement!development!period.!!To!the!extent!that!it!is!successful,!Ed’s!fishing!operation!validates!Māori!Settlement!negotiators’!decisions!to!commit!to!an!agreement!that!absolved!the!potential!for!any!Māori!to!claim!fishing!rights!beyond!what!was!allocated!in!the!Settlement.!!!!2.2&&The&1992&Māori&Fisheries&Settlement&&In!New!Zealand,!fisheries!privatization!via!ITQ!system!implementation!was!only!possible!after!Māori!leaders!agreed!to!give!up!their!Treaty!and!Aboriginal!Title!

!

!7!

rights!to!New!Zealand’s!fisheries.!!In!the!late!1980s,!a!group!of!young!Māori!scholars!in!Wellington,!the!nation’s!capital,!suggested!to!several!Māori!members!of!Parliament!that!the!ITQ!system!established!in!1986!actually!violated!Māori!rights.!!Hearing!stories!from!home!of!fishers’!exclusion!from!fishing!as!soon!as!the!quota!system!was!implemented,!they!claimed!that!Māori!fishing!rights!established!in!the!Doctrine!of!Aboriginal!Title!and!the!1840!Treaty!of!Waitangi!were!being!violated.!!!!The!Doctrine!of!Aboriginal!Title,!which!applies!to!all!British!colonies,!states!that!the!inhabitants!of!colonized!regions!maintain!their!property!rights!unless!they!agree!to!relinquish!them!to!the!British!(Engle!2010).!!This!Doctrine!is!tied!to!Britain’s!own!history!as!a!colonized!region.!!When!Britain!was!invaded!and!conquered!by!the!Vikings!in!the!10th!century!AD,!the!Vikings!allowed!the!British!to!keep!their!property!rights!to!land.!!When!Britain!entered!into!its!own!colonial!period,!colonists!took!this!Doctrine!with!them.!!This!Doctrine!gave!rise!to!two!distinct!practices!that!characterized!Britain’s!own!history!of!exploration!and!colonization.!!First,!the!practice!of!declaring!a!land!“terra&nullis,”!based!on!the!idea!that!no!humans!had!ever!occupied!or!used!the!land!in!a!landing!site.!!!Second,!and!alternatively,!they!signed!‘treaties’!with!colonized!peoples,!as!a!means!of!legitimizing!the!taking!over!of!their!land!(Engle!2010).!!!!In!1840,!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi!established!New!Zealand!as!a!colony!of!Britain.!!In!return!for!control!of!the!territory,!the!British!colonial!government!promised!Māori,!“the&full&exclusive&and&undisturbed&possession&of&their&Lands&and&Estates&Forests&Fisheries&and&other&properties&which&they&may&collectively&or&individually&possess&so&long&as&it&is&their&wish&and&desire&to&retain&the&same&in&their&possession”![sic].!!Most!Māori!groups!of!the!time,!and!representatives!of!the!British!Crown,!signed!the!Treaty.!!However,!shortly!after!signing,!the!Treaty!was!largely!ignored,!as!the!colonial!government!took!land!through!wars!and!unfulfilled!sale!agreements!in!which!Māori!never!received!the!promised!compensation.!!The!British!monarchy’s!interest!in!land!in!New!Zealand!was!in!part!to!enable!settlers!to!raise!sheep!for!wool,!a!major!component!of!British!industry!at!the!time.!!In!the!late!1800s,!the!colonial!government!moved!all!Māori!groups!to!coastal!reserves.!!Māori!groups!relied!heavily!on!fish!for!subsistence!and!trade,!particularly!eel,!which!was!an!important!source!of!dietary!fat!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!Māori!groups!managed!eel!and!other!inBshore!fisheries!through!strategies!that!included!temporary!closures!and!shellfish!reseeding!practices,!or!forms!of!aquaculture!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!The!government’s!implementation!of!the!ITQ!system!excluded!Māori!from!these!fisheries.!!!In!1989,!a!group!of!Māori!brought!a!case!against!the!government’s!privatization,!protesting!their!exclusion.!!The!High!Court!of!New!Zealand!agreed!with!the!claims!(Boast!1999).!!The!court!called!a!halt!to!the!government’s!implementation!of!the!ITQ!system!until!an!agreement!was!reached!with!Māori!over!how!to!allocate!the!fishing!quota!(Boast!1999).!!In!the!resulting!negotiations,!Māori!groups!obtained!ownership!of!10%!of!the!nation’s!Individual!Transferable!Quota!rights!for!the!majority!of!the!

!

!8!

nation’s!fisheries,!which!were!already!in!the!ITQ!system,!and!20%!of!the!quota!for!any!species!not!yet!added!(Sissenwine!and!Mace!1992,!Boast!1999).!!Māori!groups!also!obtained!subsistence!fishing!rights!for!consumption!and!community!gatherings,!and,!later,!limited!governance!rights!for!culturally!important!fisheries!such!as!eel.!!The!government!allocated!the!newly!privatized!fish!access!rights!to!a!Māori!Trust,!which!managed!the!asset!on!behalf!of!all!Māori!until!2004,!when!Māori!groups!divided!the!asset!among!iwi,!based!on!iwi!population!and!the!extent!of!an!iwi’s!coastline.!!!!!Quota!is!a!private!property!right!because!it!is!an!exclusive!right!that!inheres!in!specific!fishers!or!fishing!firms.!!Two!individuals!or!legal!entities!cannot!control!the!same!quota!right.!!!This!differs!from!a!property!right!held!in!common,!such!as!those!rights!held!by!New!Zealand’s!customary!or!recreational!fishers,!where!the!right!held!by!one!individual!to!fish!does!not!preclude!others’!taking!fish!from!that!fishery.!!!As!a!stateBsanctioned!property!right!to!specific!kinds!and!quantities!of!fish,!quota!has!been!consolidated!in!the!hands!of!several!industry!players!who!control!access!to!and!wealth!distribution!from!the!majority!of!New!Zealand’s!fisheries.!!Quota!differs!from!customary!forms!of!property!rights!to!New!Zealand’s!fisheries!that!existed!prior!to!the!development!of!the!ITQ!system.!!Customary!fishery!access!was!based!on!individuals’!relationships!to!a!local!community!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!!Internationally,!New!Zealand’s!fisheries!privatization!initiative!has!received!great!acclaim!for!sustainability!advances!(Worm!et!al.!2009).!!Governments!globally!have!emulated!New!Zealand’s!model.!!Yet,!the!ITQ!system’s!sustainability!‘success’!was!largely!tied!to!smallBscale!fishers’!exclusion.!!Indeed,!in!the!over!two!years!I!spent!working!with!New!Zealand!fishers,!scientists,!and!fisheries!managers,!the!first!comment!I!almost!always!heard!when!discussing!my!research!was,!“The!quota!system!worked!for!fish,!but!it!didn’t!work!for!fishers.”!!Often,!however,!if!the!speaker!was!a!fisher,!the!next!comment!was!something!along!the!lines!of,!“It!won’t!last!this!way!for!long.”!This!comment!implied!that!onBgoing!fishers’!exclusion,!and!increasing!economic!inequality!in!New!Zealand!identified!since!the!government’s!transition!to!neoliberal!regulatory!initiatives,!is!increasingly!giving!rise!to!nonBcompliance.!!!!2.3&&New&Zealand’s&Neoliberal&Transition&&The!Māori!Fisheries!Settlement!was!negotiated!alongside!the!New!Zealand!government’s!transition!from!a!socialistBdemocratic!system!of!governance!to!marketBbased,!or!neoliberal,!governing!practices!and!regulations.!!The!government’s!motivation!for!this!transition!was!tied!to!a!change!in!the!status!of!New!Zealand!as!one!of!Britain’s!preferred!trading!partners!in!1973.!!That!year,!Britain!joined!the!European!Communities,!the!precursor!to!the!European!Union.!!The!European!Communities!were!formed!around!a!“common!agricultural!policy,”!which!excluded!nonBmember!nations,!including!Britain’s!former!colonies!(Lodge!1978).!!From!1960!to!1973,!New!Zealand’s!exports!to!Britain!dropped!from!53!to!19!percent!of!the!country’s!total!exports!(Lodge!1978).!!This!drop!occurred!despite!New!Zealand!having!(re)negotiated!a!privileged!trade!agreement!to!export!dairy!to!Britain,!in!

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acknowledgement!of!the!high!reliance!by!New!Zealand!producers!on!the!British!market!(ibid.).!!At!first,!the!government!responded!to!the!economic!effects!of!decreased!exports!to!Britain,!exacerbated!by!oil!price!“shocks”!in!the!1970s,!by!expanding!public!sector!employment!to!24.9!percent!in!the!early!1980s!(Gunn!1997).!!The!government!funded!this!expansion!in!large!part!through!foreign!debt!(Schwartz!1994).!!From!1973!to!1982,!New!Zealand’s!net!foreign!debt,!as!a!percentage!of!the!Gross!Domestic!Product!(GDP),!increased!from!7.3!percent!to!57!percent!(OECD!1987).!!In!1984,!the!nation’s!newly!elected!Labour!Party!government,!sought!to!amend!this!deficit!by!deregulating!trade,!a!process!that!involved!the!removal!of!subsidies,!tariffs,!and!barriers!to!foreign!investment.!!Consecutive!governments!have!continued!to!implement!marketBbased!governing!practices,!which!have!included!the!privatization!of!formerly!stateBcontrolled!resources!and!services,!including!forests,!energy!companies,!and!financial!institutions.!!!As!proclaimed!on!a!recent!government!website!aimed!at!attracting!foreign!investors!to!New!Zealand,!“Over&the&last&30&years&our&economy&has&gone&from&being&one&of&the&most&regulated&in&the&OECD&[Organization&for&Economic&CoBoperation&and&Development]&to&one&of&the&least&regulated,&most&freeBmarketBbased&economies”!(New!Zealand!Immigration!2017).!!The!speed!of!this!transition!in!the!midB1980s,!and!continuing!today,!is!described!by!scholars!as!the!“New!Zealand!Experiment”!(Larner!2005).!!It!was!made!possible!in!part!by!New!Zealand’s!parliamentary!system!for!government.!!Under!New!Zealand’s!First!Past!the!Post!electoral!system,!the!dominant!political!party!also!forms!the!Parliamentary!Cabinet,!the!executive!body!comprised!of!Ministers!who!head!government!agencies.!!With!control!of!the!Cabinet!and!Parliament,!and!operating!without!a!formal!constitution,!under!this!system,!the!dominant!political!party’s!power!to!implement!new!regulatory!initiatives!is!only!constrained!by!provisions!to!hold!an!election!at!least!once!every!three!years!(Neilson!1998).!!In!1996,!New!Zealand’s!electoral!system!transitioned!to!a!MixedBMember!Proportional!!(MMP)!system,!whereby!New!Zealanders!vote!for!both!a!regional!Parliamentary!representative!as!well!as!a!political!party.!!Under!the!MMP!system,!political!parties!receiving!at!least!five!percent!of!the!political!party!votes!appoint!members!to!Parliament!based!on!the!percentage!of!the!political!party!votes!they!receive.!!Māori!New!Zealanders!can!choose!to!vote!for!either!their!regional!Māori!member!of!Parliament,!for!which!seven!seats!are!reserved,!or!for!Māori!or!nonB!Māori!representatives!of!the!nonBMāori!electorate.!!An!effect!of!the!MMP!system!is!that!minority!parties,!which!include!the!Māori!Party,!the!Green!Party,!and!the!more!conservative!New!Zealand!First!and!ACT!(Association!of!Consumers!and!Taxpayers)!Parties,!can!hold!substantial!influence!in!national!politics.!!This!occurs!in!situations!where!no!party!holds!the!majority!of!seats!in!Parliament!after!an!election,!and!a!majority!party,!almost!always!Labour!or!National,!forms!a!coalition!with!one!or!more!minority!parties!to!establish!the!executive.!!!The!New!Zealand!government’s!neoliberal!transition!also!involved!freeBtrade!agreement!signing!with!other!nations.!!!Starting!with!Australia!in!1983,!as!of!2017,!

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the!New!Zealand!government!has!entered!into!freeBtrade!agreements!with!sixteen!other!nations!(NZ!Foreign!Affairs!and!Trade!2017).!!In!2008,!New!Zealand!became!the!first!member!of!the!Organization!for!Economic!CoBoperation!and!Development!(OECD)!to!sign!a!comprehensive!freeBtrade!agreement!with!China!(NZ!Foreign!Affairs!and!Trade!2017).!!Following!this!agreement,!economic!growth!in!China!replaced!that!in!the!United!States!as!the!primary!factor!influencing!New!Zealand’s!exchange!rate!because!of!the!expansion!of!New!Zealand’s!dairy!industry!for!export!to!China!(Kamber!et&al.!2016).!!As!an!exportBbased!economy,!in!2017,!exports!represented!approximately!30%!of!the!nation’s!GDP!(Immigration!New!Zealand!2017).!!As!of!2017,!tourism!and!dairy!held!the!number!one!and!two!spots!as!the!nation’s!top!export!revenue!earners!(Bradley!2017).!!!2.4&&Treaty&Settlements&in&New&Zealand&&&Alongside!these!marketBbased!governing!initiatives,!since!the!midB1980s,!the!New!Zealand!government!has!also!entered!into!Treaty!settlement!agreements!with!Māori!groups!across!the!nation.!!As!of!2017,!the!government!was!engaged!in!or!had!completed!settlement!negotiations!with!Māori!groups!to!resolve!outstanding!grievance!claims!related!to!almost!all!of!New!Zealand’s!land!and!marine!resource!base!(see!Figure!1!in!Appendix!One)!(Office!of!Treaty!Settlements!2017).!!The!Fisheries!Settlement!was!one!of!the!largest!of!these!settlements.!!From!2008!to!2016!alone,!the!government!finalized!Treaty!settlements!with!over!50!Māori!groups!(Fisher!2017).!!!!The!New!Zealand!government’s!support!for!indigenous!settlement!negotiations!began!in!the!midB1970s.!!Prior!to!this!period,!the!government!had!ignored!a!long!string!of!Māori!claims!citing!state!violations!of!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi.!!In!1906,!in!response!to!Māori!protests!over!unfulfilled!landBsale!agreements,!a!High!Court!Judge!went!so!far!as!to!describe!the!Treaty!as!a!“simple!nullity”!(Thomas!and!Nikora!1992).!!Over!the!course!of!the!next!several!decades,!as!the!government!attempted!to!“acculturate”!and!“assimilate”!Māori,!by!integrating!them!into!British!communities,!Māori!groups!brought!multiple!court!claims!citing!government!violations!of!Treaty!principles!related!to!land!loss!(Orange!2004).!!Few!were!successful.!!!!A!national!turn!in!sentiment!towards!the!Treaty!began!in!the!midB1960s.!!Gaining!momentum!from!Red!Power!movements!in!Canada!and!the!United!States,!Māori!groups’!increasingly!protested!the!contradiction!found!in!the!government’s!celebration!of!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi!as!the!nation’s!founding!document,!while!simultaneously!ignoring!the!rights!it!granted!to!Māori!(Orange!2004).!!In!1975,!in!response!to!a!growing!civil!rights!movement,!the!New!Zealand!government!passed!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi!Act.!!The!1975!Act!established!the!Waitangi!Tribunal!as!a!bicultural!research!organization!tasked!with!examining!the!suitability!of!the!treaty!for!contemporary!times.!!Under!the!Act,!Māori!individuals!and!groups!can!submit!claims!to!government!violations!of!the!Treaty.!!The!Tribunal!evaluates!these!claims!and!recommends!a!course!of!action!that!the!government!can!take!to!mitigate!the!effects!of!government!violations!of!Treaty!principles.!!In!the!early!1980s,!the!

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government!extended!the!Tribunal’s!authority!to!also!evaluate!claims!from!Māori!groups!citing!historical!Treaty!violations!committed!by!the!New!Zealand!government,!acting!then,!as!with!today,!under!the!British!Crown.!!Over!the!last!forty!years,!Māori!groups!have!filed!thousands!of!submissions!to!the!Tribunal!requesting!analysis!of!potential!government!violations!of!the!Treaty.!!The!Tribunal’s!nonBbinding!recommendations!form!the!grounds!for!settlement!negotiations!between!the!New!Zealand!government!and!Māori!groups!(Byrnes!2004).!!As!discussed!here,!however,!it!became!a!burden!that!the!Settlement!was!meant!to!reconcile!historical!as!well!as!contemporary!claims!against!wrongs.!!In!settlements,!Māori!groups!receive!financial!assets,!coBgovernance!rights!for!land!and!marine!resources,!ownership!rights!over!culturally!significant!resources,!and!the!Right!of!First!Refusal!for!governmentBowned!properties!coming!up!for!sale.!!This!last!provision!has!resulted!in!some!iwi,!including!Ngāi!Tahu,!obtaining!ownership!control!over!a!range!of!formerly!stateBcontrolled!properties,!including!police!stations,!post!offices,!and!airports.!!!Garnering!international!attention,!some!Māori!groups!have!also!obtained!rights!to!their!traditional!territories!through!the!newly!designated!“legal!personhood”!standings!that!the!government!granted!to!a!national!park!and!river!as!part!of!certain!groups’!settlements!(e.g.!Rousseau!2016).!!In!return,!in!settlements,!Māori!agree!to!absolve!the!government!from!additional!or!future!responsibility!to!mitigate!the!negative!or!unintended!effects!of!Treaty!violations.!The!settlements!are!thus,!“full!and!final.”!!In!addition!to!engaging!Treaty!settlement!negotiations!with!Māori!iwi,!the!New!Zealand!government!also!negotiates!for!the!settlement!of!grievances!related!to!notByetBprivatized!assets,!with!individuals!representing!“Māori”!as!a!collective!whole.!!Collective!settlements!include!settlements!over!airwaves,!fisheries,!and!forests.!!The!settlements!made!possible!the!government’s!subsequent!privatization!of!these!assets!by!removing!the!legal!possibility!for!Māori!groups!to!claim!additional!ownership!rights.!!!While!Māori!groups’!protests!against!contemporary!processes!of!exclusion!via!privatization,!including!that!for!forests,!fisheries,!and!airwaves,!resulted!in!Māori!collectively!obtaining!rights!to!these!assets,!resources!that!were!privatized!prior!to!the!commencement!of!the!settlement!negotiation!period,!namely!land,!are!not!returned!in!settlements.!!In!situations!where!the!land!in!question!in!the!grievance!claim!is!held!in!private!property,!iwi!leaders!negotiate!with!the!government!for!a!financial!sum,!transferred!through!capital!assets!held!by!the!government!to!iwi,!including!school!properties!and!other!stateBowned!resources.!!!!The!total!value!of!assets!obtained!in!settlement!negotiations!is!understood!by!both!parties,!Māori!groups!as!well!as!the!New!Zealand!government,!to!be!worth!less!than!the!amount!iwi&lost!via!colonization.!!In!settlement!negotiations,!some!iwi!leaders!hold!out!in!attempt!to!negotiate!for!a!better!settlement.!!Others!take!a!less!than!ideal!settlement!package.!!Almost!always,!the!latter!group!will!subsequently!seek!to!accumulate!additional!wealth!by!investing!settlement!assets!for!capital!gain.!!

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!New!Zealand’s!Treaty!of!Waitangi!settlement!process!has!received!international!acclaim.!!In!2011,!the!United!Nation’s!Special!Rapporteur!on!the!Rights!of!Indigenous!Peoples,!James!Anaya,!described!it!as,!“One!of!the!most!important!examples!in!the!world!of!an!effort!to!address!historical!and!onBgoing!grievances!of!an!indigenous!people”!(Anaya!2011).!!Yet,!within!New!Zealand!this!claim!is!contentious.!!Most!who!identify!as!Māori!have!yet!to!receive!any!economic!benefits!from!settlement!assets!(Statistics!New!Zealand!2016).!!!The!allocation!of!settlement!assets!to!iwi&has!facilitated!iwi!entry!into!New!Zealand’s!capitalist!economy.!!Thanks!to!the!profits!from!leasing!fisheries!quota!rights!and!landBbased!settlement!assets,!Māori!iwi&are!no!longer!economically!dispossessed!groups,!organized!primarily!around!resistance!to!stateBsanctioned!development!initiatives.!!Yet,!increased!wealth!without!redistribution!to!iwi!members!has!generated!a!proliferation!of!critiques!about!the!legitimacy!of!the!iwi!in!contemporary!times.!!Iwi!leaders’!management!of!the!Fisheries!Settlement!assets!is!one!of!the!more!contentious!sources!of!debate!between!iwi!leaders!and!members!across!New!Zealand!because!of!the!increasing!inequalities!experienced!by!Māori!in!rural!communities!after!privatization.!!!!The!Fisheries!Settlement!negotiations,!settled!on!behalf!of!all!“Māori,”!primarily!took!place!with!iwi!representatives,!deemed!by!the!government!to!be!the!legitimate!(‘governing’)!representatives.!!“Māori”!however,!became!a!legal!group!only!after!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi.!!The!Treaty!of!Waitangi!racialized!the!“Māori”!as!officially!Other!(from!European!settlers).!!Prior!to!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi,!Māori!individuals!were!organized!in!extended!family!units,!called!hapū,!who!also!governed!resource!access!(Ballara!1998).!!Hapū&were!organized!more!broadly!into!tribes,!called!iwi.&!Iwi!identity!is!tied!to!an!individual’s!connection!to!a!particular!hapū—not!blood!quantum.!!InterBethnic!family!histories!do!not!diminish!an!individual’s!standing!as!Māori.!!!As!a!result,!Māori!leaders’!agreement,!established!through!the!2004!Māori!Fisheries!Act,!to!divide!the!Fisheries!Settlement!assets!between!iwi!based!on!population,!as!well!as!coastline,!corresponded!to!widespread!iwi!enrollment!efforts!by!iwi!across!New!Zealand.!!Yet,!after!obtaining!their!Fisheries!Settlement!assets,!increased!enrollment!numbers!pose!a!challenge!for!leaders’!attempts!to!manage!settlement!assets,!to!address!the!increasing!inequality!experienced!by!Māori!individuals!in!New!Zealand!today!(New!Zealand!2016).!!!Additionally,!many!argue!that!the!status!of!“iwi”!as!the!representative!unit!for!Māori!in!settlement!negotiations!with!the!government!excludes!significant!numbers!of!Māori!(Webster!2002).!!Those!especially!excluded!from!the!settlements!are!Māori!individuals!for!whom!tribal!identity!is!not!the!primary!way!in!which!they!identify!as!Māori.!!These!individuals!include!Māori!individuals!living!in!urban!areas!who!might!not!know!their!family’s!genealogical!history.!!Māori!individuals’!lack!of!iwi&affiliation!is!an!effect!of!colonial!histories!of!exclusion,!which!included!violent!overthrows!of!tribal!leaders,!forced!separations!of!children!from!parents,!forced!boarding!school!education,!and!forced!assimilation!policies!(Orange!2004).!

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!Increasingly,!the!individuals!who!claim!that!iwi&authorities!do!not!represent!them!include!sons!of!fishers!who!have!received!no!tangible!benefits!from!tribal!decisions!to!manage!fishing!assets!through!leasing!to!larger!companies.!!Some!of!these!individuals!have!refuses!to!enroll!in!the!iwi!as!a!means!of!resistance!against!the!leaders’!decisions!to!manage!settlement!assets!through!longBterm!investments.!!As!excluded!Ngāi!Tahu!fisher!Roger!Clark,!whose!narrative!of!exclusion!with!ITQ!system!implementation!informed!the!Fisheries!Settlement!negotiations,!explains,!“Has!the!Clark!family!seen!any!benefits!from!the!Settlement?!!No.!!Not!one!cent.”!!!At!first,!the!fact!that!Ngāi!Tahu!represents!a!history!of!multiple!smaller!indigenous!groups!was!an!advantage!for!settlement!negotiations.!!A!consolidated!front!advanced!Ngāi!Tahu’s!abilities!to!negotiate!redress!for!their!historical!grievances!with!the!government.!!In!1997,!they!were!one!of!the!first!iwi!to!sign!a!landBbased!settlement!with!the!government.!!Assets!obtained!through!the!land!and!the!Fisheries!Settlement!have!resulted!in!substantial!wealth!at!the!collective!tribal!level.!!This!wealth!is!managed!in!a!highly!transparent!way.!!Never!during!my!time!working!with!iwi&members!did!I!hear!accusations!of!corruptions.!!However,!while!the!longBterm,!wealth!generating!asset!management!plan!has!supported!some!individual!tribal!members’!scholarships!to!attend!university,!and!facilitated!some!community!building!efforts,!this!“trickle!down”!strategy!has!yet!to!benefit!most!iwi!members.!!Accounts!of!social!dysfunctions!associated!with!almost!thirty!years!of!exclusion!from!resource!access!trade!continue!to!rise!(New!Zealand!2016).!!!!!As!tribal!leaders!navigate!tensions!between!managing!privatized!rights!for!collective!longBterm!benefit!or!managing!to!address!individual!dispossession,!this!dissertation!shifts!the!lens!of!critique!away!from!intraBtribal!policies!and!onto!contemporary!and!historical!effects!of!settlerBcolonial!governing!policies.!!This!analysis!can!help!inform!onBgoing!settlement!negotiations!for!iwi&that!have!not!yet!settled,!as!well!as!strategies!for!postBsettlement!development!for!all!Māori!groups!in!New!Zealand.!!Globally,!as!support!for!indigenous!rights!increases!alongside!an!expansion!of!resource!privatization!initiatives,!these!findings!also!contribute!to!broader!understandings!possibilities!for—and!limitations!to—indigenous!development!(or!not)!solely!through!the!reBallocation!of!private!property!rights!to!natural!resources.!!!!&3.(Implications(for(Indigenous(Development(&This!dissertation’s!identification!of!material!and!legal!barriers!to!Māori!postBsettlement!development!holds!several!important!implications!for!understanding!the!conditions!under!which!settlements!can!promote!indigenous!development!in!New!Zealand!and!elsewhere.!!First,!identification!of!government!regulatory!barriers!to!postBsettlement!development!indicate!that!Māori!leaders’!(mis)management!of!the!quota!asset!is!not!the!ultimate!factor!shaping!inequitable!distribution!of!Māori!fishers’!development!postBSettlement.!!This!finding!challenges!the!popular!

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explanation!in!New!Zealand!that!onBgoing!trends!towards!inequality!in!Māori!communities!is!a!“Māori!problem.”!!In!managing!quota!and!other!settlement!assets!through!investment!rather!than!reallocating!resource!access!rights!to!individuals,!Māori!tribal!leaders!have!also!become!the!target!of!social!scientists’!critiques!–!as!entities!not!accurately!representing!all!Māori!(Webster!2002),!entities!operating!as!capitalists!(Rata!2011a),!and!entities!serving!to!facilitate!economic!gain!of!nonBMāori!industry!at!the!expense!of!“traditional”!users!(De!Alessi!2012).!!!!!However,!critiques!that!blame!Māori!leaders!for!Māori!inequality!are!problematic!because!they!fail!to!take!account!of!the!political!and!ecological!factors!and!contexts!shaping!possibilities!for!postBsettlement!development.!!In!doing!so,!for!the!fisheries!case,!they!inappropriately!assign!blame!to!iwi&leaders!for!inequalities!resulting!from!a!privatized!system!of!management![the!ITQ!system]!that!was!developed!with!no!Māori!input.!Lacking!legal!or!territorial!sovereignty,!tribal!leaders!do!not!have!the!authority!to!create!conditions!necessary!to!use!their!ITQ!rights!to!promote!iwi!fisher!development.!!Additionally,!a!scholarly!focus!on!iwi!quota!management,!instead!of!the!broader!structural!factors!giving!rise!to!these!conditions,!risks!implicitly!supporting!the!argument!that!indigenous!groups!are!ill!adept!at!market!exchange.!!This!depiction!of!indigenous!practices,!exemplified!in!the!“ecological!Indian”!motif,!justifies!the!reBallocation!of!rights!to!Māori!groups!for!subsistence!fishing.!!Yet,!in!the!Fisheries’!Settlement!negotiations,!Māori!fishers!explicitly!rejected!this!narrative,!asserting!that!their!customary!fishing!rights!have!always!been!commercial!fishing!rights!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1988,!Waitangi!Tribuanl!1992).!!The!notion!that!indigenous!rights!are!necessarily!nonBcommercial!rights!is!the!subject!of!critique!from!indigenous!scholars!and!others,!who!argue!that!rights!allocated!in!ways!that!preclude!opportunities!for!commercial!gain,!limit!opportunities!for!indigenous!community!development!(e.g.!TallBear!2000,!Deloria!2002,!Li!2010).!!!&Second,!this!identification!of!structural!limitations!to!development,!even!though!they!have!privatized!fishing!rights,!indicates!that!analyses!of!indigenous!development!need!to!extend!beyond!the!allocation!of!property!rights!for!restitution!of!past!expropriations.!!These!findings!challenge!the!“silver!bullet”!solution!promoted!by!liberal!property!theorists!who!argue!that!indigenous!development!is!currently!limited!by!indigenous!groups’!lack!of!private!property!rights!and!subsequent!inability!to!accumulate!capital!(De!Soto!2003).!!Studies!from!political!ecologists!and!others!contest!this!assertion,!arguing!that!potential!for!accumulation!also!corresponds!to!dispossession!and!uneven!development!(Glassman!2006).!!!!Broadly,!as!explained!further!in!Chapter!Two,!the!consolidation!of!fishing!rights!in!New!Zealand!has!given!rise!to!uneven!development!by!stabilizing!control!over!fishing!wealth!in!the!hands!of!a!few!major!fishing!companies.!!Those!with!access!to!the!means!of!production,!which!includes!boats,!gear,!fishing!quota!rights!and!as!well!as!processor!licenses,!maintain!their!market!competitiveness!by!purchasing!additional!rights.!!Those!without!rights!subsist!through!selling!their!labor!to!those!who!control!access!to!the!means!of!production,!because!they!are!now!embedded!in!a!capitalist!and!stateBregulated!quota!system.!!Producers!are!incentivized!to!pay!

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workers!less!than!the!value!they!bring!into!the!operation.!!The!producers’!incentives!to!continue!to!expand,!limit!the!ability!of!laboring!fishers!to!earn!enough!money!to!purchase!quota!rights.!!In!response!to!indigenous!development!theorists!who!advocate!privatization!as!a!solution!to!dispossession,!this!dissertation!demonstrates!that!the!potential!for!any!form!of!property!rights!to!promote!indigenous!development!is!always!contingent!on!the!broader!ecologicalBgeographical!and!political!economic!context!in!which!these!rights!are!implemented.!!In!doing!so,!these!findings!highlight!the!importance!of!political!ecology!analyses!for!development!studies!(e.g.!Blaikie!1985,!Hecht!and!Cockburn!1989,!Peluso!1992,!Peluso!and!Watts!2001,!Hecht!2013,!Davis!2016).!!!!&3.2&&Time&to&Return&to&Sovereignty&Talk?&&!By!demonstrating!how!government!regulations!continue!constrain!opportunities!for!Māori!development!through!Fisheries!Settlement!rights,!this!analysis!also!encourages!a!return!to!sovereignty!talk!in!stateBMāori!relations.!!The!discursive!shift!away!from!sovereignty!talk!that!has!occurred!in!New!Zealand!since!Treaty!signing!can!be!explained!in!part!by!growing!resistance!from!the!New!Zealand!public!about!stateBowned!resources!going!to!Māori!in!settlements.!!As!Māori!groups!obtain!greater!economic!control!over!properties!in!New!Zealand,!public!resistance!to!onBgoing!rights!assertions!from!Māori!is!increasing!(Butler!2014).!!Often,!these!public!critiques!of!settlements!fall!far!short!of!describing!the!total!wealth!held!by!iwi&today.!!For!example,!in!public!media!outlets,!antiBsettlement!sentiment!spiked!in!public!media!forums!after!the!Tuhoe!iwi!asserted!sovereignty!over!their!traditional!territories,!on!the!grounds!that!they!never!gave!up!these!territories,!because!they!never!signed!the!Treaty!(Baker!2017).!!AntiBsettlement!commentators!link!sovereignty!talk—about!collective!territorial!claims—to!threats!of!secession.!!It!is!possible!that!Māori!leaders!are!concerned!that!increased!sovereignty!talk!will!lead!to!less!public,!and!subsequently,!government!support,!for!additional!rights!and!governance!claims.!!In!this!framing,!Māori!leaders’!lack!of!sovereignty!talk!is!also!a!legacy!of!settler!colonialism,!in!situations!where!sovereignty!aspirations!are!not!discussed!due!to!the!possibility!that!in!theory,!the!government!could!stop!settlement!negotiations!at!any!moment.!!!Yet,!as!described!here,!it!is!the!government’s!sovereignty!over!resource!trade!relations!that!most!impact!Māori!fishers’!potential!for!development.!!This!takes!place!in!regulations!around!fish!sales!that!increase!the!capital!necessary!to!participate!in!fish!trade,!which!links!backwards!to!necessitate!increasing!the!scale!of!fishing!operations!(Chapter!Two).!!The!government’s!assertion!of!sovereignty!also!takes!place!through!trade!regulations!that!impact!agricultural!intensification!upstream!in!ways!that!degrade!downstream!fisheries!(Chapter!Three).!!Finally,!it!takes!place!through!resource!access!restrictions!found!in!the!implementation!of!marine!reserves!(Chapter!Four).!!Regulations!that!change!resource!access!conditions!for!Māori!fishers!also!shape!possibilities!for!fishing!practices!to!confer!benefits!to!local!communities.!!By!

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creating!property!rights!to!fisheries,!for!example,!the!government!has!profoundly!shaped!who!participates!in!fish!trade.!!Participation!in!the!quota!markets!requires!computer!literacy!and!large!amounts!of!capital.!!Individuals,!who!previously!governed!fish!trade!off!the!boats,!including!many!women,!no!longer!organize!fish!sales.!!Instead,!fish!exchanges!are!made!by!businessmen,!usually!nonBMāori,!living!far!removed!from!the!resource,!practices!that!lead!to!unemployment!and!uneven!development!for!displaced!Māori!fishers.!!!The!government’s!authority!over!financial!and!resource!trade!regulations!is!rarely!contested!in!stateBMāori!negotiations.!!The!Ministry!of!Conservation,!the!Ministry!for!Primary!Industries,!and!the!Ministry!of!Education,!all!consult!with!Māori!groups.!!The!Ministry!for!Foreign!Affairs!and!Trade!and!the!Treasury!rarely!consult!with!Māori!groups.!!Nonetheless,!these!Ministries’!activities!profoundly!shape!the!conditions!for!Māori!postBsettlement!development.!!I!see!this!call!to!return!to!sovereignty!talk!as!a!call!for!analysis!of!a!specific!type!of!state!sovereignty!–!that!over!resource!use!and!trade,!especially!that!related!to!freeBtrade!agreement!signing!and!the!allocation!of!government!funds!for!largeBscale!resource!extraction!initiatives!(Chapter!Three).!!!!3.3&&Alternative&Development&Possibilities&&&Importantly,!this!dissertation’s!analyses!of!government!regulations!that!limit!Māori!development!through!treaty!settlement!rights!does!not!deny!that!other!forms!of!development!are!taking!place.!!Indeed,!economic!exchange!practices!that!promote!smallBscale!development!occur!through!claims!and!practices!that!the!government!does!not!regulate,!and!which!the!government!has!not!allocated!to!a!collectivity.!!These!include!Māori!rights!to!take!tītī,&or!muttonBbird,!a!shearwater!species!(Ardenna&grisea)!located!on!islands!south!of!New!Zealand’s!South!Island,!which!Māori!families!own!and!govern.!!Unlike!most!other!resources!available!to!Māori,!the!government!did!not!make!tītī!exchanges!illegal!during!colonization,!instead,!Māori!families!kept!their!rights.!Most!of!this!exchange!operates!as!MāoriBtoBMāori!trades.!!The!Tamatis,!highlighted!in!this!Chapter’s!introduction,!are!one!of!the!Ngāi!Tahu!families!with!rights!to!the!muttonBbird!islands.!!Their!take!and!exchange!of!muttonBbird!helped!them!purchase!a!boat!and!gear!necessary!to!establish!their!fishing!operation!on!Te!Waihora.!!!For!Māori!and!nonBMāori,!rural!development!is!also!an!effect!of!exchanges!of!resources!the!government!does!regulate,!because!the!government!considers!these!activities!illegal.!!Due!to!their!illegal!nature,!I!do!not!describe!these!practices!in!this!dissertation.!!However,!the!fact!that!nonBregulated/nonBrecognized!systems!of!exchange!exist!alongside!legal!forms!of!natural!resource!exchange,!is!important!to!note!in!light!of!broader!calls!from!scholars!to!identify!alternative!forms!of!development!taking!place!within!capitalist!economic!systems!(e.g.!GibsonBGraham!2006).!!It!is!likely!that!far!more!forms!of!alternative!development!exist!than!are!reported.!!

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!4.(Chapter(Overview:(Analyzing(Limits(to(Māori(Fisheries(Development(!Each!chapter!of!this!dissertation!examines!a!different!context!in!which!Māori!fishers!experience!barriers!through!government!actions!and!regulations!imposed!after!the!Settlement!was!completed.!!In!turn,!government!actions!that!limit!Māori!postBSettlement!development!also!serve!to!benefit!those!with!alreadyBexisting!capital!investments!in!New!Zealand’s!political!economy.!!!!The!topics!engaged!in!the!following!three!empirical!Chapters!speak!to!concerns!raised!by!Māori!fishers!who!were!excluded!from!commercial!fisheries!with!ITQ!system!implementation.!!These!concerns!are,!restricted!market!access!due!to!processor!consolidation!in!New!Zealand’s!commercial!fisheries!(Chapter!Two),!restricted!access!to!fish!due!to!upstream!agricultural!intensification!degrading!downstream!fisheries!(Chapter!Three),!and!noBtake!marine!reserve!establishment!restricting!Māori!fishers’!access!to!their!customary!fishing!sites!(Chapter!Four).!!!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers’!concerns!are!also!concerns!raised!by!scholars!in!the!field!of!political!ecology,!including,!access!and!property!rights!to!resources!(Chapter!Two),!conflicts!over!actual!resource!use!(Chapter!Three),!and!the!politics!of!resource!control!(Chapter!Four).!!However,!what!is!unusual!about!the!Māori!case!for!analyses!of!resource!conflicts!more!broadly,!is!the!potential!for!Māori!groups!to!use!fisheries!governance!and!access!rights!obtained!in!the!Fisheries!Settlement!for!development.!!Engaging!these!concerns!from!a!development!studies!perspective,!highlights!how!government!solutions!to!conflicts!over!resource!access!have!actually!limited!opportunities!for!Māori!development.!!Each!Chapters’!analysis!of!factors!that!shape!the!broader!political!and!ecological!contexts!in!which!rights!are!implemented,!help!to!explain!why!Māori!fishers’!exclusion!continues!postBSettlement.!!4.2&&Chapter&Two:&“Challenges&for&New&Zealand’s&Individual&Transferable&Quota&System:&Processor&Consolidation,&Fisher&Exclusion,&&&Māori&Quota&Rights”&&&Chapter!Two!describes!three!management!initiatives!in!New!Zealand’s!Individual!Transferable!Quota!system!that!facilitated!consolidation!of!the!processing!sector!and!limited!market!access!for!fishers,!even!those!with!quota!rights.!!They!are:!(1)!the!placement!of!responsibility!onto!a!Māori!Trust!in!1992,!and!tribes!(iwi)!in!2004,!to!manage!a!limited!amount!of!quota!to!benefit!all!Māori,!fishers!and!nonBfishers,!which!increased!the!use!of!quota!as!an!investment!asset;!(2)!the!creation!of!Annual!Catch!Entitlement!(ACE)!as!a!fish!access!right!separate!from!the!quota!ownership!right,!which!made!it!possible!to!overcome!consolidation!limits!by!leasing!ACE;!(3)!the!1997!Licensed!Fish!Receiver!Act!that!made!it!illegal!for!fishers!to!sell!fish!off!the!boat!without!food!safety!certification.!!This!Chapter’s!account!of!the!fishery!policy!environment!in!New!Zealand!explains!why,!despite!owning!significant!portions!of!New!Zealand’s!fishing!quota,!few!Māori!are!fishing,!processing,!or!selling!fish!caught!by!Māori!quota.!!A!version!of!this!Chapter!is!published!in!the!journal,!Marine&Policy!(Bodwitch!2017).!

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&4.3&&Chapter&Three:&“Indigenous&Rights&and&FreeBtrade&Agreements:&Limits&to&AntiBColonial&Development&Strategies&on&Te&Waihora/Lake&Ellesmere”&&Chapter!Three!examines!how!government!policies!shape!conflicts!over!water!resources!necessary!for!agriculture!and!fish.!!These!policies!favor!those!with!preBexisting!capital!investments!in!upstream!land,!most!of!whom!are!nonBMāori.!!This!Chapter!draws!on!the!experiences!of!eel!fishers!fishing!Ngāi!Tahu!quota!on!Te!Waihora,!a!coastal!lagoon!that!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi&holds!coBgovernance!authority!over.!!It!demonstrates!that!Ngāi!Tahu’s!fishing!and!fisheries’!governance!rights!at!Te!Waihora!are!insufficient!to!address!the!primary!factor!affecting!opportunities!for!development!through!fishing!rights!obtained!in!settlement.!!At!Te!Waihora,!the!government’s!opening!up!of!new!trade!routes!has!prompted!massive!investment!in!conversion!of!land!upstream!from!Te!Waihora!and!elsewhere!in!New!Zealand!from!sheep!to!dairy!farms.!!Intensified!production!upstream!increases!nutrient!loads!in!rivers!leading!into!the!lake!due!to!the!almostBcomplete!absence!of!regulations!around!fertilizer!or!water!use,!threatening!fish!habitat.!!!!The!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi’s!lack!of!authority!over!activities!taking!place!on!upstream!land!held!in!private!property,!is!especially!problematic!for!the!Te!Waihora!fishery’s!ecological!development!in!situations!when!export!prices!drop!and!farmers!intensify!production!practices!in!order!to!pay!back!debts.!!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!on!Te!Waihora!know!these!dynamics!well,!but!despite!their!postBSettlement!designations!as!resource!guardians,!they!are!unable!to!curb!drivers!of!intensified!agricultural!activity!upstream!that!farmers!use!in!response!to!drops!in!commodity!export!prices.!!Instead!of!promoting!fishery!development,!the!iwi’s!assertion!of!governance!rights!creates!divisions!between!Ngāi!Tahu!as!a!governing!body!and!the!lake’s!commercial!fishers,!as!Ngāi!Tahu!leaders!attempt!to!implement!additional!fish!access!regulations.!!The!government’s!allocation!of!coastal!governance!and!economic!development!provisions!in!Treaty!settlements!thus!diverts!responsibility!to!Ngāi!Tahu!for!lake!cleanup!without!the!authority!to!address!drivers!of!fishery!degradation,!while!simultaneously!establishing!political!divisions!that!limit!larger!political!resistance!to!the!government!policies!that!drive!agricultural!intensification!and!fishery!depletion.!!!&4.4&&Chapter&Four:&“The&Politics&of&Marine&Resource&Control&and&Limits&to&Ngāi&Tahu’s&Customary&Fishing&Rights”&!Chapter!Four!draws!on!the!experiences!of!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!and!fisheries’!managers!to!identify!how!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi’s!assertion!of!spatial!governance!rights!obtained!in!settlement!intersects!with!possibilities!for!equity!in!tribal!development!postBsettlement.!!It!demonstrates!that!iwi!leaders’!and!fishers’!efforts!to!govern!marine!space!and!promote!customary!fishing!practices!involves!innovative,!multiBstakeholder!collaborations!with!Māori!and!nonBMāori,!commercial!and!nonBcommercial!fishers,!community!members,!and!scientists.!!Māori!fishers!and!fisheries!managers!have!adapted!their!approaches!to!governing!(and!negotiating!access!to)!

!

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historicallyBaccessed!fisheries,!through!unprecedented!multiBstakeholder!collaborations,!in!order!to!realize!the!benefits!of!customary!fish!take!practices!and!customary!governing!rights.!!!!In!identifying!the!role!that!commercial!fishers!play!in!supporting!customary!reserve!establishment,!this!Chapter!highlights!the!importance!of!continuing!to!facilitate!Ngāi!Tahu!and!other!smallBscale!fishers’!access!to!commercial!fishing!quota!rights.!!In!examining!the!potential!that!customary!reserves!hold!for!fishery!rebuild,!and!the!undesired!effects!of!noBtake!marine!reserves!on!Māori!development!initiatives,!it!also!highlights!the!importance!of!considering!customary!reserve!implementation!in!lieu&of,!or!possibly!alongside!of,!noBtake!marine!reserves.!!Such!collaborations!mitigate!the!effects!of!fishers’!exclusion.!!In!this!context,!the!primary!site!of!conflict!in!fisheries!is!not!that!between!Māori!customary!governors!and!the!commercial!industry.!!Instead,!conflicts!arise,!as!experienced!by!Māori!fishers!in!the!coastal!fishing!community!of!Akaroa,!when!the!government!implements!noBtake!marine!reserves!without!approval!from!local!Māori!fishers.!!Marine!reserves!preclude!possibilities!for!adaptive!management!strategies!by!commercial!or!customary!fishers,!and!constrain!possibilities!for!equitable!postBsettlement!development!across!Ngāi!Tahu!communities.!!!!Each!chapter’s!identification!of!limits!to!development!found!in!government!policies!concludes!with!a!discussion!of!possibilities!for!next!steps!going!forward!to!mitigate!forms!of!exclusion.!!In!Chapter!Five,!“Conclusion:!Exclusions,!Inclusions,!and!Implications!for!Resource!Management,”!I!summarize!these!recommendations.!I!emphasize!alternative!possibilities!for!government!regulatory!responses!to!resource!conflicts,!as!the!government!has!a!greater!capacity!and!responsibility,!as!compared!to!Māori!groups!or!fishers,!to!implement!changes.!!In!Chapter!Six,!“Afterword:!A!Reflection!on!Beginnings,”!I!discuss!my!ethnographic!methods.!!I!include!some!relevant!background!information!in!each!chapter!so!that!they!may!be!understood!on!their!own.!!

((((((((((((((((

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Chapter(Two!(

Challenges(for(New(Zealand’s(Individual(Transferable(Quota(System:(Processor(Consolidation,(Fisher(Exclusion,(&(Māori(Quota(Rights(

((1. Introduction(

(In!1986,!the!New!Zealand!government!established!one!of!the!world’s!most!celebrated!sustainability!success!stories!of!fisheries!privatization,!New!Zealand’s!comprehensive!Individual!Transferable!Quota!(ITQ)!system!(Chu!2009,!Worm!et&al.!2009).!9!!ITQ!system!implementation,!however,!was!only!possible!after!Māori!agreed!to!give!up!their!Aboriginal!Title!rights!to!the!nation’s!fisheries!(Boast!1999).!!In!return,!in!1992,!the!government!granted!Māori!10%!of!the!quota!ownership!rights!for!the!26!marine!species!already!in!the!ITQ!system,!20%!for!all!species!added!in!the!future,!and!50%!shares!in!the!nation’s!largest!fishing!company!(Boast!1999).!!The!government!allocated!the!quota!shares!to!a!Trust,!Te!Ohu!Kaimoana.10!!In!2004,!the!Trust!divided!the!quota!asset!between!57!Māori!tribes,!or!iwi!(Webster!2002).!!The!goals!of!the!1992!Fisheries!Settlement!were!twoBfold.!!The!first!was!to!involve!Māori!in!the!business!of!fishing!(Boast!1999,!Bess!2001,!Memon!and!Kirk!2011).!!The!second!was!to!do!this!without!changing!the!design!of!the!ITQ!system.!!While!the!second!goal!was!achieved!–!the!Māori!settlement!did!not!change!the!structure!of!the!ITQ!system!–!the!first!was!not.!!!!Today,!a!handful!of!vertically!integrated!processor!companies,!which!control!access!to!and!wealth!distribution!from!the!majority!of!New!Zealand!fisheries,!also!fish,!process,!and!sell!most!fish!caught!by!MāoriBowned!quota!(Yandle!and!Dewees!2008,!Hilborn!et&al.!2011,!Stewart!and!Callagher!2011,!Abayomi!and!Yandle!2012,!De!Alessi!2012,!Stewart!and!Leaver!2015).!!Iwi&leaders!manage!quota!for!capital!gain,!rather!than!a!fish!access!right,!in!order!to!protect!the!value!of!the!settlement!asset!for!future!generations.!!Iwi&also!use!this!profitBcentered!quota!management!strategy!to!acquire!revenue!for!social!and!cultural!development!initiatives,!such!as!language!learning.!!However,!as!Roger!Clark,!an!intergenerational!eel,!abalone,!and!flounder!fisher!who!does!not!own!quota,!explains:!fishing,!not!language!learning,!is!his!culture.!!!“I&never&knew&te&reo&[Māori&language].&&Being&told&I&need&to&know&te&reo&to&be&Māori&–&that’s&not&what&Māori&culture&is&for&me.&&Fishing&is&my&culture.&&Taking&away&my&fishing&right&takes&away&my&culture.”!!!Iwi!fishers’!are!excluded,!when!iwi!prioritize!capital!gain!in!managing!quota,!because!Māori!fishers!do!not!have!capital!to!outBbid!vertically!integrated!processors.!!In!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!9!Stocks!of!known!status!show!improvement!in!New!Zealand,!but!the!status!of!an!increasing!number!of!fish!stocks!is!unknown!(Mace!et&al.!2013).!Prior!to!ITQ!system!establishment,!New!Zealand’s!fisheries!were!managed!by!a!licensing!system,!which!restricted!new!entrants!but!did!not!restrict!total!fish!take!(Clark!et&al.!1988).!10Here,!I!refer!to!Te!Ohu!Kaimoana!as!the!“Trust.”!!!

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attempt!to!amend!fisher!exclusion,!over!the!last!five!years,!iwi!quota!managers!also!implemented!alternative!quota!management!strategies!that!effectively!subsidize!fishers’!access!to!quota.!!This!Chapter!examines!these!strategies.!!In!doing!so,!it!analyzes!the!extent!to!which!the!reBallocation!of!quota!to!smallBscale!fishers!can!curb!processes!of!fisher!exclusion!and!processor!consolidation!in!New!Zealand’s!commercial!fisheries!(Yandle!and!Dewees!2008,!Stewart!and!Callagher!2011,!Abayomi!and!Yandle!2012).!!This!analysis!is!significant!for!fishers,!fisheries!managers,!and!for!broader!understandings!of!possibilities!for!equity!in!ITQ!fisheries,!after!quota!consolidation!has!already!occurred.!!!From!2013B15,!I!spent!four!seasons!fishing!with!inshore!Māori!fishers,!and!working!with!fishers,!processors,!and!quota!managers!from!the!Māori!iwi&(tribe)!Ngāi!Tahu!on!strategies!to!manage!quota!to!promote!smallBscale!fishers’!economic!development.!!The!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi,!whose!territory!covers!most!of!the!South!Island,!holds!one!of!the!largest!iwiBowned!quota!packages!in!New!Zealand.!!Data!gathered!during!this!time!highlights!aspects!of!the!New!Zealand!government’s!management!of!the!ITQ!system!that!continue!to!facilitate!processor!consolidation!of!ITQ!holdings!and!exclude!fishers—even!those!who!own!quota.!!These!findings!reBdirect!responsibility!for!smallBscale!fishers’!exclusion!away!from!Māori!iwi,!and!onto!the!government,!who,!unlike!iwi,!has!the!authority!to!regulate!how!quota!rights!are!used.!!!As!demonstrated!by!Foley!et!al.,!when!governments!implement!ITQ!systems,!they!can!also!implement!policies!that!keep!fishery!benefits!with!local!communities!(Foley!et&al.!2015).!!The!opposite!is!also!true.!!Policies,!especially!those!the!New!Zealand!government!implemented!to!monitor!fisher!compliance!with!the!ITQ!system,!can!facilitate!the!removal!of!fishing!benefits!from!local!communities,!even!when!local!fishers!hold!ITQ!rights.!!!The!remainder!of!this!section!discusses!theoretical!considerations!that!inform!the!Chapter’s!methodology.!!Part!Two!identifies!policies!related!to!New!Zealand’s!ITQ!system!establishment!that!facilitated!smallBscale!fisher!exclusion,!the!use!of!quota!as!an!investment!asset,!and!concentrated!control!of!the!processing!sector.!!Part!Three!illustrates!how!these!policies!continue!to!exclude!fishers,!even!those!fishers!with!quota,!by!examining!strategies!the&Ngāi!Tahu!iwi&deployed!to!promote!smallBscale!fishers’!economic!development.!!Part!Four!discusses!the!broader!impacts!of!smallBscale!fishers’!exclusion!and!processor!consolidation!in!New!Zealand,!and!presents!alternative!ITQ!system!management!options.!!1.2&Accumulation&by&Dispossession&&This!Chapter!examines!processor!control!and!fisher!exclusion!as!processes!of!accumulation!by!dispossession!(Harvey!2003).!!Accumulation!by!dispossession,!a!concept!geographer!David!Harvey!popularized!with!his!adaptation!of!Karl!Marx’s!primitive!accumulation,!is!the!process!whereby!elites!obtain!control!of!wealth!through!practices!that!restrict!others’!access!to!resources!necessary!for!economic!

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development!(or!means!of!production)!(Marx!1983,!Harvey!2003).!!In!this!case,!ITQ!system!implementation!restricts!smallBscale!fishers’!access!to!commercial!fisheries.!!Those!with!access,!including!vertically!integrated!processors!with!ITQ!rights,!accumulate!wealth!by!paying!low!wages!to!those!without!access,!who!must!labor!for!subsistence.!!In!this!conception,!wealth!is!not!accumulated!by!the!frugality!of!the!elite,!but!rather!through!the!exploitation!of!those!without!resource!access.!!Those!with!resource!access!are!thus!incentivized!to!continue!to!maintain!exclusive!control!(Marx!1983,!Ribot!and!Peluso!2003).!!Privatization!of!resource!rights,!as!is!the!case!with!ITQ!system!implementation,!facilitates!processes!of!accumulation!by!dispossession!(Glassman!2006).!!However,!for!Māori,!as!well!as!other!indigenous!groups,!privatization!can!also!be!an!opportunity!to!claim!and!obtain!rights!lost!under!colonial!regimes.!!!!1.3 Exclusion&and&Access&&&To!understand!why!fisher!exclusion!and!processor!control!of!New!Zealand’s!commercial!fisheries!(evidenced!in!economic!analyses!of!consolidation!(Yandle!and!Dewees!2008,!Abayomi!and!Yandle!2012))!persists,!despite!Māori!quota!ownership,!this!Chapter!draws!on!Jesse!Ribot!and!Nancy!Peluso’s!theory!of!access!(Ribot!and!Peluso!2003).!!According!to!Ribot!and!Peluso,!property!ownership,!such!as!ITQ!rights,!is!one!of!multiple!factors!influencing!an!individual’s!ability!to!derive!benefit!from,!or!“access,”!a!resource.!!Other!factors!that!shape!an!individual’s!ability!to!derive!benefit!from!resources!include!access!to!technology,!markets,!identities,!regulatory!officials,!as!well!as!biological!and!ecological!conditions!(Ribot!and!Peluso!2003).!!To!identify!these!factors,!Ribot!and!Peluso!focus!on!situated!and!historical!conditions!shaping!the!terrain!in!which!individual!resource!users!operate.!!This!Chapter’s!access!analysis!highlights!policies!regulating!all!quota!and!fish!trade,!as!well!as!colonial!legacies!impacting!individual!Māori!fishers’!access!to!capital,!that!limit!fishers’!abilities!to!derive!benefit!from!fisheries,!even!when!they!hold!quota!rights.!!These!limits!incentivize!the!use!of!quota!as!an!investment!asset!by!nonBfishers.!!For!example,!Māori!groups!who!own!quota!for!offshore!fisheries,!but!do!not!own!the!boats!and!gear!needed!to!access!the!fishery,!find!it!more!immediately!lucrative!to!use!quota!as!an!investment!asset!than!a!fish!access!right.!!Access!to!markets!also!impacts!how!benefits!from!New!Zealand’s!fisheries!are!distributed.!!In!situations!where!individual!fishers!have!access!to!boats,!gear,!and!quota,!but!do!not!meet!the!government’s!requirements!to!become!a!fish!processor,!certified!processors!control!the!revenue!fishers!obtain!and!fishers’!potential!for!economic!development.!!In!doing!so,!vertically!integrated!processors!accumulate!wealth!by!dispossessing!smallBscale!fishers.!!!!Here,!vertically!integrated!processors!are!defined!as!operations!who!pay!nonBowners!for!their!labor!because!the!operation’s!fishing!and!processing!capabilities!–!determined!by!ownership!of!fishing!rights,!boats,!gear,!and!food!safety!certified!processing!infrastructure!–!exceed!the!owners’!labor!capacity.!!SmallBscale!fishers!

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are!defined!as!fishers!who!do!not!own!means!necessary!to!fish,!process,!and!sell!their!own!fish.!!(2. Processes(of(Exclusion(in(the(Management(of(New(Zealand’s(ITQ(system(((New!Zealand’s!ITQ!system,!which!the!government!implemented!in!1986,!was!the!world’s!first!comprehensive!ITQ!system:!a!privatized!fisheries!management!initiative!that!governments!elsewhere!since!emulated!and!adapted!(Lynham!2014).!!New!Zealand’s!system!was!closely!based!on!the!theoretical!model!designed!by!fisheries!economists!to!address!overfishing!due!to!overcapitalization,!or!the!problem!of!too!many!boats!and!too!few!fish!(Moloney!and!Pearse!1979,!Clark!et&al.!1988,!Sissenwine!and!Mace!1992,!Abayomi!and!Yandle!2012).!!In!New!Zealand!and!elsewhere,!fishery!economists!attributed!overcapitalization!to!government!subsidies!of!fishing!fleets!(Sissenwine!and!Mace!1992,!Dell’Apa!et&al.!2012).!!Governments!increased!subsidies!dramatically!in!the!lead!up!to!the!1982!United!Nations!Convention!on!the!Law!of!the!Sea!agreements,!which!gave!nations!the!authority!to!administer!all!economic!activity!taking!place!up!to!200!miles!out!from!shore!(a!range!defined!at!this!time!to!be!the!exclusive!economic!zone!(EEZ)!of!nations)!(Mace!and!Vignaux!2014).!!Starting!in!the!late!1970s,!fishery!economists!argued!that!privatization!of!fishing!rights,!in!the!form!of!Individual!Transferable!Quota!(ITQ),!could!stop!overfishing!caused!by!overcapitalization!(Christy!1973,!Moloney!and!Pearse!1979).!!The!New!Zealand!government,!governing!the!world’s!fifth!largest!EEZ,!and!was!transitioning!to!a!marketBbased!economy!(Larner!1997)!and!therefore!was!a!willing!test!site!for!ITQ!system!design!(Abayomi!and!Yandle!2012).!!!!To!establish!the!ITQ!system,!the!New!Zealand!government!set!a!cap!on!the!Total!Allowable!Commercial!Catch!(TACC)!for!26!commercial!fish!stocks,!defined!by!species!and!geographical!region!(Boyd!and!Dewees!1992).!!Additionally,!the!government!allocated!fishers!a!right!to!a!percentage!of!that!cap!in!the!form!of!a!quota,!and!also!created!a!market!for!quota!trade!(Clark!et&al.!1988,!Sissenwine!and!Mace!1992,!Annala!1996,!Hersoug!2002,!Bess!2005,!Yandle!2008,!Mace!et&al.!2013).!!To!monitor!compliance,!the!government!regulated!fish!buyers!and!sellers.!!The!government’s!goal!in!creating!a!market!for!quota!exchange!was!to!provide!an!economic!incentive!for!fishers!to!exit!the!fishery,!without!stifling!economic!activity!related!to!fishing.!!The!market!created!the!possibility!for!more!efficient!fishing!operations!(defined!in!economic!theory!as!those!operations!with!the!most!surplus!capital)!to!buy!quota!from!fishers!with!a!higher!cost!per!unit!of!catch!ratio.!!The!ITQ!system!reduced!overcapitalization!(Annala!1996).!!It!also!lead!to!smallBscale!fishers’!exclusion!(Pinkerton!and!Davis!2015)!and!processor!consolidation!(Yandle!and!Dewees!2008,!Stewart!and!Callagher!2011,!Abayomi!and!Yandle!2012,!Pinkerton!2013,!FAO!2016).!!Documented!effects!of!smallBscale!fisher!exclusion!and!processor!consolidation!in!New!Zealand!include!economic!stagnation!(Norman!2016,!Torkington!2016),!reduced!local!monitoring!(Mccarthy!et&al.!2013),!and!the!

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destruction!of!local!fishing!communities!(Stewart!et&al.!2006).!!These!effects!impacted!Māori!fishers,!in!particular.!!!2.1&&Māori&Fishers’&Exclusion&&&At!the!time!of!ITQ!system!implementation,!New!Zealand’s!fisheries!and!fishing!communities!were!predominately!fished!and!populated!by!Māori!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1988,!Waitangi!Tribunal!1992,!Bess!2001).!!However,!few!Māori!fishers!met!the!government’s!requirements!to!obtain!quota!(Memon!and!Cullen!1996,!Boast!1999,!Bourassa!and!Strong!2000,!McCormack!2012).!!Under!New!Zealand’s!ITQ!system,!quota!was!only!allocated!to!those!fishers!with!reported!catches!of!up!to!80%!of!their!income!for!the!three!years!preceding!the!implementation!of!the!system!(Sissenwine!and!Mace!1992).!!Additionally,!as!part!of!ITQ!system!design,!the!government!set!minimum!quota!holding!amounts!for!each!fishery!to!reduce!the!number!of!fishers!in!New!Zealand’s!waters!(Sissenwine!and!Mace!1992).!!Fishers!who!reported!lower!catches!were!excluded,!including!many!Māori!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1988,!Waitangi!Tribunal!1992,!Bess!and!Harte!2000).!!!!Māori!exclusion!was!not!due!to!limited!participation!in!fishing.!!Instead,!exclusion,!for!some,!was!the!result!of!their!diversified!livelihood!strategies,!as!fishers!supported!meager!fishing!incomes!with!additional!employment!elsewhere!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1988,!Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!For!others,!exclusion!was!due!to!a!lack!of!reported!catches.!!Fishers!did!not!report!catches!in!part!to!reject!the!need!to!participate!in!a!government!system!that!regulated!fishing!in!coastal!regions!that!Māori!historically!governed!and!owned!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1988,!Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!Fishers!also!failed!to!report!due!to!a!lack!of!knowledge!of!impending!ITQ!system!implementation!and!the!potential!benefits!of!reporting.!!Māori!fishers’!reported!catch!histories!were!particularly!low!in!areas!removed!from!stateBsponsored!development!initiatives,!where!reporting!did!not!seem!necessary!and!was!onerous!due!to!the!amount!of!time!and!distance!required!to!report!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1988,!Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!SmallBscale!fisher!exclusion!increased!immediately!after!allocation,!when!vertically!integrated!processors!headed!to!the!docks,!“checkbooks!in!hand,”!to!offer!fishers!cash!for!quota!(Sissenwine!and!Mace!1992,!Yandle!and!Dewees!2008).!!!!Processors,!most!of!whom!were!nonBMāori,!who!had!invested!in!physical!infrastructure!contingent!on!fish!catch,!now!wanted!to!ensure!their!access!to!quota!and!fish.!Fishers,!especially!those!fishing!in!offshore!fisheries!that!were!difficult!to!access,!accepted!payments!from!these!processors!to!exit!the!fishery!industry.!!In!situations!where!fishers!might!have!wanted!to!grow!their!operation!by!buying!more!quota,!processors!had!an!advantage:!at!the!time!of!quota!allocation,!banks!would!not!loan!against!quota!or!boats,!but!they!would!loan!against!physical!infrastructure!on!land,!including!that!owned!by!processors!(Memon!and!Cullen!1992).!!Māori!fishers!had!already!suffered!dispossession!of!their!right!to!own!land!by!colonialBera!regulations!and!were!largely!fishing!in!smallBscale!operations.!!Due!to!a!lack!of!capital,!Māori!were!especially!unable!to!access!cash!to!buy!quota.!!!

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2.2&&The&Māori&Fisheries&Settlement&!&Māori!fishers’!voiced!their!exclusions,!and!in!1987!the!New!Zealand!Māori!Council,!a!group!representing!all!Māori,!brought!the!fishers’!concerns!to!the!courts!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1988).!!The!claimants!argued,!successfully,!that!the!government’s!presumed!fishery!ownership,!a!claim!that!was!necessary!to!allocate!ITQ!rights,!violated!Māori!fishing!rights,!as!protected!in!Aboriginal!Title!and!by!the!nation’s!founding!document,!the!1840!Treaty!of!Waitangi!(Boast!1999).!!To!determine!the!extent!of!Māori!fishing!rights—given!the!lack!of!reported!data!on!Māori!fish!catches—tribal!leaders,!academics,!and!government!historians!initiated!a!multiByear!process!of!meeting!with!fishers!around!the!country!and!analyzing!historical!documents!that!discuss!Māori!activity!in!fishing.!!The!collected!data!culminated!in!two!extended!reports!from!the!Waitangi!Tribunal!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1988,!Waitangi!Tribuanl!1992),!a!government!research!institute!that!was!(and!is)!charged!with!interpreting!the!meaning!of!Māori!treaty!rights!in!contemporary!times!(Byrnes!2004).!!Included!in!the!reports!was!support!for!claims!from!Māori!fishers!that!their!customary!fishing!rights!were!always!also!commercial!fishing!rights,!a!finding!in!contrast!to!the!popular!imagery!of!indigenous!peoples!as!existing!outside!of!commercial!exchange.!!The!Tribunal!also!argued!that!Māori!fishing!interests!extended!to!offshore!fisheries:!despite!a!lack!of!Māori!ownership!of!boats!in!these!fisheries!at!the!time!of!ITQ!system,!the!Tribunal!argued!that!Māori!would!be!offshore!boat!owners!had!the!government!not!restricted!Māori!access!to!capital!through!unjust!colonial!policies,!including!those!that!removed!Māori!from!lucrative!farmland!without!compensation!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1988,!Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!!!To!allow!the!ITQ!system!to!continue!while!negotiations!were!underway,!an!interim!settlement!was!reached!in!1989!that!lifted!the!halt!on!quota!system!implementation,!and!allocated!10%!of!the!quota!already!allocated!to!a!newly!established!Māori!Fisheries!Commission!under!the!Māori!Fisheries!Act!1989,!which!the!government!purchased!from!fishers!(Boast!1999,!Bess!2001).!!The!final!1992!Fisheries!Settlement!allocated!these!quota!rights,!and!later,!20%!of!the!quota!for!any!species!to!be!added!to!the!system,!to!Māori!collectively!under!the!Te!Ohu!Kaimoana!Trust,!which!was!mandated!to!represent!all!Māori.!!Additionally,!the!government!also!created!a!new!category!of!rights!for!Māori.!!Incongruously!referred!to!as!“customary”!rights,!these!rights!permit!fish!take!above!daily!recreational!limits!but!prohibit!the!sale!of!this!fish!(McCormack!2010,!2012).!!!In!signing!the!settlement,!Māori!representatives!and!the!government!agreed!that!this!exchange!not!only!addressed!Māori!grievances!in!ITQ!system!implementation,!but!also!all!previous!marine!fisheriesBrelated!grievances!that!Māori!had!with!the!government!preBITQ!system!implementation!(Boast!1999).!!Māori!involvement!with!fishing!was!extensive!prior!to!the!British!colonization!of!New!Zealand,!which!began!in!the!late!1700s!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1988,!Waitangi!Tribunal!1992,!Bess!2001).!!!Starting!in!the!midB1800s,!the!government!slowly!restricted!Māori!access!to!fisheries!by!restricting!Māori!access!to!capital!and!commercial!markets!to!sell!fish!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1988,!Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!With!the!settlement,!the!

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government!abdicated!responsibility!to!mitigating!effects!of!colonialBera!dispossession,!as!well!as!contemporary!fishery!exclusion,!onto!the!Māori!Trust,!and!later,!Māori!iwi!(tribes).!!2.4&&The&Māori&Quota&Trust&&!Ironically,!the!transfer!of!quota!shares!to!settle!Māori!fishery!grievances!increased!concentration!of!fishery!control!in!the!hands!of!processors.!!This!occurred!in!several!ways.!!First,!the!allocation!of!quota!to!a!Trust!created!a!new!player!in!the!fishing!industry!with!quota!but!no!boats.!!As!an!entity!that!itself!does!not!fish,!the!Trust!managed!the!quota!as!an!investment!asset!and!made!a!pool!of!quota!available!for!processors!with!surplus!capital.!!Processors!could!lease!(or!rent)!this!quota!to!avoid!limitations!on!industry!consolidation.11!!Additionally,!the!use!of!quota!to!settle!Māori!grievances!also!gave!an!indication!to!banks!and!potential!investors!that!the!government!had!a!vested!interest!in!maintaining!the!longBterm!value!of!this!property!right,!or!else!risk!a!reBnegotiation!of!the!Fisheries!Settlement.!!If!the!government!decided!to!close!a!fishery,!a!power!granted!by!an!amendment!to!the!Fisheries!Amendment!Act!1986!that!established!the!ITQ!system,!the!value!of!quota!for!that!fishery!would!vanish.!!A!substantial!decline!in!the!value!of!quota!would!alter!the!terms!of!the!settlement!agreement!and!create!a!legal!possibility!for!the!renegotiation!of!the!fishery!settlement.!!Banks!therefore!had!more!confidence!in!the!permanent!value!of!ITQs!after!the!Māori!Fisheries!Settlement.!!Finally,!customary!catches!were!designated!as!ineligible!for!sale.!!Māori!fishers!using!customary!permits,!and!Māori!and!nonBMāori!who!fish!recreationally,!were!thus!unable!to!obtain!capital!from!fish!sales!necessary!to!fund!their!boat!or!gear,!let!alone!quota!purchases!or!leases.!!SmallBscale!fishers!without!an!extra!source!of!capital!rarely,!if!ever,!bid!on!quota!purchases!or!leases.!!!!The!Trust’s!management!of!MāoriBowned!quota!as!an!investment!asset!furthered!processor!control!through!accumulation!by!dispossession:!processors!with!quota!obtained!capital!to!fund!additional!quota!purchases!by!paying!hired!fishers!a!low!percentage!of!the!total!sale!of!the!fish.!!Researchers!studying!other!ITQ!systems!describe!this!dynamic!of!fisher!dispossession!from!processor!control!of!fishery!access!rights!as!“sharecropping”!(Macinko!and!Bromley!2004,!Pinkerton!and!Edwards!2009).!!!According!to!the!terms!of!the!settlement,!Māori!were!to!decide!amongst!themselves!how!to!divide!up!the!asset.!!The!potential!to!obtain!fishing!rights,!however,!prompted!contentious!negotiations!among!Māori!groups!to!determine!the!nature!of!Māori!governing!structures!in!contemporary!times,!as!well!as!governing!groups’!relationships!to!fishing!(Levine!2001).!!The!negotiators!designed!the!settlement!to!benefit!all!“Māori,”!but!there!was,!and!is,!no!“allBMāori”!governing!body!(Ballara!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!11!In!1992,!quota!consolidation!limits!in!New!Zealand!were!restricted!to!35%!of!quota!holdings!in!offshore!fisheries!and!10%!in!highBvalue!inshore!fisheries,!including!rock!lobster!and!abalone.!The!government!since!increased!these!limits!to!45%!and!20%!respectively.!!!

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1998).!!Instead,!Māori!individuals!are!represented!in!part!by!mandated!iwi!representatives!and!corporately!structured!Mandated!Iwi!Organizations!(Ballara!1998).!!Individuals!affiliate!with!iwi!genealogically,!but!for!some,!as!mentioned!in!Chapter!One,!the!experience!of!being!Māori!is!not!tied!to!an!iwi!identity,!and!they!are!not!affiliated!with!any!iwi!(Durie!et&al.!2002).!!!&&Following!several!contentious!court!cases!and!a!multiByear!series!of!meetings!with!fishers!around!the!country,!the!Māori!Fisheries!Act!2004!divided!MāoriBowned!quota!between!iwi!based!on!population!and!coastline,!and!kept!a!portion!in!the!Trust’s!hands!to!manage!as!an!investment!asset!for!unaffiliated!Māori.!!The!decision!to!allocate!quota!to!iwi&based!on!population!prompted!a!wave!of!tribal!enrollment!initiatives,!as!iwi!sought!to!grow!their!population!numbers,!which!are!not!diminished!through!intermarriage!(Ballara!1998).!!!&!The!dividing!up!of!MāoriBowned!quota!posed!challenges!for!smaller!iwi&and!those!with!limited!coastlines.!!Both!fishers!and!managers!view!the!smaller!quota!packages!held!by!these!groups!as!“uneconomical.”!!Quota!shares!are!uneconomical!when!the!fish!the!quota!share!corresponds!to!obtains!a!market!price!that!does!not!cover!fishing!costs.!!Larger!iwi,!with!fewer!“uneconomical”!shares,!are!under!pressure!to!mitigate!fisher!exclusion!from!ITQ!system!implementation,!while!simultaneously!maintaining!the!broader!and!longBterm!benefits!of!the!quota!asset!for!nonBfishers!and!future!generations.!!In!doing!so,!however,!iwi!quota!managers!must!work!against!the!effects!of!two!policies!in!New!Zealand’s!ITQ!system!that—!unintentionally—maintain!processor!control:!the!creation!of!Annual!Catch!Entitlement!and!the!Licensed!Fisher!Receiver!certification!regulations.!!The!government!designed!these!policies!to!promote!ITQ!system!monitoring.!!However,!they!also!limit!the!extent!to!which!iwi&quota!reBallocation!initiatives!promote!smallBscale!fishers’!economic!development.!!!!2.5&&Annual&Catch&Entitlement&(ACE)&!!The!government’s!creation!of!Annual!Catch!Entitlement!(ACE),!established!by!the!1996!Fisheries!Act,!implemented!in!2001,!separated!the!quota!ownership!right!from!the!fish!access!right!and!furthered!processor!control!of!fish!access!rights.!!The!government’s!aim!in!creating!this!legislation!was!to!incentivize!fishers!to!report!their!catches!by!promoting!withinBseason!trading!of!fish!access!rights!(Stewart!and!Leaver!2015).!!Accurate!fisher!catch!returns!are!integral!to!ITQ!system!functioning,!as!fishers’!accounts!of!their!catches!(per!unit!of!effort!for!each!fishing!trip),!are!the!main!source!of!data!that!the!government!uses!to!determine!the!TACC!for!most!fisheries!(Boyd!and!Dewees!1992).!!Under!the!ACE!regulations,!quota!ownership!corresponds!to!a!right!to!a!percentage!of!the!100!million!registered!quota!shares!for!each!fishery!each!year.!!ACE!is!the!specific!tonnage!a!quota!right!corresponds!to.!!!With!ACE,!fishers!no!longer!have!to!ensure!their!quota!package!at!the!start!of!the!year!matches!the!fish!they!will!catch.!!This!is!especially!important!for!multispecies!fisheries!where!fishers!use!unspecified!fishing!gear!and!cannot!easily!target!specific!species.!!At!the!end!of!each!fishing!year,!a!fisher’s!ACE!package!must!match!the!fish!

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they!(reported!as)!caught,!or!the!fisher!will!be!charged!a!fine,!called!a!“deemed!value.”!!The!government!aims!to!set!deemed!value!fines!high!enough!to!discourage!fishers!without!ACE!from!intentionally!targeting!the!species!and!low!enough!to!encourage!fishers!who!unintentionally!catch!it!to!report!it!(Stewart!and!Callagher!2011).!!!!The!ACE!legislation!increased!processor!control!because!ACE!does!not!count!against!quota!consolidation!limits!(Stewart!and!Callagher!2011).!!The!possibility!for!ACE!to!override!consolidation!limits,!arguably,!promotes!investment!in!more!efficient!fishing!and!processing!infrastructure!that!can!increase!New!Zealand!fishers’!competitive!edge!against!international!fishing!companies,!especially!those!fishing!offshore!and!in!the!deepBsea.!!However,!the!opportunity!for!larger!operations!to!raise!capital!by!decreasing!competition!excludes!smallBscale!fishers!and!new!fishers,!especially!those!seeking!ACE!to!fish!inshore,!higherBvalue!species,!such!as!abalone!(Haliotis&iris),!rock!lobster!(Jasus&edwardsii),!and!oyster!(Tiostrea&chilensis).!!By!making!it!possible!for!one!entity,!usually!a!vertically!integrated!processor,!to!own!major!portions!of!the!ACE!for!a!particular!fishery!(as!is!the!case,!for!example,!in!the!abalone!fishery),!ACE!regulations!exclude!new!fishers.!!Fisher!exclusion!has!adverse!economic!effects,!as!reduced!domestic!competition!reduces!the!competitive!push!to!invest!in!or!develop!valueBadded!fish!commodities!(Norman!2016,!Torkington!2016).!!!!The!ACE!regulations!also!furthered!processor!control!and!smallBscale!fisher!exclusion!by!making!it!possible!for!quota!owners!to!register!quota!as!a!security!for!raising!capital!(Stewart!and!Callagher!2011,!Torkington!2016).!!This!possibility!makes!it!lucrative!for!those!no!longer!fishing!and!for!nonBfishers!to!buy!quota!as!an!investment!asset.!!It!also!makes!it!possible!for!those!who!accumulated!quota!in!the!early!quota!years!to!increase!their!competitive!edge!in!accumulating!more!quota,!by!using!their!quota!to!raise!capital!for!investments.!!The!possibility!to!use!quota!to!raise!capital!addresses!a!reason!smallBscale!fishers!were!excluded!from!accumulating!quota!in!the!early!quota!years:!due!to!their!own!lack!of!capital!as!compared!to!processors.!!This,!however,!came!too!late,!after!quota!prices!for!inshore!species!increased!substantially!due!to!processor!control.!!!2.6&&Licensed&Fish&Receivers&&&Also!in!1996,!the!government!introduced!legislation!to!regulate!fish!sale!and!trade!that!furthered!processor!control!and!smallBscale!fisher!exclusion!in!New!Zealand’s!ITQ!system.!!Under!New!Zealand’s!Fisheries!Act!1996,!commercial!fishers!are!not!allowed!to!sell!the!fish!they!catch!to!anyone!other!than!a!Licensed!Fish!Receiver.!!To!become!a!Licensed!Fish!Receiver,!an!individual!or!corporation!must!obtain!and!maintain!fish!processing!operations!that!are!in!compliance!with!food!safety!code!requirements.!!WouldBbe!processors!must!construct!processing!facilities!that!meet!building!code!certification!standards!for!commercial!food!preparation!facilities,!they!must!own!land!to!build!the!facility!on,!and!they!must!pay!certified!engineers!and!builders!to!design!and!construct!the!facility.!!!

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!Licensed!Fish!Receiver!regulations!increase!the!government’s!ability!to!monitor!fish!sales,!to!ensure!that!all!fish!sold!in!New!Zealand!is!in!compliance!with!the!quota!system,!as!well!as!national!and!international!food!safety!standards.!!These!regulations!also!increase!the!amount!of!capital!one!must!obtain!to!access!fish!markets.!!Anyone!wishing!to!sell!New!Zealand!fish!must!own!land!to!develop!a!processing!facility,!capital!to!pay!certified!engineers!and!builders!to!construct!the!facility!according!to!code,!and!access!large!amounts!of!quota!or!highBend!markets!to!cover!processing!costs.!!!!!Processor!certification!requirements!that!increase!the!amount!of!capital!needed!to!access!markets!for!fish!are!especially!challenging!for!Māori!to!meet.!!ColonialBera!regulations!exacerbate!restricted!access!to!capital!for!Māori.!!In!particular,!these!policies!include!government!landBtitling!schemes!for!MāoriBowned!land!in!the!late!1800s!that!allocated!titles!to!groups!of!Māori!individuals!and!their!descendants,!as!opposed!to!individuals.!!The!government!designed!groupBtitling!to!prevent!dispossession!of!MāoriBowned!land,!but!it!led!to!a!situation!where!Māori!land!blocks!have!upwards!of!300!owners!(Reid!2011,!Banner!2016).!!In!2016,!multipleBownership!poses!problems!for!Māori!fishers!who!are!attempting!to!build!processing!facilities!to!sell!their!own!fish.!!Land!with!multiple!owners!cannot!be!used!to!raise!significant!capital,!as!profits!from!investment!and!sale!are!split!between!owners.!!Contemporary!effects!of!restricted!access!to!capital!historically!present!challenges!for!iwi!quota!managers,!as!iwi!negotiate!tradeBoffs!between!subsidizing!individual!fishers’!entry!into!fishing!and!processing!sectors,!or!leasing!quota!as!an!investment!asset!for!the!longBterm!benefit!the!iwi!as!a!whole.!!!3.((Iwi(Quota(Management((In!2004,!the!Māori!iwi&Ngāi!Tahu,12!covering!most!of!the!South!Island,!became!one!of!the!first!iwi!to!acquire!quota!from!the!Māori!Trust.!!Ngāi!Tahu,!with!a!population!over!50,000,!also!obtained!one!of!the!largest!packages!(Tahu!2016a).!!Ngāi!Tahu!therefore!has!fewer!uneconomical!quota!holdings!compared!to!smaller!iwi,&and!has!made&some!of!the!longestBrunning!attempts!at!managing!quota!to!promote!smallBscale!fishers’!abilities!to!sustain!livelihoods!from!fishing.!!!Analysis!of!Ngāi!Tahu’s!quota!management!strategies!provides!an!opportunity!to!examine!the!extent!to!which!the!reBallocation!of!quota,!a!right!that!excludes,!can!address!smallBscale!fishers’!dispossession!from!New!Zealand’s!commercial!fisheries.!!!!The!following!subBsections!discuss!three!strategies!for!quota!management!that!aim!to!facilitate!fishers’!economic!development!without!diminishing!the!overall!value!of!Ngāi!Tahu’s!quota!asset.!!Each!strategy!is!defined!by!ACE!ownership!(the!tradable!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!12!Ngāi!Tahu!is!governed!by!a!boardBlike!organization!represented!by!an!appointed!official!from!the!18!Ngāi!Tahu!regional!governing!units,!or!rūnanga.!!The!board!appoints!personnel!manage!assets!owned!by!the!tribe,!which!include!capital!obtained!from!the!tribes’!land!based!settlement!in!1995.!!!

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fish!catch!right!derived!from!quota)!and!involves!a!different!relationship!between!processors!and!fishers.!!These!strategies!are!described!here!as:!(1)!the!sharecropper!strategy,!in!which!the!iwi!sells&ACE!to!nonBiwi!processors!who!allocate!it!to!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers;!(2)!the!development!pool!strategy,!in!which!the!iwi&sells&ACE!through!an!iwiBowned!processing!plant,!at!a!subsidized!rate!to!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers;!and!(3)!the!fisherBowned!Annual!Catch!Entitlement!(ACE)!strategy,!in!which!the!iwi!sells!ACE!directly!to!iwi!fishers.!!Each!strategy!gets!progressively!closer!to!devolving!more!benefits!to!tribal!fishers,!but!none!do!this!in!a!completely!successful!way.!!3.1&&The&“Sharecropper”&Strategy&&&The!most!common!management!strategy!for!Ngāi!TahuBowned!quota!–!a!nonBsubsidized!strategy!–!is!sale!of!ACE!(tonnage)!derived!from!iwi!owned!quota!(percentage!of!the!TACC)!in!multiBspecies!packages!by!auction.!!This!strategy!ensures!the!iwi!obtains!revenue!for!all!species!held!in!a!quota!package!in!order!to!cover!the!cost!of!annual!quota!levies!that!are!part!of!the!ITQ!cost!recovery!system.!!In!leasing,!processors!obtain!rights!to!ACE!for!a!multiByear!period!(usually!a!maximum!of!5!years,!as!per!fishery!regulations).!!This!mirrors!the!strategy!employed!by!the!Māori!Trust!to!lease!quota.!!The!only!stipulation!from!the!iwi!is!that!the!processor!must!make!the!ACE!available!to!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers,!when!they!want!it.!This!stipulation!contradicts!the!ITQ!system!design!to!reduce!overcapitalization!in!the!fishery!because!it!introduces!new!boats!to!the!fishery!and!takes!ACE!away!from!larger,!arguably!more!efficient!boats.!!This!rarely!happens,!however,!as!Māori!fishers!are!constrained!by!lack!of!gear!to!access!most!fisheries.!!!Even!when!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!have!boats,!gear,!and!fuel,!fishers!are!reliant!on!the!processor!for!both!their!fish!access!right!and!their!access!to!revenue!from!fish!sales.!!Processors!take!the!cost!of!the!ACE!out!of!the!price!they!pay!the!fisher!for!the!fish.!Fishers!do!not!obtain!ACE,!which!is!necessary!to!avoid!a!deemed!value!fine,!until!after!they!land!the!fish!to!the!processor.!!Reliant!on!processors!for!access!to!iwi&ACE,!fishers!cannot!negotiate!prices!between!processors.!!This!“sharecropper,”!or!tenant!fisher,!dynamic!exemplifies!structural!poverty.!!!Despite!limited!benefits!conferred!to!fishers,!this!strategy!is!the!main!quota!management!strategy!deployed!by!Ngāi!Tahu!and!most!other!iwi,!especially!when!quota!shares!are!uneconomical,&because!it!displaces!the!risk!of!uncaught!fish!onto!processors.!!However,!for!inshore!fisheries,!the!benefits!from!this!displaced!risk!are!limited!by!fishers’!lack!of!economic!stability!and!potential!to!develop.!!The!“sharecropper”!dynamic!is!evident!in!Ngāi!Tahu!fisher!William!Moore’s!“privileged”!access!to!iwi!ACE.!!Moore!purchases!flounder!(Rhombosolea&plebeia)!ACE!from!a!major!processing!plant,!which!purchases!the!ACE!in!fiveByear!terms!from!Ngāi!Tahu.!!Moore!is!an!intergenerational!fisher!who!fishes!this!ACE!on!Te!Waihora/Lake!Ellesmere,!a!brackish!lagoon!on!the!east!coast!of!the!South!Island.!!Te!Waihora/Lake!Ellesmere!was!an!economically!and!culturally!important!fishery!preBITQ!system!implementation.!!In!2016,!only!a!handful!of!fishers!remain.!!!!

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Moore!lived!in!a!tent!for!two!years!to!obtain!enough!revenue!to!pay!for!his!boat.!!He!distributes!fish!(caught!on!customary!permits)!to!local!community!members!and!elderly!fishers!who!were!excluded!from!the!fishery!at!the!time!of!ITQ!system!implementation.!!Moore!uses!revenues!from!fish!sales!to!pay!for!his!boat,!fuel,!gear,!ACE!from!the!processor,!as!well!as!housing!and!food!payments!for!two!other!previously!unemployed!Ngāi!Tahu!tribal!members.!!He!maintains!his!access!to!capital!in!part!by!fishing!high!quality!fish,!by!freezing!fish!on!the!boat,!and!delivering!fish!to!the!processor!within!24!hours!after!it!is!caught,!so!that!his!fish!obtains!a!higher!return!at!the!processor’s!fish!auction.!!Moore’s!ability!to!accumulate!enough!wealth!from!fishing!to!expand!his!operation,!however,!is!limited!by!his!inability!to!negotiate!fish!prices!between!potential!buyers.!!Despite!forming!relationships!with!several!local!fishBshop!owners,!Moore!cannot!sell!fish!to!these!individuals!directly!because!the!processor!controls!his!access!to!iwi!ACE,!and!because!Moore!does!not!yet!have!the!Licensed!Fish!Receiver!certification!required!to!process!fish.!!!!Processor!control!of!iwi&ACE!also!restricts!potential!valueBadd!to!fish!from!direct!fisher!to!market!sales.!!If!Moore’s!flounder!is!not!bought!at!auction!the!same!day!he!delivers!it,!the!processor!aggregates!it!with!lowerBvalue!fish!into!fish!blocks!for!export!to!grocery!stores!chains!overseas.!!The!processor!participates!in!block!export!fish!sales!in!order!to!move!large!amounts!of!fish!quickly,!but!this!export!form!obliterates!any!potential!value!added!from!the!identity!of!the!fisher!or!the!fishing!method.!!!!Ngāi!Tahu!quota!managers!are!attempting!to!capture!value!from!fish!sales,!and!not!just!quota!leases,!by!developing!an!iwi!processing!plant!that!processes!and!exports!higher!value!species.!!However,!as!seen!in!the!next!case!study,!this!strategy!also!places!processors!in!competition!with!fishers!for!revenue.!!Fishers!cannot!accumulate!capital,!in!the!form!of!fish!access!rights!(ACE!and!quota)!needed!to!develop!economically!when!processors!control!fish!access!rights.!!3.2&The&“Development&Pool”&Strategy&&&The!second!strategy!for!quota!allocation!is!one!in!which!Ngāi!Tahu!developed!their!own!processing!plant,!in!order!to!control!access!to!profits!from!fish!sales.!!This!strategy!is!used!for!highBvalue,!inshore!species,!including!rock!lobster.!!However,!the!amount!of!rock!lobster!quota!the!iwi!owns!is!not!sufficient!to!cover!the!cost!of!running!the!plant!and!is!therefore!uneconomical.!!!To!obtain!fish!to!cover!processing!costs,!the!iwi!engages!in!oneBforBone!ACE!arrangements!with!fishers.!!Under!these!arrangements,!the!iwi!processor!only!sells!ACE!to!those!fishers!with!access!to!an!equal!amount!of!ACE,!who!land!fish!caught!with!their!own!ACE!to!the!iwi!processor.!!Both!Māori!and!nonBMāori!processors!use!this!oneBforBone!ACE!strategy!to!secure!access!to!fish!from!fisherBowned!ACE.!!As!with!the!previous!strategy’s!“sharecropping”!arrangement,!oneBforBone!fishers!are!also!required!to!sell!fish!back!to!the!processor!and!cannot!negotiate!prices.!!!!

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Māori!fishers!are!rarely!able!to!participate!in!oneBforBone!ACE!arrangements.!!They!rarely!own!their!own!quota!or!have!access!to!capital!to!purchase!thirdBparty!ACE.!!As!a!result,!Ngāi!Tahu!employs!an!alternative,!subsidized!strategy!for!ACE!allocation!to!iwi&fishers.!!Through!a!program!called!the!“development!pool,”!Ngāi!Tahu!provides!ACE!to!fishers!without!the!oneBforBone!stipulation.!!The!theoretical!design!behind!the!development!pool!is!that,!over!time,!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!will!accumulate!enough!profits!to!buy!their!own!ACE.!!Fishers!who!obtain!their!own!ACE!will!“graduate”!from!the!development!pool!and!use!their!ACE!to!participate!in!oneBforBone!fishBforBACE!arrangements!with!the!iwi!processor.!!Graduated!fishers!will!benefit!the!iwi!processing!plant!by!providing!the!plant!with!access!to!additional!fish.!!!However,!this!mutual!development!strategy!places!the!iwi&processor!in!competition!with!iwi!fishers.!!The!development!pool!graduation!goal!requires!both!fishers!and!the!iwi!processor!to!purchase!ACE!from!third!party!sources,!in!order!to!fulfill!their!parts!of!the!oneBforBone!arrangement.!!Fishers!cannot!outbid!the!processor!for!ACE!purchases,!and!fisherBprocessor!collusion!on!bids!violates!antiBtrust!regulations.!!!!In!2008,!the!Ngāi!Tahu!Seafood!company!implemented!the!“development!pool”!model!in!the!crayB8!(CR8)!rock!lobster!fishery,!located!at!the!end!of!New!Zealand’s!South!Island.!!In!this!fishery,!Ngāi!Tahu!owns!8%!percent!of!the!total!lobster!quota,!and!exports!most!of!it!to!China.!!Ten!fishers!are!in!the!development!pool!and!are!exempt!from!the!oneBforBone!agreement.!!All!are!intergenerational!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers.!!All!were!excluded!from!New!Zealand’s!commercial!fisheries!with!ITQ!system!implementation.!!Initially,!the!plan!was!for!fishers!to!graduate!from!the!pool!within!five!years,!so!that!new!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!could!enter.!As!of!2016,!however,!eight!years!later,!only!two!fishers!have!graduated—both!of!whom!had!access!to!outside!capital.!!!!Slow!–!perhaps!impossible!–!fisher!graduation!from!the!development!pool!is!due!in!part!to!the!fact!that!from!2007!to!2014!rock!lobster!prices!more!than!doubled,!from!US$50/kg!to!US$105/kg.!!As!fish!prices!spiked,!so!too!did!quota!prices,!as!outside!investors!sought!to!capitalize!on!fishers’!demand!for!rock!lobster!ACE!(derived!from!quota).!!Ngāi!Tahu!fisheries!managers!also!sought!rock!lobster!quota!and!ACE,!in!order!to!keep!it!away!from!outside!investors,!and!to!ensure!that!the!Ngāi!Tahu!seafood!company!would!have!enough!ACE!available!for!oneBforBone!arrangements.!!In!2015,!the!rock!lobster!quota!sold!for!$1!million/tonne,!prices!that!quota!investors!make!back!by!leasing!ACE!at!high!prices!to!fishers.!!Increased!ACE!prices!are!prohibitively!expensive!for!development!pool!fishers,!and!inhibit!graduation!goals.!!It!is!unlikely!that!all!ten!fishers!in!the!pool!will!graduate!any!time!soon,!if!at!all.!!!The!development!pool!therefore!operates!through!subsidies!rather!than!capital!accumulation.!!!It!brings!benefits!to!the!iwi&not!from!increased!revenue,!but!from!the!ability!of!the!tribal!seafood!company!to!market!itself,!to&iwi!members!and!outside!customers,!as!a!company!that!supports!indigenous!fishers.!!!!!!3.3&&FisherBOwned&Annual&Catch&Entitlement&(ACE)&Strategy&&

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&The!third!strategy!for!quota!management!deployed!by!Ngāi!Tahu!quota!managers!is!direct!allocation!of!ACE!to!fishers.!!As!of!2016,!Ngāi!Tahu!primarily!used!this!strategy!for!species!with!high!cultural!significance,!but!less!wellBestablished!commercial!markets.!!Included!in!this!category!is!shortBfinned!eel!(Anguilla&australis)!(or!tuna!in!te!reo!Māori).!!Eel!is!a!culturally!significant!species!due!to!the!high!reliance!on!eel!for!dietary!fat!starting!the!midB1800s,!when!colonial!policies!pushed!Ngāi!Tahu!off!land!that!was!suitable!for!farming!and!restricted!Māori!from!accessing!land,!agricultural!markets,!and!fish!markets!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!!!Ngāi!Tahu!directly!allocates!eel!ACE!to!fishers!to!overcome!the!sharecropperBlike!situation!found!when!fishers!are!mandated!to!land!their!catches!to!a!particular!processing!plant.!!However,!due!to!Licensed!Fish!Receiver!certification!requirements!that!increase!the!amount!of!capital!an!individual!must!access!to!become!a!processor,!eel!fishers’!abilities!to!profit!from!fish!sales!remain!limited!by!consolidation!of!the!processing!sector.!!!Ngāi!Tahu!eel!fishers’,!fatherBson!team!Ben!and!Ed!Tamati,!attempts!to!develop!a!processing!plant!highlights!how!certification!requirements!exclude!smallBscale!fishers!(as!introduced!in!Chapter!One).!!The!Tamatis!fish!shortBfinned!eel!ACE!from!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!on!Te!Waihora/Lake!Ellesmere.!!As!of!2016,!the!Tamatis!employ!three!people!locally,!provide!daily!updates!on!the!status!of!the!fishery!to!Ngāi!Tahu!managers,!and!routinely!distribute!fish!to!those!in!need.!!However,!their!potential!to!earn!capital!for!investment!into!quota!purchases,!to!establish!longBterm!security!in!the!fishery,!is!limited!by!Licensed!Fish!Receiver!regulations!that!prevent!the!Tamatis!from!selling!their!own!fish.!!Requirements!that!mandate!Licensed!Fish!Receivers,!the!only!legal!fish!sellers!in!New!Zealand,!to!have!access!to!ACE!and!foodBgrade!certified!processing!facilities!in!order!to!legally!sell!fish,!decrease!the!number!of!potential!buyers!for!the!Tamatis’!fish.!!There!are!only!a!handful!of!eel!buyers!in!New!Zealand.!!This!consolidation!restricts!the!Tamatis’!ability!to!access!capital!(in!the!form!of!boats,!gear,!ACE)!necessary!to!fish,!despite!the!Tamatis’!control!of!Ngāi!Tahu!eel!ACE.!!The!Tamatis!are!attempting!to!become!Licensed!Fish!Receivers!so!they!can!sell!their!own!fish.!!!The!Tamatis’!efforts!to!become!processors,!however,!highlight!the!role!that!food!safety!and!building!certification!codes!play!in!limiting!new!forms!of!fishers’!economic!development,!even!when!they!have!access!to!ACE.!!Despite!generations!of!experience!processing!and!smoking!eel!on!outdoor!drying!racks,!the!Tamatis!had!to!construct!a!new!processing!facility,!and!obtain!capital!to!do!so,!because!eel!processed!in!these!traditional!ways!is!not!legal!for!commercial!sale!under!the!Licensed!Fish!Receiver!food!safety!requirements.!!To!construct!the!new!indoor!facility,!the!Tamatis!had!to!pay!a!certified!engineer!for!plans!to!establish!the!facility.!!To!build!it,!they!had!to!pay!a!certified!builder.!!The!need!for!the!Tamatis!to!pay!for!outside!help!to!design!and!build!the!facility!was!not!because!Ben!and!Ed,!or!their!family!and!friends,!have!no!experience!building.!!On!the!contrary,!Ben!built!his!own!

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home!and!the!homes!of!several!others!on!the!lake,!as!well!as!the!smoker!and!the!drying!racks!community!members!use!to!process!eel.!!However,!Ben’s!building!skills!are!not!legally!suitable!forms!of!expertise!for!constructing!a!food!safety!certified!facility!because!he!does!not!have!the!educational!background!required!to!become!a!licensed!engineer!or!builder.!!!The!Tamatis’!attempts!to!become!a!Licensed!Fish!Receiver!are!additionally!stymied!by!their!lack!of!access!to!suitable!land.!!Ed!Tamati!has!land.!!He!has!rights!to!several!hectares!of!“Māori”!land!an!hour!from!the!Lake!Ellesmere!fishery,!where!the!government!moved!his!family!to!in!the!early!1900s.!!But!he!does!not!have!exclusive!ownership!rights!to!his!land.!!This!is!because!Ed!has!access!to!“Māori”!land,!designated!as!such!through!colonial!era!regulations!that!made!it!illegal!for!Māori!to!sell!land!to!nonBfamily!members.!!Because!no!owner!could!sell!the!land!to!anyone!outside!of!their!immediate!family,!as!families!grew,!so!too!did!the!numbers!of!owners!on!that!land!(Reid!2011).!!Today,!over!300!people!have!a!right!to!the!land!that!Ed!Tamati!also!has!a!right!to.!!This!multiple!ownership!poses!a!challenge!for!Ed!Tamati’s!investment!in!processing!facilities!on!this!land,!as!many!of!the!owners!live!nowhere!near!this!piece!of!land!but!nonetheless!have!a!potential!claim!to!it,!and!to!the!profits!from!his!investment.!!To!avoid!this!risk!in!investment,!Ed!purchased!private!land!to!build!the!facility,!a!step!requiring!capital!that!many!Māori!do!not!have.!!!!The!Tamatis!sell!their!fish!in!highBend!markets!to!cover!the!cost!of!his!investment,!as!his!potential!to!capitalize!from!more!fish!coming!through!is!limited!by!the!quota!system’s!cap!on!fish!take.!!To!access!these!markets,!they!rely!on!employees!or!former!employees!of!previouslyBsubsidized,!vertically!integrated!processor!companies.!!HighBend!eel!markets!are!overseas.!!Within!New!Zealand,!eel!is!viewed!as!a!“Māori”!food!(Waitangi!Tribuanl!1992).!!NonBMāori!rarely!pay!high!prices!for!eel.!!Local!Māori!consumers!cannot!afford!to!pay!for!fish!at!rates!high!enough!to!cover!the!cost!of!the!processing!facility.!!The!Tamatis’!lack!of!formal!education,!and!restricted!access!to!capital!prior!to!becoming!commercial!fishers,!limit!their!knowledge!of!overseas!markets.!!Owners!of!previously!subsidized!processing!operations,!on!the!other!hand,!sell!fish!through!market!trade!channels!established!in!part!through!government!funded!international!exchange!scholarships,!which!until!the!1990s,!primarily!funded!nonBMāori!(Dewees!1989).!!The!Tamatis’!reliance!on!nonBMāori!for!access!to!fish!buyers’!markets!is!thus!an!effect!of!colonial!policies!that!resurface!in!contemporary!times.!!!!(4.((Discussion:(More(than(Māori(Issues(and(Where(to(Go(Next((!The!government’s!ITQ!system!management!policies!that!make!possible!processor!control!of!both!fishing!rights!(ACE)!and!market!access!(Licensed!Fish!Receiver!certification)!inhibit!Māori!fishers’!economic!development.!!However!these!processes!of!exclusion!negatively!impact!at!least!five!processes,!in!addition!to!Māori!fishers’!exclusion.!!

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!First,!regulations!that!restrict!fishers’!market!access!and!facilitate!consolidation!(Yandle!and!Dewees!2008,!Stewart!and!Callagher!2011,!Abayomi!and!Yandle!2012)!are!also!barriers!to!economic!innovation!(Harvey!2002).!!Fishers’!limited!access!to!markets,!even!with!ACE,!restricts!opportunities!for!valueBadded!provincial!branding,!an!issue!diverse!groups!of!consumers!are!increasingly!concerned!with!(Harvey!2002).!When!fish!caught!by!smallBscale!fishers!is!sold!to!major!processors!and!combined!with!larger!boats’!catches!for!package!sales!to!large!grocery!chains,!potential!value!added!to!the!fish!from!the!identity!of!the!fisher!and!the!fishing!location,!is!not!capitalized!on.!!Māori!produced!eel,!for!example,!may!be!a!specialty!if!marketed!as!such.!!!!Second,!barriers!for!smallBscale!fishers!also!limit!the!effectiveness!of!local!ecological!monitoring!initiatives.!!When!the!number!of!local!commercial!fishers!on!the!water!reaches!close!to!zero,!so!does!the!frequency!of!reports!and!analyses!of!fishing!conditions.!!Reductions!in!accounts!of!fishing!conditions!are!especially!problematic!in!light!of!trends!in!global!environmental!governance!initiatives!to!defer!monitoring!to!local!communities!as!government!funding!of!stateBsponsored!monitoring!declines!(Mccarthy!et&al.!2013).!!!!Third,!barriers!to!smallBscale!fisher!access!also!pose!barriers!to!compliance.!!When!fishers!are!unable!to!access!benefits!from!fish!sales,!they!may!be!more!likely!to!engage!in!illegal,!unreported,!or!undocumented!fishing,!especially!when!other!economic!development!opportunities!are!not!available!(Allison!et&al.!2012).!!!!Fourth,!barriers!for!smallBscale!fishers!also!pose!threats!to!local!food!sovereignty.!!Increases!in!fish!prices!restrict!local!consumer’s!access!to!fish,!especially!given!that!customary!fishing!rights!prohibit!the!sale!of!fish,!as!is!the!case!in!New!Zealand!(McCormack!2010,!2015).!!!!Fifth,!barriers!to!smallBscale!fisher!access!pose!barriers!for!local!economic!development.!!Processor!consolidation!increases!the!capital!fishers’!must!invest!in!order!to!obtain!quota!and!access!markets.!!Fishers!target!highBend!markets!to!cover!costs,!when!the!possibility!for!a!fisher!to!cover!processor!costs!by!selling!more!fish!is!limited!by!a!lack!of!quota!ownership,!and!the!ITQ!system’s!caps!on!total!fish!take.!!Often!these!markets!are!overseas,!especially!when!the!fish!is!a!species!that!nonBMāori!New!Zealanders!rarely!consume,!as!is!the!case!for!eel.!!Reliance!on!export!markets!excludes!individuals!who!previously!organized!local!fish!sales!and!exchange!off!the!docks.!!!!While!Māori!make!up!a!large!portion!of!smallBscale!fishers!in!New!Zealand,!the!effects!of!smallBscale!fisher!exclusion!due!to!processor!control—for!Māori!and!nonBMāori!fishers—extend!even!more!broadly.!!However,!change!is!possible.!!SmallBscale!fishery!development!will!likely!improve!if!iwi,!including!Ngāi!Tahu,!continue!to!directly!allocate!quota!to!fishers!and!support!fishers!to!develop!their!own!processing!facilities,!in!individual!or!collective!form.!!Processor!control!will!likely!

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decrease!if!the!government!made!ACE!exchanges!count!towards!consolidation!limits.!!!More!radically,!smallBscale!fishers’!economic!development!opportunities!would!drastically!improve!if!the!government!removed!the!likelihood!that!quota!could!be!managed!as!an!investment!asset.!!One!way!this!could!be!done!is!to!restructure!the!ITQ!system!into!a!system!where!the!government!holds!the!quota!rights!and!leases!fish!access!rights!to!fishers!for!limited!periods!of!time.!!This!was!the!strategy!for!management!of!New!Zealand’s!deepBsea!fisheries!under!the!1983!Fisheries!Act,!prior!to!ITQ!system!implementation!(Sissenwine!and!Mace!1992).!!Under!such!a!system,!capital!is!still!required!to!obtain!quota,!but!competition!from!outside!investors!for!quota!is!eliminated.!!Further,!a!governmentBowned!quota!system!eliminates!onBgoing!dispossession!faced!by!those!without!quota!who!face!multiple!years!of!fishery!exclusion!when!access!rights!are!privatized.!!!!5.((Conclusion(!!!Iwi&quota!management!strategies!highlight!the!fact!that!the!reBallocation!of!fishing!rights!to!individual!fishers!does!not!absolve!existing!processor!consolidation!in!New!Zealand’s!ITQ!system.!!Processes!of!fisher!exclusion!are!not!reversed!by!strategies!that!increase!fishers’!access!to!fishing!rights!(in!the!form!of!ACE).!!This!is!because!the!government’s!regulations!that!structure!the!ITQ!system!include!policies!that!–!unintentionally!–!facilitate!control!of!fishery!market!access!in!the!hands!of!several!vertically!integrated!processor!operations.!!Regulations!for:!(1)!equity,!as!found!in!the!Māori!settlement’s!use!of!quota!to!settle!the!Māori!grievance;!(2)!compliance,!as!was!the!government’s!goal!in!creating!Annual!Catch!Entitlement!as!a!fish!access!right!that!can!by!traded!withinBseason,!above!quota!consolidation!limits,!done!to!promote!reporting!of!catches;!and!(3)!monitoring,!as!the!government!designed!the!Licensed!Fish!Receiver!certification!process!to!do;!all!further!processor!control!and!fisher!exclusion!in!New!Zealand’s!ITQ!system.!!These!processes!of!exclusion!drive!consolidation!and!economic!stagnation!of!New!Zealand’s!fishing!industry!as!a!whole.!!Iwi&cannot!be!held!responsible!for!addressing!Māori!fisher!exclusion!due!to!processor!control!because&iwi&reBallocation!initiatives!are!not!sufficient!to!address!these!structural!challenges.!!The!responsibility!to!do!this!lies!with!government,!who,!unlike!iwi,!has!the!authority!to!implement!the!regulatory!changes!that!are!necessary!to!promote!equity!in!and!economic!development!of!New!Zealand’s!fisheries.!!!!!

((((((((

(

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Chapter(Three((

Indigenous(Rights(and(FreeWTrade(Agreements:(Limits(to(AntiWColonial(Development(Strategies(on(Te(Waihora/Lake(Ellesmere(

((1.(Introduction(&New!Zealand’s!Treaty!of!Waitangi!Settlement!process!is!one!of!the!world’s!most!comprehensive!efforts!to!settle!all!outstanding!indigenous!rights!claims!(Anaya!2011).!!Over!the!last!thirty!years,!the!New!Zealand!government!has!allocated!over!$2.7!billion!worth!of!formerly!stateBowned!assets!to!indigenous!Māori!groups!(Butler!2014).!!However,!at!a!collective!level,!Māori!continue!to!exhibit!disproportionate!inequalities!in!health,!income,!and!education!statistics!(New!Zealand!2016).!!Some!commentators!attribute!rising!inequality!in!New!Zealand!to!the!government’s!concurrent!commitment!to!neoliberal!practices!and!policies,!including!privatization!and!freeBtrade!agreement!signing!(e.g.!Fyers!2017).!!!!Rising!inequalities!in!postBsocialist!New!Zealand!mirror!dynamics!identified!internationally!as!governments!transition!towards!marketBbased,!or!neoliberal,!economic!governance!strategies!(Harvey!2005).!!The!global!proliferation!of!neoliberal!governing!practices!has!incited!calls!from!scholars!to!document!accounts!of!development!initiatives!that!mitigate!these!trends!towards!wealth!centralization!(GibsonBGraham!2006).!!In!light!of!these!calls,!Māori!development!initiatives!postBsettlement!become!important!cases!for!understanding!the!extent!to!which!Māori!tribes’,!or!iwi,!socioBeconomic!development!initiatives,!operating!within!the!bounds!of!settler!colonial,!neoliberal!governance!initiatives,!can!promote!benefits!for!economically!marginal!communities.!!!One!of!most!robust!efforts!deployed!by!a!Māori!group!postBsettlement!to!improve!iwi!members’!socioBeconomic!conditions!is!taking!place!at!Te!Waihora/Lake!Ellesmere.!!Te!Waihora!is!a!brackish!lagoon!on!the!east!coast!of!New!Zealand’s!South!Island!with!a!long!history!of!management!by!the!Māori!iwi,!Ngāi!Tahu.!!Today,!the!lake!is!one!of!the!most!robust!freshwater!eel!fisheries!in!the!world!(Jellyman!2007,!Dickey!2016).!!Through!rights!obtained!in!treaty!settlements!starting!in!the!early!1990s,!the!iwi!owns!the!bottom!of!the!lakebed!and!is!in!partnership!with!the!government!in!one!of!the!nation’s!most!highly!funded!indigenousBstate!coBmanagement!initiatives,!aimed!at!improving!lake!water!quality.!!The!iwi&also!owns!commercial!fishing!rights!for!eel,!flounder,!and!mullet!on!the!lake.!!Ngāi!Tahu!leaders!are!attempting!to!use!their!settlement!rights!to!implement!development!strategies!to!capitalize!on!local!community!members’!strengths!and!fishers’!expertise.!!These!strategies!are!aimed!to!mitigate!the!effects!of!rising!unemployment!in!the!region!attributed!to!iwi!fishers’!restricted!access!to!commercial!fishing!following!the!government’s!privatization!of!the!nation’s!fisheries!in!the!1980s!(Bodwitch!2017).!!They!are!also!meant!to!address!internal!and!external!critiques!of!Ngāi!Tahu!leaders’!decisions!to!manage!the!majority!of!the!iwi’s!settlement!assets!

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for!longBterm!capital!gain!rather!than!redistribute!wealth!to!iwi!members!(Rata!2011,!De!Alessi!2012).!!!Ngāi!Tahu’s!attempts!to!use!financial!assets!and!environmental!management!rights!for!local!community!economic!benefit!present!an!opportunity!to!investigate!the!question:!under!what!conditions!–!if!any!–!can!alternative!forms!of!economic!development!succeed!in!challenging!the!uneven!development!trends!that!are!exhibited!in!New!Zealand!and!marketBbased!societies!more!broadly.!!The!answer!to!this!question!requires!an!understanding!of!the!broader!political!economic!geography!in!which!Ngāi!Tahu!leaders!and!iwi!members!attempt!to!implement!their!antiBcolonial!development!strategies.!!In!this!case!(and!likely!others),!this!has!little!to!do!with!iwi!leaders’!decisionBmaking!and!lots!to!do!with!what!is!taking!place!with!the!resource!that!was!left!off!the!table!in!all!stateBMāori!settlement!negotiations:!upstream!land!held!in!private!property.!!!!Examining!fishers’!experiences!reveals!that!the!rights!allocated!to!Ngāi!Tahu!are!insufficient!to!address!the!primary!factor!affecting!opportunities!for!development!through!fishing!rights!obtained!in!settlement.!!At!Te!Waihora,!the!governments’!opening!up!of!new!trade!routes!has!prompted!massive!investment!in!conversion!of!land!upstream!from!Te!Waihora!and!elsewhere!in!New!Zealand!from!sheep!to!dairy!farms.!!This!intensified!dairy!production!upstream!results!in!threats!to!fish!habitat,!as!it!increases!nutrient!loads!in!the!rivers!draining!into!the!lake,!particularly!due!to!the!almostBcomplete!absence!of!regulations!around!fertilizer!or!water!use.!!The!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi’s!lack!of!authority!over!activities!taking!place!on!upstream!land!held!in!private!property,!is!especially!problematic!for!the!Te!Waihora!fishery’s!ecological!development!in!situations!when!dairy!export!prices!drop!and!farmers!intensify!production!practices!in!order!to!pay!back!debts.!!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!on!Te!Waihora!know!these!dynamics!well,!but!despite!their!postBsettlement!designations!as!resource!guardians,!they!are!unable!to!curb!intensified!agricultural!activity!upstream;!the!government’s!allocation!of!coastal!governance!and!economic!development!provisions!in!treaty!settlements!diverts!lake!cleanup!responsibility!to!Ngāi!Tahu,!without!giving!them!the!authority!to!address!drivers!of!fishery!degradation.!Furthermore,!as!Ngāi!Tahu!leaders!attempt!to!implement!additional!fish!access!regulations!to!address!fishery!depletion,!their!assertion!of!their!customary!governance!rights!creates!divisions!between!Ngāi!Tahu!as!a!governing!body!and!the!lake’s!Ngāi!Tahu!commercial!fishers,!who!are!most!affected!by!these!regulations.!These!divisions!in!turn!limit!larger!political!resistance!to!the!government!policies!that!drive!agricultural!intensification!and!fishery!depletion.!!&!This!chapter!proceeds!as!follows.!!Part!Two!discusses!the!importance!of!the!Te!Waihora!fisheries!for!Ngāi!Tahu’s!antiBcolonial!development!strategies!after!receiving!assets!from!their!landBbased!settlement,!as!well!as!the!Fisheries!Settlement.!!Part!Three!identifies!limits!to!this!development!due!to!upstream!land!use!change.!!Part!Four!explores!how!the!rights!granted!to!Ngāi!Tahu!to!promote!fishery!development!are!insufficient!to!address!upstream!drivers!of!ecological!change.!!Instead,!strategies!to!govern!upstream!lead!to!social!divides!amongst!

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downstream!fishers!who!might!otherwise!organize!against!upstream!land!use!change.!!Part!Five!examines!the!implications!of!this!case!for!moving!forward!in!stateBMāori!relations!in!New!Zealand.!!(2.(Te(Waihora(and(Ngāi(Tahu’s(Treaty(Settlement(&In!1997,!Ngāi!Tahu!became!one!of!the!first!iwi!to!sign!a!“full!and!final”!landBbased!settlement!with!the!New!Zealand!government,!and!in!1998!the!Government!passed!the!Ngāi!Tahu!Claim!Settlement!Act.!!Ngāi!Tahu’s!traditional!territory,!which!postBsettlement,!as!with!all!Māori!territory,!remains!under!the!legal!jurisdiction!of!settlerBcolonial!national,!regional,!and!district!governing!bodies,!encompasses!the!majority!of!the!nation’s!South!Island!(139,844!km2)!(We!Are!Ngāi!Tahu!2017).!!Ngāi!Tahu’s!landBbased!settlement!negotiations!focused!on!the!effects!of!iwi!members’!limited!access!to!economic!development!opportunities!following!government!land!privatization!initiatives!around!the!South!Island!beginning!in!the!midB1800s,!including!that!which!took!place!around!the!Canterbury!region!that!comprises!Te!Waihora!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1991).!!In!1848,!the!British!colonial!government!sought!lowBlying!land!in!the!Canterbury!watershed!upstream!from!Te!Waihora!through!the!signing!of!land!sale!agreements!with!representatives!from!Ngāi!Tahu.!!Referred!to!as!Kemp’s!purchase,!named!after!the!colonial!official!who!orchestrated!the!agreement,!the!government!did!not!properly!compensate!Ngāi!Tahu!for!the!sale!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1991).!!Ngāi!Tahu!negotiators,!alongside!Māori!and!nonBMāori!historians!and!lawyers,!identified!intergenerational!socioBeconomic!effects!from!land!and!economic!market!exclusion!as!one!of!their!primary!grievances!in!their!Treaty!of!Waitangi!settlement!claim!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1991).!!In!the!1995!Ngāi!Tahu!settlement,!the!government!absolved!any!future!responsibility!to!address!the!effects!of!historical!Treaty!violations!against!Ngāi!Tahu!individuals!and!territories,!through!the!reBallocation!of!financial!assets!and!coBgovernance!rights!to!culturally!significant!regions!to!Ngāi!Tahu.!!The!land!in!question!was!not!returned.!!Land!upstream!from!Te!Waihora!remained,!and!continues!to!remain,!as!private!property!owned!by!primarily!nonBMāori!farmers.!!Following!restrictions!on!access!to!suitable!land!for!agriculture!imparted!by!Kemp’s!purchase,!Ngāi!Tahu!individuals,!moved!by!the!colonial!government!to!coastal!reserves!in!the!Te!Waihora!region,!relied!heavily!on!eel!from!the!lake!for!dietary!fat!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1991).!!Te!Waihora!is!the!destination!site!for!fledgling!shortBfinned!eels!after!they!hatch!thousands!of!miles!away!by!the!islands!of!Tonga!(Jellyman!et&al.!1996).!!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!managed!the!eel!fishery!by!regulating!fish!take,!in!part!through!the!practice!of!minimizing!take!of!migratory!female!eels!in!order!to!ensure!recruitment!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1991).!!In!the!midB1900s,!European!fishers!began!fishing!eel!on!the!lake!for!export,!and!at!1976,!two!years!before!the!fishery!was!first!regulated!by!the!government,!Te!Waihora!represented!50%!of!the!nation’s!eel!catch!(Jellyman!and!Smith!2009).!!In!contemporary!times,!Te!Waihora’s!standing!as!one!of!the!world’s!most!prolific!freshwater!eel!fisheries!is!an!effect!of!global!declines!in!freshwater!eel!populations,!with!scientists!estimating!that!less!than!1%!of!juveniles!remain!(Dekker!et&al.!2003).!!In!2016,!eel!industry!experts!

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estimated!that!95%!of!the!eel!consumed!globally!is!farm!raised,!with!the!remaining!5%!of!wildBcaught!eel!supplied!from!New!Zealand!(Dickey!2016).!!Within!New!Zealand,!as!of!2016,!Te!Waihora!provided!approximately!thirty!percent!of!the!nation’s!total!allowable!commercial!eel!catch!(Ministry!for!Primary!Industries!2016).!!Unlike!their!longBfinned!counter!parts,!(Anguilla&dieffenbachii),!who!migrate!upstream,!the!habitat!range!for!Te!Waihora’s!shortBfinned!eel!populations!(Anguilla&australis)!is!primarily!restricted!to!the!lake!(Jellyman!et&al.!1996).!!Historically,!the!lake’s!shortBfinned!eel!populations!were!less!threatened!by!hydroBdam!development!than!the!nation’s!endemic!longBfinned!eels,!whose!populations!are!at!risk!throughout!New!Zealand!(Jellyman!2007,!2012).!!Nonetheless,!the!colonial!and!contemporary!governments’!efforts!to!develop!upstream!land!for!agriculture!severely!diminished!–!and!continue!to!diminish!–!shortBfinned!eel!habitat.13!!Since!colonization,!the!government!has!drained!Te!Waihora!to!increase!upstream!land!area!available!for!pasture.!!Today,!the!lake,!which!covers!16,000!–!20,000!ha,!is!less!than!oneBfourth!the!size!it!was!in!preBcolonial!times!(Prystupa!1998).!!The!government!drains!the!lake!by!digging!a!channel!through!the!sediment!bar!between!Te!Waihora!and!the!ocean!when!lake!levels!create!increased!flood!risk!upstream!(Prystupa!1998).!!Thanks!to!drainage,!at!its!maximum,!the!lake!is!typically!no!more!than!2.1!meters!in!depth!(Jellyman!et&al.!1996).!!The!lakeBopening!process,!which!usually!occurs!several!times!per!year,!depending!on!lake!levels,!brings!in!salty!sea!water!to!flush!out!some!of!the!runBof!from!upstream!farms!(Lomax!et&al.!2015).!!It!also!enables!eel!to!begin!their!spawning!migration.!!!The!effect!of!lakeBopenings!on!the!eel!fishery!is!dependent!on!the!proximity!of!the!opening!date!to!eel!migration.!!Eels!migrate!once!per!year.!!Females!migrate!first,!males!follow.!!Prior!to!migrating,!both!sexes!line!up!along!the!edge!of!the!lake.!!During!this!time,!fishers!will!fish!the!male!migrants,!for!whom!depleted!population!numbers!do!not!appear!to!impact!eel!recruitment!for!the!next!year.!!Traditionally,!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!would!catch!male!migrants!by!digging!ditches!that!the!eels!would!swim!up!night!before!travelling!over!the!shoals.!!In!contemporary!times,!fishers!use!nets!set!overnight!in!the!lake.!!A!team!of!community!members!on!shore!will!either!gut!and!dry,!or!vacuum!seal!and!freeze!the!eel,!and!distribute!it!to!community!members!for!sustenance!and!gatherings!throughout!the!year.!!If!the!lake!is!opened!before!fishers!have!a!chance!to!net!the!eel,!the!eel!will!migrate!en&masse!through!the!open!channel,!making!it!challenging!for!Ngāi!Tahu!and!other!eel!fishers!to!fulfill!their!customary!food!provisioning!practices.!!!In!Ngāi!Tahu’s!treaty!settlement!package,!the!government!acknowledged!the!loss!in!fish!access!experienced!by!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!and!community!members!when!governing!decisions,!such!as!the!timing!of!lakeBopenings,!do!not!take!fishing!practices!into!account.!!Ngāi!Tahu’s!settlement!negotiations!resulted!in!the!return!of!(now!shared)!governance!rights!to!Te!Waihora!and!ownership!of!the!lakebed!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!13!Hereafter!referred!to!as!“eel.”!!

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bottom.!!These!rights!are!accompanied!by!a!robust!set!of!guidelines!for!stateB!Māori!power!sharing,!including!over!lakeBopening!decision!making,!which!were!established!through!a!series!of!court!cases!preBand!postBtreaty!settlement!(Prystupa!1998).!!The!settlement!also!conferred!$170!million!worth!of!financial!assets!from!the!government!to!the!iwi,!in!compensation!for!failed!landBsale!agreements,!and!rights!of!first!refusal!on!sales!of!governmentBowned!properties.!!Additionally,!in!the!MāoriBwide!Fisheries!Settlement,!Ngāi!Tahu!obtained!the!largest!quota!package!of!any!iwi!thanks!to!its!comparatively!high!population!numbers!and!long!coastline,!encompassing!most!of!the!South!Island.!!On!Te!Waihora,!Ngāi!Tahu!obtained!commercial!fishing!quota!rights!for!20%!of!the!total!allowable!commercial!catch!for!eel!for!the!lake,!which!up!to!2016!amounted!to!122!tonnes!per!year!(as!compared!to!600!tonnes!eel!extracted!in!the!midB1970s)!(OgonowskaBCoates!2007).!!The!Fisheries!Settlement!also!conveyed!Ngāi!Tahu!and!all!Māori!iwi!the&right!to!prohibit,!with!government!approval,!commercial!fishing!in!select!customary!fishing!areas,!as!determined!by!the!government!and!iwi&based!on!documentation!of!historical!use.!!Ngāi!Tahu’s!settlement!rights!are!overlaid!by!broader!mandates!for!stateBMāori!partnerships!in!an!increasingly!wide!range!of!governing!decisions!in!New!Zealand.!!Partnership!provisions!are!imposed!by!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi,!which!in!contemporary!times,!serves!as!one!of!several!documents!comprising!New!Zealand’s!constitution!(Palmer!2015,!Keith!2017).!&2.2&&Ngāi&Tahu’s&PostBSettlement&Development&Strategies&!Today,!thanks!to!asset!management!postBsettlement,!Ngāi!Tahu!is!one!of!New!Zealand’s!wealthiest!iwi.!!Ngāi!Tahu’s!asset!management!strategies!are!a!reflection!in!part!of!the!nature!of!settlement!assets!and!terms.!!The!Ngāi!Tahu!settlement,!as!with!all!Māori!settlements,!also!included!stipulations!to!restructure!iwi!governance!operations!prior!to!obtaining!assets.!!The!purposes!of!restructuring!are!so!that!the!government!can!ensure!those!to!whom!assets!are!allocated!are!legitimate!representatives!of!the!iwi!and!so!that!the!government!can!tax!the!groups!to!whom!assets!are!allocated.!!Initially,!for!Ngāi!Tahu,!the!restructuring!process!involved!the!hiring!of!nonBMāori!businessmen,!as!few!iwi!members!had!experience!managing!capital!wealth.!!!In!the!years!immediately!after!settlement!signing,!the!asset!management!strategy!deployed!by!these!nonBMāori!businessmen!prioritized!capital!gain!as!part!of!a!strategy!to!ensure!benefits!from!settlement!would!be!available!to!support!iwi!development!for!the!next!100!years.!!For!commercial!fishing!rights,!or!quota,!management!for!capital!gain!involved!leasing!rights!to!highest!bidding!fishing!operations!and!using!the!profits!to!accumulative!more!quota.!!As!a!result!of!this!settlement!asset!management!strategy,!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!is!now!a!one!billion!dollar!entity!(We!Are!Ngāi!Tahu!2017).!!However,!while!this!longBterm!capital!gain!strategy!facilitated!capital!accumulation!for!the!iwi!collectively,!few!iwi!members!receive!direct!benefits!from!settlement.!!Limited!redistribution!of!settlement!assets!to!iwi!members!can!be!explained!in!part!

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through!iwi!enrollment!practices!following!the!fishery!settlement’s!provision!that!assets!were!to!be!divided!up!based!on!population,!as!well!as!coastline.!!Iwi!membership!in!New!Zealand!is!based!on!genealogy,!which,!unlike!blood!quantum!requirements!for!iwi!enrollment!in!the!United!States,!does!not!diminish!through!interBmarriage.!!Iwi!politics!in!the!settlement!era!differ!markedly!from!that!in!the!United!States.!!Instead!of!attempting!to!limit!the!number!of!enrolled!members!who!might!obtain!assets,!as!is!occurring!in!the!United!States,!Māori!iwi!such!as!Ngāi!Tahu!are!attempting!to!grow!their!membership!numbers.!!This!growth!was!rewarded!in!the!Fisheries!Settlement,!where!iwi!population!was!a!determining!factor!in!deciding!the!amount!of!quota!assets!that!were!to!be!allocated!to!each!iwi.!!However,!growing!population!numbers!pose!challenges!for!wealth!reBdistribution!initiatives.!!Instead!of!redistribution,!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!supports!members!through!investments!in!soBcalled!“cultural”!development!initiatives,!including!scholarship!funds,!grants!for!community!gatherings,!and!Māori!language!revitalization!initiatives.!!However,!iwi!members!who!were!excluded!from!fisheries!with!the!implementation!of!the!privatized!fishery!management!system,!or!ITQ!system,!feel!doubly!excluded!by!iwi!development!initiatives!based!on!language!learning!and!education!scholarships.!!As!intergenerational!flounder,!eel!and!mullet!fisher!Roger!Clark!explains,!“My!culture!was!always!commercial.”!!Roger!Clark’s!critiques!of!the!investment!asset!management!strategy!are!echoed!in!accounts!from!academic!literature!and!the!broader!public!lamenting!Ngāi!Tahu’s!development!strategy!(De!Alessi!2012).!!As!the!iwi!provides!funds!to!educate!select!members,!individuals!educated!through!scholarship!programs!are!starting!to!take!over!positions!formerly!held!by!nonB!Māori!businessmen.!!Through!this!process,!they!are!attempting!to!implement!iwi!development!initiatives!that!reverse!trends!towards!an!uneven!geographical!distribution!of!benefits!following!fishery!privatization,!such!as!what!is!occurring!at!Te!Waihora.!!!Iwi!development!leaders’!focus!on!fishers!is!intended!in!part!to!solve!the,!“crisis!of!masculinity,”!experienced!by!iwi!members!and!defined!as!such!by&development!leaders.!!This!“crisis”!is!exhibited!in!high!rates!of!unemployment!and!corresponding!social!dysfunctions,!including!substance!abuse!and!abuse!of!women!and!children!(New!Zealand!2016).!!Iwi!leaders!attribute!this!crisis!to!consecutive!restriction!on!employment!opportunities!for!Māori!men!without!formal!education,!effected!by!the!privatization!of!fisheries!as!well!as!the!relocation!of!manual!labor!jobs!overseas!following!the!government’s!signing!of!freeBtrade!agreements!starting!in!the!early!1980s.!!Research!findings!from!work!conducted!by!a!Ngāi!Tahu!research!team!investigating!historical!drivers!of!social!dysfunction!in!Māori!communities!support!this!emphasis!on!“traditional”!fishing!practices!as!a!development!strategy!to!support!iwi!fishers.!!Drawing!on!inBdepth!interviews!with!a!multiBgenerational!group!of!Ngāi!Tahu!individuals,!the!experience!the!Ngāi!Tahu!researchers!identified!that!most!directly!correlated!to!spikes!in!psychological!disorders!including!depression,!and!physical!disorders!such!as!obesity,!was!the!removal!of!individuals!from!coastal!reservation!lands!to!cities!in!the!1960s,!where!Ngāi!Tahu!individuals!adopted!wageBlabor!jobs!(Reid!et&al.!2016).!!

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!To!mitigate!the!effects!of!this!dysfunction,!the!iwi!is!engaging!in!strategies!to!promote!fishers’!development!by!increasing!fishers’!access!to!commercial!fishing!quota!necessary!to!sell!fish.!!The!development!of!the!Te!Waihora!eel!fishery!is!one!of!the!Ngāi!Tahu’s!most!comprehensive!attempts!to!use!settlement!assets!and!governance!rights!for!local!economic!development.!!The!decision!to!focus!iwi!support!for!fishers’!development!at!Te!Waihora!specifically!was!tied!to!the!cultural!significance!of!the!species!as!a!predominately!“Māori”!food,!as!nonBMāori!accessed!protein!from!landBbased!agriculture!and!rarely!ate!eel!(Waitangi&Tribunal!1991).!!The!historical!significance!of!eel!for!Ngāi!Tahu!prompted!iwi!leaders!to!agree!that!quota!for!eel!on!the!lake!is!too!politically!contentious!to!lease!to!nonBMāori!operations.!!!Currently,!there!are!three!primary!ways!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!access!the!eel!fisheries!in!the!Te!Waihora!lake!region,!only!one!of!which!holds!promise!for!local!development.!!The!first!is!through!recreational!catches,!whereby!any!individual!can!take!fish!up!to!the!daily!recreational!limits!set!by!the!government.!!No!permit!or!licensing!fee!required.!!As!of!2016,!any!individual!with!fishing!gear!may!take!six!shortBfinned!eel!and!thirty!total!flatfish,!a!category!that!includes!the!lake’s!black!(Rhombosolea&retiaria),!yellow!(Rhombosolea&leporina),!and!sand!flounder!(Rhombosolea&plebeia).!!There!is!no!daily!catch!limit!for!yellowBeyed!mullet!(Aldrichetta&forsteri).!!!!The!second!way!individuals!catch!eel!is!through!customary!catch!permits.!!These!permits!are!written!by!individuals!appointed!by!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!and!other!iwi!as!designated!“customary”!guardians,!or!kaitiaki,!for!certain!fishery!regions!of!historical!importance!to!the!iwi.!!Customary!guardians!can!write!permits!to!individuals!above!daily!catch!limits.!!The!purpose!of!customary!catches,!as!per!the!settlement!agreements,!is!to!supply!fish!for!community!gatherings.!!Individuals!fishing!on!a!customary!catch!permit!must!indicate!on!the!permit!where!they!plan!to!eat!and!distribute!the!fish.!!This!authority!to!write!customary!permits!was!designated!by!the!government!to!Māori!in!the!1992!Fisheries!Settlement.!!!The!government!prohibits!fishers!catching!fish!through!recreational!or!customary!regulations!from!earning!income!from!fish!caught.!!The!primary!complaint!from!these!nonBcommercial!fishers!is!that!even!though!they!have!the!legal!ability!to!take!fish,!without!the!ability!to!sell!their!fish,!they!cannot!afford!to!fund!a!boat!or!gear!needed!to!take!fish.!!Eel!fishing!outside!of!migration!time!involves!fyke!nets,!long!sockBlike!nets!fixed!to!semiBpermanent!wooden!stakes!and!left!overnight!in!the!lake!for!schooling!eel!to!swim!into.!!Commercial!fishing!on!the!lake!carries!physical!risk,!as!Te!Waihora!is!notorious!for!abrupt!changes!in!the!weather!when!southerly!storms!from!Antarctic!waters!roll!through.!!Rumors!circulating!in!2014!included!stories!of!how!a!boat!filled!with!government!fishery!monitors!lost!their!way!back!to!shore!after!a!storm!rolled!through!and!the!crew!lost!their!orientation.!!!Te!Waihora!kaitiaki&Roger!Clark!argues!that!he!cannot!fulfill!his!customary!management!duties!without!access!to!capital!needed!to!fund!a!boat,!gear,!and!fuel!

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required!for!to!conduct!routine!fish!takes.!!Prior!to!fishery!privatization,!he!developed!his!knowledge!about!the!fishery!based!on!fishing!trips!multiple!times!per!week!where!he!would!catch!flounder!and!mullet!to!sell,!as!he!describes,!to!“Pacific!Islanders!at!the!local!pub,”!in!order!to!supplement!his!income!as!a!railroad!worker.!!When!the!government’s!implementation!of!the!ITQ!system!made!it!illegal!for!smallBscale!fishers!such!as!Roger!to!sell!their!fish!without!owning!ITQ!rights,!Roger!was!forced!to!decrease!the!frequency!of!his!fishing!trips.!!For!Roger,!the!ability!for!fishers!to!earn!revenue!from!fishing!to!support!a!fishing!operation!is!central!to!his!ability!to!monitor!the!ecological!health!of!the!fishery,!as!routine!fishing!trips!are!needed!to!determine!fishery!status.!!!The!third!strategy!is!through!quota!rights!for!commercial!fish!catches,!a!privatized!property!right!established!by!the!government’s!implementation!of!the!ITQ!system!that!is!required!by!any!fisher!wishing!to!sell!fish.!!Quota!corresponds!to!a!percentage!of!the!overall!total!allowable!catch,!determined!by!government!based!on!commercial!fishers’!catch!per!unit!effort!returns!year!to!year.!!Catch!per!unit!effort!is!determined!by!the!amount!of!time!it!takes!for!a!fisher!to!catch!the!same!amount!of!fish!year!to!year.!!The!better!the!status!of!the!fishery,!the!more!fish!a!fishers’!quota!holdings!correspond!to,!and!more!fishers!can!expand!their!operations.!!!!Despite!the!importance!of!the!eel!fishery!to!Ngāi!Tahu!during!the!colonial!period!and!after,!no!Māori!received!eel!quota!for!Te!Waihora!upon!ITQ!system!implementation.!!Instead,!the!government!allocated!all!the!eel!quota!for!the!lake!to!nonBMāori!fishers.!!The!nonBMāori!fishers!who!received!quota!in!the!early!1990s!were!those!individuals!who!were!exporting!fish!and!declaring!these!exports!on!their!taxes.!!Arguably,!these!individuals!were!rewarded!for!the!very!practices!that!lead!to!the!depleted!state!of!the!eel!fishery!to!begin!with.!!!Māori!fishers’!exclusion!was!a!direct!effect!of!the!ITQ!system’s!provisions!to!exclude!smallBscale!fishers,!or!anyone!declaring!less!than!80%!of!their!income!from!fishing.!!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers,!who!sold!most!of!their!catches!informally,!including!Roger!Clark,!were!not!declaring!their!eel!catches,!in!part!due!their!understanding!that!the!fishery!was!MāoriBowned,!as!protected!by!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi.!!Iwi!representatives!used!Clark’s!account!of!exclusion!as!evidence!in!the!Fisheries!Settlement!negotiations,!prompting!return!of!the!quota!to!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!in!2004.!!Ngāi!Tahu’s!“alternative!development”!strategies,!as!defined!by!iwi!leaders,!include!the!allocation!of!iwiBowned!eel!quota!rights!to!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!in!an!effort!to!reBestablish!Ngāi!Tahu!presence!in!the!Te!Waihora!fishery.!!This!effort!on!the!iwi’s!part!to!help!individuals!develop!fishing!operations!is!significant!not!only!for!individuals,!but!also!for!realizing!customary!catches!and!the!social!benefits!these!catches!provide.!!!2.3&&AntiBColonial&Development&Strategies&on&Te&Waihora&&&Ben!Tamati!is!one!Ngāi!Tahu!fisher!who!benefited!from!the!reBallocation!of!fishing!quota.!!Since!obtaining!the!eel!quota,!Ben!moved!off!government!assistance,!bought!a!hut!next!to!Roger’s!and!saved!enough!money!to!also!lease!flounder!and!mullet!

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quota!from!a!larger!fishing!company.!!Ben’s!almost!daily!fishing!trips!on!the!lake!enable!him!to!provide!regular,!upBtoBdate!accounts!of!fishing!conditions!to!kaitiaki,!such!as!Roger!Clark,!who!cannot!otherwise!afford!to!access!the!lake!daily.!!At!the!end!of!each!trip,!Ben!meets!Roger!at!his!hut!to!report!on!the!quantity!and!quality!of!the!fish!caught,!and!to!obtain!knowledge!from!Roger!about!how!changing!conditions!in!his!catches!can!be!used!to!inform!future!trips.!!Roger!takes!account!of!these!changing!conditions!in!determining!the!quantity!of!fish!suitable!for!catches!on!customary!permits!and!for!weighing!in!on!lake!management!planning!as!part!of!his!responsibilities!as!customary!guardian.!!!Ben!Tamati!also!supplies!fish!to!local!community!members,!which!are!caught!on!customary!catch!permits!issued!by!Roger.!!Community!members!that!Ben!delivers!processed!fish!to!include!Ngāi!Tahu!and!nonB!Ngāi!Tahu!elders!who!are!no!longer!able!to!fish!themselves,!and!individuals!without!the!capital!means!to!access!fisheries;!these!individuals!often!otherwise!subsist!on!less!nutritious!but!lowerBcost!processed!foods.!!In!addition,!Ben!supplies!fish!for!larger!community!gatherings.!!In!doing!so,!he!enables!Ngāi!Tahu!individuals!to!fulfill!their!“traditional”!practices!of!showcasing!the!best!food!their!region!has!to!offer!as!a!sign!of!strength,!a!practice!described!as!mana.!!Ed!Tamati,!Ben’s!father,!describes!mana!as!a!strategy!for!debtBprovisioning;!“I!give!so!that!I!can!take.”!!!!!!The!significance!of!access!to!fish!for!Ngāi!Tahu!community!development!was!highlighted!at!the!2015!Te!Matatini!festival.!!Te!Matatini!is!an!international!Polynesian!Kapa!Haka!song!and!dance!competition!hosted!by!a!different!indigenous!group!every!two!years.!!In!2015,!Ngāi!Tahu!hosted!the!competition!in!Christchurch.!!To!showcase!the!iwi!and!the!region,!event!organizer!Te!Maire!Tau,!a!Ngāi!Tahu!leader,!made!the!decision!to!include!only!traditional!Māori!foods!at!the!festival.!!No!soda!or!imported!foods!were!allowed.!!Over!40,000!people!attended,!including!indigenous!community!members!from!across!the!Pacific.!!!supplied!over!20!tonnes!of!eel!from!Te!Waihora,!his!cousin!provided!wild!boar,!and!others!prepared!fried!bread,!a!traditional!specialty.!!!!!The!iwi’s!provisioning!of!traditional!foods!served!to!facilitate!an!antiBcolonial,!Ngāi!TahuBled!account!of!Ngāi!Tahu!identity!as!one!of!hunters,!gatherers,!and!food!providers,!providing!a!counterpoint!to!the!much!more!popular!representation!of!Polynesian!identity!as!tied!to!song!and!dance.!!By!providing!traditional!foods!at!largeBscale!public!events,!Te!Maire!Tau!described!part!of!his!goal!as!being!to!present!community!members!with!tasty!and!accessible!alternatives!to!processed,!imported!food!in!an!effort!to!initiate!an!indigenousBled!(kaupapa)!strategy!for!countering!adverse!health!outcomes!increasingly!identified!in!Māori!communities!and!others!in!New!Zealand,!including!obesity!and!heart!disease!(New!Zealand!2016).!!It!also!worked!to!reBframe!the!narrative!around!Māori!health!outcomes!as!an!effect!of!restricted!access!to!traditional!food!and!food!procurement!practices,!rather!than!an!effect!of!an!individual’s!lack!of!selfBcontrol.!!!!!

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Iwi!development!leaders!are!attempting!to!further!institutionalize!traditional!food!provisioning!as!a!strategy!for!economic!development!through!direct!to!consumer!marketing!of!wild!food!caught!by!iwi!members.!!Iwi!development!leaders!Jason!Brown!and!Matt!Williams!identify!the!“paleo”!diet!trend!as!something!Māori!development!initiatives!can!tap!into.!!Branded!as,!“Ahikā&kai,”!or,!“food!from!the!home!fires,”!Brown!and!Williams!are!attempting!to!use!technological!resources!and!capital!available!at!Ngāi!Tahu!headquarters!to!facilitate!iwi!hunter!and!gathers’!access!to!domestic!and!overseas!consumers!that!are!interested!in!paying!top!dollar!for!wildBcaught!food.!!Ben!Tamati’s!uncle,!Robert!Tamati,!sells!eel!caught!north!of!Te!Waihora!through!this!platform.!!The!possibility!to!connect!strengths!held!at!the!iwi!level!to!support!Ngāi!Tahu!hunters!and!fishers!is!an!attempt!to!provide!selfBdirected!economic!support!for!individuals!who!already!provision!food!locally,!in!order!to!aid!these!individuals’!abilities!to!move!off!stateBwelfare!systems!and!support!themselves!and!their!families!economically!and!nutritionally.!!However,!the!provisioning!of!wildBcaught!food!is!only!possible!through!the!support!of!indigenous!commercial!fishers!on!Te!Waihora!and!a!healthy!eel!fishery.!!!In!addition!to!developing!commercial!fishing!operations,!in!an!effort!to!counter!“western”!models!of!development,!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!leaders!and!fishers!are!working!to!establish!Te!Waihora!as!a!mahinga&kai,!or!traditional!foods,!park.!!As!Roger!Clark!describes,!the!Canterbury!catchment!as!a!mahinga&kai&park!is!an!opportunity!for!visitors!to!come!to!Te!Waihora!and!its!neighbor,!Wairewa/Lake!Forsyth,!for!the!purpose!of!collecting,!hunting!and!fishing!for!traditional!foods,!including!eel,!swan!eggs,!flounder,!ducks!and!watercress.!!Unlike!the!longBstanding!nonBMāori!representations!of!lowBlying!lagoon!areas!as!aesthetically!undesirable,!written!off!in!favor!of!New!Zealand’s!deep,!blue,!and!ecologically!monolithic!alpine!lakes,!Ngāi!Tahu!members!have!long!viewed!Te!Waihora!as!a!“food!basket.”!!Attempting!to!tap!into!economic!benefits!from!tourism,!the!second!highest!contributor!to!the!nation’s!GDP!behind!primary!production!industries,!Ngāi!Tahu!economic!development!leader!Zach!Hamilton!describes!the!notion!of!a!mahinga&kai&park!as!a!strategy!to!use!rights!obtained!in!settlement!for!commercial!and!cultural!development.!!!The!notion!of!a!mahinga&kai&park!similarly!resonates!with!iwi!fishers.!!Ed!Tamati,!a!kaitiaki&for!the!region!north!of!Te!Waihora,!tells!stories!of!his!dream!to!link!his!land!in!Rangiora!with!Te!Waihora!through!a!mahinga&kai!park!that!will!look!from!the!tops!of!the!mountains!on!his!property!to!the!ocean,!through!Te!Waihora.!!Standing!on!his!property,!the!site!of!his!newly!constructed,!commercial!food!grade!certified!processing!factory!for!eel!caught!by!his!son,!Ben,!the!elder!Tamati!discussed!how!a!mahinga&kai!park!could!link!his!MāoriBowned!land,!designated!a!garden!basket!prior!to!transition!over!mountains,!to!Te!Waihora!–!a!view!you!can!see!from!the!mountain!top!–!linking!the!routes!his!ancestors!used!to!take,!from!the!mountains!to!the!sea.!!Iwi!elders!including!Ed!and!Roger!also!advocate!for!a!mahinga&kai!park!as!a!way!to!provide!an!opportunity!for!elder!Māori!to!teach!younger!generations!how!to!fish,!a!knowledge!that!Roger!and!Ed!lament!is!being!lost!due!to!individuals’!lack!of!access!to!the!fishery.!!!!

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The!ability!for!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!to!posit!alternative!plans!to!existing!models!of!development!in!New!Zealand!is!an!empowering!deviation!from!the!“grievance!mode”!conditions!of!settlement!negotiations.!!Ngāi!Tahu’s!land!and!Fisheries!Settlement!negotiations!took!place!beginning!in!1986!when!the!land!claim!was!filed,!through!the!midB1990s,!with!the!Fisheries!Settlement!in!1992!and!the!landBbased!settlement!legislated!in!1998.!!The!negotiation!process!included!investigation!into!two!reports!from!the!Waitangi!Tribunal,!a!government!institution!charged!with!investigating!government!violations!of!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi!and!making!recommendations!as!to!how!historical!and!contemporary!grievances!could!be!settled!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1991,!Waitangi!Tribunal&1992).!!During!the!years!of!the!negotiation!period,!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers,!including!Roger!Clark!and!Rawiri!Taiake,!repeatedly!related!their!personal!accounts!of!economic!hardship!and!detailed!histories!of!familial!unrest,!in!public!forums.!!Roger!and!Rawiri!explained!that!they!did!this!in!order!to!gain!benefits!for!their!whānau,!or!families.!!However,!both!argue!that!the!settlements!have!actually!provided!little!support!for!their!whānau.&!!!In!2013,!Roger!Clark!and!Rawiri!Taiake,!both!Ngāi!Tahu!elders!with!longstanding!ties!to!the!fishery,!attempted!to!implement!a!first!stage!of!the!plan!for!the!mahinga&kai!park,!which!primarily!involves!increasing!access!to!the!lake.!!Roger!and!Rawiri!applied!to!the!regional!council!for!development!of!a!gravel!road!out!to!the!waters’!edge!at!Te!Waihora!that!would!enable!elder!Ngāi!Tahu!access!to!the!lakeshore!for!flounder!fishing.!!Roger!and!others!catch!flounder,!or!pātiki,&using!gill!nets!that!are!walked!out!along!the!lakeshore!in!regions!merging!into!mudflats,!which!flounder!come!off!to!feed.!!Roger’s!idea!in!creating!an!access!road!to!this!region!was!to!facilitate!lake!access!for!older!fishers!who!could!no!longer!easily!walk!across!the!swampland!to!the!lake’s!edge,!so!that!older!fishers!could!instruct!the!younger!generation!on!where!to!place!nets!and!to!help!gut!the!fish!before!bringing!them!back!to!the!lakeshore!huts!for!smoking.!!Without!the!access!road,!elder!fishers!remain!at!the!huts!to!smoke!the!fish.!!Few!are!able!to!make!the!twoBmile!walk!across!the!mudflats!for!net!setting.!!The!ecological!knowledge!of!these!elder!fishers!is!especially!important!given!that!most!younger!generations!have!had!less!access!to!the!fishery,!and!therefore!fewer!opportunities!to!gain!ecological!management!experience.!This!is!because!ITQ!system!implementation!restricted!access!after!the!1980s,!and!restrictions!remained!until!iwi!quota!reBallocation!was!deployed!as!part!of!the!iwi’s!alternative!development!initiatives!in!the!2000s.!!Ngāi!Tahu’s!alternative!development!strategies!are!attempts!to!reverse!legacies!of!colonialism!using!settlement!assets.!!They!are!antiBcolonial!in!multiple!ways.!!First,!they!challenge!essentialized!notions!of!indigeneity!as!nonBeconomic,!notions!that!indigenous!scholars!elsewhere!argue!limit!cultural!and!economic!development.!!Second,!they!confer!control!over!economic!exchange/business!development!to!iwi!members,!operating!as!strategies!for!indigenousBled!future!planning,!countering!framings!of!indigenous!communities!as!dying!out,!narratives!that!Māori!scholars!and!others!identify!as!legitimizing!lack!of!government!support!for!indigenous!groups.!!Ngāi!Tahu’s!alternative!development!strategies!also!resemble!examples!of!postBcapitalist!futures,!of!the!kind!advocated!for!by!generations!of!scholars!(e.g.!

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GibsonBGraham!2006).!!!Additionally,!the!notion!of!a!mahinga&kai!park!is!also!a!provocative!counterpart!to!the!lockBitBand!leave!it!“fortress!conservation”!model!of!conservation,!a!model!widely!deployed!and!widely!critiqued!for!limiting!opportunities!for!local!economic!development!(Brockington!2002).!!!!The!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!embarks!on!their!antiBcolonial!development!strategies!under!pressure!from!iwi!members!and!the!broader!New!Zealand!public!to!use!their!treaty!settlement!assets!for!iwi!members’!development.!!These!antiBcolonial!development!strategies!–!the!mahinga&kai!park!and!the!expansion!of!smallBscale!fishing!operations!–!are!wholly!contingent!on!a!healthy!Te!Waihora!fishery.!!However,!upstream!from!Te!Waihora,!the!national!government!is!supporting!a!landBbased!development!initiative!that!threatens!the!health!of!the!Te!Waihora!fishery!and!Ngāi!Tahu’s!fishery!development!strategies,!through!the!development!of!the!nation’s!dairy!industry!for!export.!&&3.(Meanwhile,(Upstream…(Dairy,(Fisheries,(and(Free(Trade(&From!2000!–!2015,!as!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!invested!in!the!development!of!fishing!economies!on!Te!Waihora,!the!number!of!hectares!managed!as!dairy!enterprises!in!the!Te!Waihora!nutrient!allocation!zone!increased!by!over!50%!(Lomax!et&al.!2015).!!During!this!period,!the!number!of!cows!in!the!Te!Waihora!district,!called!SewlynBWaihora,!also!increased!by!over!50%!(New&Zealand&Dairy&Statistics&2015B2016!2016).!!Upstream!dairy!development!is!a!problem!for!Te!Waihora!fishers!and!fisheries!as!increased!stocking!rates!and!fertilizer!application!for!pasture!development!corresponds!to!increased!deposition!of!fine!sediments,!nutrients,!and!ecologicallyBaltering!bacteria!into!groundwater!and!waterways!that!lead!into!the!lake!(Weeks!et&al.!2016).14!!In!2015,!fecal!and!nitrate!levels!in!the!groundwater!supplies!to!the!hut!communities!of!lake!residents,!were!intermittently!documented!as!exceeding!drinking!water!standards!(Lomax!et&al.!2015).!!Many!of!the!residents!in!the!hut!communities!surrounding!the!lake!subsist!off!government!assistance!and!are!financially!limited!in!their!ability!to!regularly!access!drinking!water!from!elsewhere.!!Fish!habitat!was!also!threatened!as!the!lake’s!trophic!level!increased!between!2012!–!2015!from!a!superBtropic!state!to!a!hypertrophic!state,!with!increases!in!nutrient!and!algae!concentrations!(Lomax!et&al.!2015).!!When!hypertrophic,!Te!Waihora!exhibits!cyanobacteria!algal!blooms!that!are!toxic!to!fish!and!humans!(Lomax!et&al.!2015).!!For!resident!and!fishery!health,!what!is!especially!concerning!about!upstream!dairy!intensification!is!that!it!is!likely!to!continue!to!increase!before!it!is!mitigated,!thanks!to!the!national!government’s!marketBbased!economic!development!initiatives!over!the!last!thirty!years.!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!14!Te!Waihora!is!part!of!the!North!Canterbury!region,!which!boasts!the!nation’s!highest!milk!fat,!protein,!and!milk!solids!production!per!cow!(New&Zealand&Dairy&Statistics&2015B2016!2016).!!Increased!milk!production!capacities!for!cows!are!explained!in!part!to!increased!application!of!nitrateBfilled!fertilizers!to!pasture!land!(Weeks!et&al.!2016).!!!

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In!addition!to!Māori!treaty!settlement!signing,!the!government’s!transition!from!socialism!to!a!marketBbased!society!also!involved!the!signing!of!free!trade!agreements!with!other!nations,!including!China!in!2008.15!!The!New!ZealandBChina!agreement!established!New!Zealand!as!the!first!nation!in!the!Organization!for!Economic!Cooperation!and!Development!(OECD),!a!35!member!organization!established!in!1960!to!promote!marketBbased,!democratic!governing!principles,!to!sign!a!free!trade!agreement!with!the!formerly!communist!nation.!!Surreptitiously!for!New!Zealand’s!dairy!export!industry,!New!Zealand’s!economic!partnership!with!China!coincided!with!the!2008!Chinese!“milk!scandal,”!whereby!baby!formula!from!Chinese!milk!producers!was!found!laced!with!the!chemical!melamine!and!blamed!for!the!deaths!of!six!infants!and!the!illnesses!of!over!300,000!others!(Barboza!2008).!!From!1992!to!2014,!China!moved!from!New!Zealand’s!thirtyBfirst!to!number!one!destination!for!dairy!exports!(Guide&to&New&Zealand&Milk&Price&Futures&and&Options!2017).!!During!this!time,!New!Zealand’s!dairy!export!value!increased!from!$2.5!billion!to!$18!billion!(Guide&to&New&Zealand&Milk&Price&Futures&and&Options!2017).!!As!of!2016,!economic!growth!in!China!has!surpassed!economic!growth!in!the!United!States!as!the!primary!factor!influencing!New!Zealand’s!exchange!rate!(Kamber!et&al.!2016).16!!!As!of!2017,!95%!of!the!dairy!produced!in!New!Zealand!is!exported,!usually!in!the!form!of!milk!solids!(Guide&to&New&Zealand&Milk&Price&Futures&and&Options!2017).!!Currently,!New!Zealand!controls!one!third!of!the!world’s!total!dairy!export!trade,!and!is!the!world’s!number!one!exporter!of!whole!milk!solids!(Guide&to&New&Zealand&Milk&Price&Futures&and&Options!2017).!!New!Zealand’s!dairy!export!trade!represents!three!percent!of!the!world’s!total!dairy!(Guide&to&New&Zealand&Milk&Price&Futures&and&Options!2017).!!Increased!dairy!exports!are!made!possible!through!intensified!production!practices.!!From!2002!–!2015,!the!total!number!of!cows!in!New!Zealand!increased!from!approximately!3.8!million!to!5!million!(About!the!NZ!Dairy!Industry!2017).!!During!this!same!period,!both!the!average!liters!per!herd!and!the!average!milk!solids!per!hectare!more!than!tripled;!increases!were!made!possible!through!increased!fertilizer!applications!to!dairy!pastures!(About!the!NZ!Dairy!Industry!2017).!!Environmental!monitoring!efforts!throughout!New!Zealand!increasingly!identify!waterBquality!declines!corresponding!to!increased!nutrient!contents!from!agricultural!intensification!in!waterways!throughout!the!nation!(Ballantine!and!DaviesBColley!2014).!!In!2017,!New!Zealand!reserve!bank!economists!reported!that!dairy!farming!in!New!Zealand!is,!“three!times!more!profitable!per!hectare!than!other!land!uses”!(Guide&to&New&Zealand&Milk&Price&Futures&and&Options!2017).!!However,!increasingly,!banks,!not!farmers,!benefit!from!these!profits.!!In!addition!to!opening!new!markets,!New!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!15!Starting!with!Australia!in!1983,!by!2017!the!New!Zealand!government!had!signed!free!trade!agreements!with!sixteen!other!nations,!including!the!Association!of!Southeast!Asian!Nations!(ASEAN)!(NZ!Foreign!Affairs!and!Trade!2017).!16!In!2016,!reserve!bank!economists!attributed!50%!of!the!changes!in!the!nation’s!aggregate!commodity!price!index!to!dairy!prices!(Kamber!et&al.!2016).!!!

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Zealand’s!trade!liberalization!agreements!also!changed!how!farmers!access!funds!to!intensify!production!practices.!!New!Zealand’s!trade!agreements,!as!is!typical!of!freeBtrade!agreements!globally,!prohibit!the!government!from!providing!financial!assistance!to!farmers!when!export!market!prices!drop.!!These!trade!agreements!also!absolved!the!government!practice!of!providing!lowBfixed!interest!and!noBinterest!loans!for!farm!development!activities.!!In!the!freeBtrade!era,!farmers!instead!fund!farm!conversions!with!(usually!variable)!interestBladen!loans!from!financial!institutions.!!As!of!2017,!the!collective!debt!carried!by!New!Zealand!farmers!was!estimated!to!be!over!$60!billion,!with!$40!billion!held!by!dairy!farmers!(Galloway!2017).!!Mounting!debt!is!a!problem!for!rural!socioBeconomic!as!well!as!ecological!conditions,!upstream!and!downstream,!when!export!market!prices!drop!and!farmers!intensify!production!to!avoid!defaulting!on!their!loans.!!As!of!2017,!20%!of!farmers!with!the!highest!debt!required!a!payout!of!$5.80!per!kilogram!of!milk!solids!to!break!even!(Guide&to&New&Zealand&Milk&Price&Futures&and&Options!2017).!!In!2016,!the!price!dairy!farmers!received!for!their!milk!from!Fonterra,!the!industry!cooperative!that!exports!83%!of!the!nation’s!milk,!was!25!cents!per!kg!of!milk!solids!lower!than!expected,!dropping!to!$3.90!per!kilogram!of!milk!solids!(Guide&to&New&Zealand&Milk&Price&Futures&and&Options!2017).!!That!same!year!farmer!suicide!attempts!raised!alarms!in!rural!communities!across!the!nation,!and!mental!health!workers!attributed!decline!in!dairy!payouts!to!documented!increases!in!farmer!suicide!attempts,!domestic!violence,!and!alcohol!abuse!(Hindmarsh!2016).!!!!The!financial!institutions!currently!funding!farming!activities!in!New!Zealand!encourage!farmers!to!convert!to!dairy.!!For!example,!in!2014,!Philip!Johnston,!a!sheep!and!deer!farmer,!asked!the!bank!for!a!loan!to!build!a!new!fence.!!His!application!was!rejected.!!Instead,!the!bank!told!him!that!they!could!only!provide!his!loan!if!he!converted!to!dairy,!a!conversion!that!would!require!additional!loans.!!He!refused,!in!part!because!he!didn’t!want!to!take!on!additional!debt,!but!also!in!part!because!he!did!not!want!to!have!to!change!his!lifestyle!to!accommodate!milking,!routines!that!would!interfere!with!his!ability!to!eat!breakfast!and!dinner!with!his!children,!before!and!after!school.!!In!the!Te!Waihora!region!especially,!the!national!government!has!also!played!a!hand!in!encouraging!dairy!intensification.!!In!2010,!the!national!government!established!the!political!infrastructure!necessary!to!increase!farmers’!access!to!water!upstream!from!Te!Waihora,!despite!fishers’!and!environmentalists’!protests.!!That!year,!the!national!government!replaced!the!elected!regional!council!members!in!the!Te!Waihora!watershed!region!(also!known!as!Environment!Canterbury)!with!appointed!officials!through!the!Environment!Canterbury!(Temporary!Commissioner!and!Improved!Water!Management)!Act.!!Under!New!Zealand’s!Resource!Management!Act,!individuals!aiming!to!increase!farm!water!supply!through!waterway!diversions!or!groundwater!extraction!must!obtain!a!resource!consent!permit!from!the!regional!council!(Resource!Management!Act!1991).!!Regional!councils,!which!in!New!Zealand!are!broken!up!along!watershed!boundaries,!are!

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responsible!for!evaluating!the!impacts!of!the!proposed!activities!before!permit!authorization.!!Dissenters!and!supporters!weigh!in!on!the!evaluation!process.!!Prior!to!replacement,!the!Canterbury!regional!council!represented!the!nation’s!slowest!approval!process!for!farm!consents,!and!was!subject!to!several!court!cases!from!farmers!contesting!rejected!and!delayed!resource!consent!applications,!primarily!for!groundwater!extraction!from!highly!allocated!zones!(Environment!Canterbury!2004,!Kirk!et&al.!2017).!!The!previous!delay!in!approval!was!due!in!part!to!resistance!from!environmental!groups!arguing!that!groundwater!extraction!from!deeper!sources!would!impair!water!quality!across!the!region!(Dewes!2014).!!!!The!national!government’s!stated!objective!was!for!the!replacement!to!correspond!to!an!“urgent!improvement!in!freshwater!management!around!water!quality,!water!allocation!and!opportunities!for!water!storage”!(Stuff!2010).!!Yet,!the!year!after!appointment,!the!appointed!commissioners!approved!84%!of!the!ground!water!extraction!applications!for!the!maximum!period!of!35!years!(Kirk!et&al.!2017).!!Furthermore,!by!2016,!the!appointed!commissioners!had!approved!the!dozens!of!permits!necessary!for!a!dairyBindustry!owned!trust!to!divert!alpineBfed!rivers!upstream!from!Te!Waihora,!in!order!to!develop!the!nation’s!largest!water!infrastructure!project!in!over!thirty!years!planned!to!provide!irrigation!to!over!400!farms!(Fulton!2015,!Mcgregor!2015).!!As!of!2017,!20,000!hectares!had!been!irrigated!by!the!scheme,!making!possible!increased!stocking!rates!for!dairy!cows!upstream!(Guy!2017).!!The!project!is!oneBthird!complete,!and!phase!two!to!build!dam!infrastructure!to!irrigate!20,000!more!hectares!has!begun!(Guy!2017).!!In!approving!the!scheme,!the!appointed!commissioners!privileged!purported!economic!benefits!for!farmers!over!potential!harms!to!downstream!fisheries!and!fishery!economies!(Hutching!2016).!!Environmental!groups!and!others!opposed!the!scheme.!!Greenpeace!staged!multiple!protests!against!the!plan,!as!well!as!dairy!expansion!more!broadly!(Dam!protest!in!Wellington!2016,!Morton!2017).!!!In!2012,!the!national!government!further,!albeit!indirectly,!ensured!the!possibility!for!irrigation!system!development!through!its!rejection!of!MāoriBwide!claim!to!water!rights.!!The!claim,!filed!by!the!Māori!Council,!a!group!with!representatives!from!each!Māori!district,!arose!in!response!to!the!government’s!attempts!to!privatize!a!stateBowned!hydroB!and!geoBthermal!power!company!(Ruru!2012).!!The!claimants’!assertion!that!Māori!had!ownership!rights!over!water!corresponded!to!vehement!resistance!from!many!in!the!New!Zealand!public.!!Shortly!after!filing,!the!Prime!Minister!rejected!negotiation!over!the!Māori!claim,!by!a!declaration!that!water!in!New!Zealand!is!owned!by!“no!one”!(New!Zealand!Herald!2012).!!Yet,!as!the!national!government!asserted!that!no!one!owned!water,!irrigation!system!development!led!to!a!situation!where!farmers!had!access!to!clean!water,!while!downstream!fishers!did!not.!!Effectively,!farmers!and!the!government!own!the!clean!water!–!downstream!users!have!access!only!to!polluted!water.17&!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!17!Since!the!government’s!assertion,!the!Māori!Council’s!claim!was!supported!by!the!Waitangi!Tribunal,!who!drew!on!historical!documentation!of!Māori!interests!in!water!to!find!that!Māori!today!have!proprietary!interests!in!water!and!that!privatization!of!stateBowned!power!companies!

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!!!!In!addition!to!irrigation!system!development,!the!regional!council!in!the!Te!Waihora!region!also!facilitated!dairy!expansion!by!leasing!governmentBowned!land!along!waterways!for!grazing,!a!point!of!huge!frustration!to!at!least!several!lake!fishers,!who!view!the!amount!paid!to!government!for!leasing!as!far!lower!than!the!ecological!cost.!!Sitting!around!Roger!Clark’s!table!one!evening,!Roger’s!friend!Spencer!Baur,!a!lake!fisher!who!also!owns!land!upstream,!stormed!into!the!hut,!furious!that!the!government!recently!decided!to!lease!land!along!waterways!in!his!neighborhood!upstream!from!Te!Waihora!to!local!farmers!for!a!meager!sum!of!$3,000/year.!!Roger!and!Rawiri!echoed!Spencer’s!frustration.!!In!2013,!the!regional!council!rejected!Roger!and!Rawiri’s!proposal!for!a!walkway!to!facilitate!elder!fishers’!access!to!the!lakeshores.!!Instead,!the!council!leased!the!land!in!question!to!a!farmer!for!grazing.!!!In!2016,!in!response!to!growing!public!concern!about!the!impacts!of!dairy!conversions,!representatives!of!the!Te!Waihora!water!management!zone!created!regulation!to!reduce!nutrient!inputs!by!2022!(see!Figure!2!in!Appendix!One).!!These!limits!were!the!most!progressive!in!the!nation!(Kirk!et&al.!2017).!!They!were!established!with!the!declared!goal!of!also,!“as!much!as!possible!maintaining!productivity!and!regional!communities”!(Selwyn!Waihora!Zone!Committee!2016).!!This!goal!of!maintaining!economic!productivity!is!echoed!in!the!national!government’s!2012!Land!and!Water!Forum!report!on!water!quality!issues!in!New!Zealand,!which!stated,!“It&is&time&to&move&past&the&perception&that&tradingBoff&or&balancing&values&against&each&other&is&an&almost&inescapable&part&of&freshwater&management.&There&are&many&ways&to&pursue&environmental,&economic&and&social&benefits&at&once,&including&through&accessing&new&water&through&efficiency&gains&and&new&infrastructure,&adding&value&to&our&products&and&services,&science&and&innovation,&and&leveraging&off&our&environmental&performance&in&export&markets”!(Caygill!2017).!!A!written!explanation!presented!by!one!of!the!Te!Waihora!region’s!appointed!commissioners!explaining!the!lack!of!environmental!regulation!corresponding!to!the!irrigation!system!development—as!perceived!by!environmental!groups!and!fishers—explains!that!he!is,!“Saddened…”!that,!“…four&years&later&we&are&still&ignoring&that&advice&[from&the&Land&and&Water&Forum].&&Surely&we&have&moved&beyond&the&notion&that&we&must&choose&between&the&need&of&the&environment&and&our&economy”!(Caygill!2017).!!!!!But!who’s!economy!are!we!talking!about!here?!Economic!development!for!downstream!fisheries!is!at!stake!when!upstream!land!use!change!is!not!mitigated.!!Threats!to!downstream!fisheries,!from!current!and!past!agricultural!activity,!make!downstream!fishery!development!interventions!uneconomical,!or!risky,!investments.!!In!addition!to!limiting!the!potential!for!Ngāi!Tahu!to!use!rights!obtained!in!settlement!for!regional!development,!the!wider!benefits!from!dairy!are!yet!to!be!felt!by!the!broader!New!Zealand!population.!!Since!the!1980s,!when!the!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!(Waitangi!Tribunal!Freshwater!&!Geothermal!Resources!claim).!!In!the!meantime,!processes!of!dispossession!by!accumulation,!as!geographer!Tom!Perrault!describes!(Perreault!2012),!continue.!!

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national!government!adopted!marketBbased!governing!principles,!income!inequality!and!household!poverty!indicators!both!show!increases!over!50%!(Simpson!et!al.!2016,!Fyers!2017).!!The!government’s!maintenance!of!high!land!prices!facilitates!dairy!expansion!by!ensuring!that!farmers!have!collateral!to!mortgage!against!when!obtaining!loans!for!dairy!farm!conversions.!!However,!farmers!with!rising!debts!may!be!hard!pressed!to!agree!that!they!have!benefitted!from!this!economic!experiment.!!!Downstream!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!with!longstanding!ties!to!the!region!have!watched!these!trends.!!However,!despite!the!widespread!narrative!that!upstream!farming!intensification!has!negatively!impacted!water!quality!in!and!around!Te!Waihora,!none!of!the!fishers!I!work!with!blame!the!farmers!themselves.!!!!4.(Limits(to(Ngāi(Tahu’s(Settlement(Rights,(or(“CoWmanagement(is(Shit”((&I!came!to!New!Zealand!with!an!interest!in!the!potential!for!treaty!settlements!to!serve!social!and!environmental!outcomes.!!I!was!especially!interested!in!exploring!the!Te!Waihora!case!further,!due!to!the!framing!in!academic!literature!of!the!coBmanagement!regime!as!an!exemplary!case!of!MāoriBstate!partnership!(Prystupa!1998).!!My!first!visit!to!the!lake!shores!was!made!possible!through!a!connection!to!one!of!the!elder!fishers!on!the!lake!with!a!long!history!of!participation!in!the!coBmanagement!regime,!Rawiri!Taiake,!who!I!met!through!Jason!Brown,!who!at!the!time!worked!for!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!on!alternative!development!strategies,!including!the!allocation!of!quota!to!Ngāi!Tahu!eel!fishers!on!the!lake.!!Rawiri!brought!me!to!Roger!Clark’s!hut,!one!of!the!better!constructed,!and!warmer!huts!along!the!lake,!where!neighboring!former!fishers,!as!well!as!the!one!new!fishing!family!with!quota!from!Ngāi!Tahu,!frequently!congregate.!!I!explained!my!interest!in!the!coBmanagement!agreement!to!Roger.!!Without!skipping!a!beat,!Roger!immediately!replied,!“CoBmanagement!is!shit.”!!!!Roger’s!frustration!comes!from!the!fact!that!–!despite!his!designation!as!kaitiaki,!despite!the!presence!around!the!room!of!individuals!who!spent!decades!in!coBmanagement!meetings,!despite!the!presence!of!both!commercial!fishers!and!upstream!farmers!around!the!table!–!none!of!these!individuals’!property!or!governance!rights,!nor!those!granted!to!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi,!are!sufficient!for!amending!the!rampant!conversion!of!sheep!pastures!to!dairy!happening!upstream.!!!!Roger!is!clear!on!the!drivers!of!fishery!degradation:!the!lack!of!a!capital!gains!tax,!the!government’s!signing!of!freeBtrade!agreements!with!China,!and!the!lack!of!regulation!around!farmers’!water!use.!!Over!the!two!years!I!spent!visiting!and!eventually!living!in!a!hut!next!to!Roger’s,!he!repeated!these!drivers!time!and!time!again.!!Notably,!Roger!does!not!direct!his!frustration!towards!farmers.!!Instead,!this!individual!who!watched!New!Zealand!transition!from!socialism!to!neoliberalism,!argues!that!government!regulatory!decision!making,!and!the!lack!thereof,!is!the!primary!driver!of!upstream!land!use!change!and!the!polluted!status!of!fisheries!around!the!lake.!!He!argues,!based!on!his!years!of!living!in!region,!that!the!lack!of!waterBuse!regulations!prompts!farmers!to!invest!in!irrigation!system!development!

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whether!they!want!to!or!not,!for!fear!that!future!water!and!fertilizer!restrictions!will!be!determined!based!on!existing!use.!!Similarly,!he!argues!that!the!lack!of!a!capital!gains!tax!incentivizes!farmers!to!invest!in!dairy!infrastructure!even!in!cases!where!they!themselves!do!not!want!to!become!dairy!farmers,!in!order!to!realize!benefits!from!land!sales.!!!!Roger’s!observations!regarding!farmers’!fear!of!future!water!and!fertilizerBuse!regulations!as!an!incentive!for!farmers!to!increase!production!intensity!is!supported!by!the!government’s!regulations!for!fish!and!carbon.!!In!establishing!the!nation’s!commercial!fishery!restrictions,!including!those!downstream!on!Te!Waihora,!the!government!allocated!fishing!rights!based!on!!documentation!of!previous!catches,!privileging!those!with!higher!catch!histories,!who!were!also!those!more!responsible!for!fishery!declines!(Bodwitch!2017).!!Roger’s!account!of!the!benefits!of!future!sales!from!a!lack!of!a!capital!gains!tax!as!an!incentive!for!farmers!to!convert!to!dairy,!is!supported!by!gradual!increases!in!farm!sales!since!the!dairy!market!expanded,!often!to!corporate!entities!(Real!Estate!Insitute!New!Zealand!2017).!!The!corporatization!of!the!countryside!is!a!problem!for!longBterm!land!stewardship!and!equitable!resource!distribution.!!Corporate!farm!owners!appoint!farm!managers!to!run!the!farm.!!Evaluated!on!year!endBreturns,!managers!are!incentivized!to!keep!production!practices!high,!even!when!these!practices!correspond!to!longBterm!ecological!threats.!!!Roger’s!knowledge!of!the!relationships!between!political!economic!decision!making!at!a!national!scale!and!incentives!for!farmers!to!alter!their!production!practices!is!based!on!his!years!of!living,!fishing,!and!spending!time!communicating!with!others!around!the!lake.!!The!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!recognized!the!depth!and!breadth!of!his!knowledge!of!the!lake!in!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi’s!designation!of!Roger!as!Te!Waihora!kaitiaki!(a!designation!that!enables!Roger!to!determine!fish!take!amounts!suitable!for!customary!catches!and!weigh!in!on!lake!governance!decisionBmaking).!!Yet,!despite!Roger’s!status!as!kaitiaki,!Ngāi!Tahu’s!role!as!coBmanagement!partners!and!lakebed!owners,!and!the!Treaty!partnership!provisions!between!Māori!and!the!government!that!extend,!in!principle,!to!all!stateBMāori!relations,!Roger’s!knowledge!of!the!drivers!of!changing!lake!ecology!is!ineffective!in!addressing!upstream!land!use!change.!!4.2&&Ineffective&“BackBEnd”&Governance&Strategies&&!Ngāi!Tahu!lake!governance!includes!collaborative!partnerships!with!the!Department!of!Conservation!and!the!Environment!Canterbury!Regional!Council!for!management!of!the!lakebed!bottom,!with!the!goal!of!improving!ecosystem!health!(Whakaora&Te&Waihora&Joint&Cultural&and&Ecological&Restoration&Plan!2011).!!The!iwi!can!make!nonBbinding!recommendations!to!the!council!regarding!permitting!activities!under!the!Resource!Management!Act.!!Ultimately!decisions!to!grant!an!upstream!land!owner!the!resource!consent!required!to!alter!production!practices!rely!on!the!regional!council,!who!hears!submissions!regarding!effects!of!proposed!activities.!!Ngāi!Tahu!lake!fishers!have!dedicated!years!working!on!various!elements!of!the!coB

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governance!partnership.!!However,!of!the!fishers!with!the!longest!ties!to!the!lake,!few!are!still!participating,!reporting!frustration!with!the!ineffectiveness!of!Ngāi!Tahu!governance!rights!to!address!ecological!changes!from!upstream!irrigation!system!development.!!!!Of!those!fishers!who!visit!the!lake!at!last!once!a!week,!including!Roger!Clark,!Rawiri!Taiake,!or!Spencer!Baur,!and!also!two!commercial!fishers,!Cliff!Jones!and!Ben!Tamati,!none!attend!coBmanagement!meetings.!!Roger!and!Rawiri!were!former!attendants.!!Both!report!initial!excitement!about!the!possibility!of!the!treaty!settlement!to!impart!benefits!to!their!families,!who!were!excluded!from!commercial!fishery!access!via!ITQ!system!implementation.!!But!both!feel!that!any!onceBpromised!benefits!to!their!families!from!their!participation!in!settlement!negotiations!and!management!initiatives!have!yet!to!materialize.!!Years!after!years!of!feeling!that!the!coBmanagement!initiatives!were!ineffective,!both!Roger!and!Rawiri!stopped!attending!meetings.!!Roger!stopped!first,!upset!that!his!ecological!knowledge!was!pigeonBholed!to!downstream!interests.!!Rawiri!lasted!longest,!but!left!after!11!years!of!observing!nothing!changing.!!The!coBmanagement!group,!formerly!populated!by!fishers!on!the!lake,!is!now!primarily!headed!by!individuals!living!in!suburban!areas!away!from!the!lakeshores.!!!This!group!of!fishers,!encompassing!a!majority!of!the!commercial!fishers!on!the!lake,!also!report!frustration!with!what!Ben!Tamati!describes!as!the!coBgovernance!initiative’s,!“backBend”!solutions!to!pollution!mitigation.!!Included!in!these!initiatives!is!an!effort!to!replant!aquatic!macrophytes!on!the!lakebed!bottom.!!Up!until!the!midB1900s,!similar!plants!populated!the!lakebed!bottom.!!In!1968,!however,!the!now!infamous!Wahine!storm!came!through!and!ripped!up!plants,!previously!credited!with!providing!filtration!services!(Lomax!et&al.!2015).!!!Removal!of!the!plants!transitioned!the!lake!from!a!clear!water!lake!to!cloudy,!in!addition!to!altering!fish!and!black!swan!habitat!(Williams!1979).!!The!goal!of!the!replanting!is!to!establish!plants!that!absorb!nitrates!and!phosphorous!from!cow!urine!and!fertilizers!applied!upstream!(Lomax!et&al.!2015).!!Roger!Clark,!Spencer!Baur,!and!others,!however,!argue!that!weed!reBgrowth!is!an!impossibility.!!They!argue!that!the!reason!the!weeds!were!ripped!out!in!the!storm!was!an!effect!of!the!low!lake!levels!due!to!drainage.!!Roger!Clark!argues!that!the!continuation!of!low!lake!levels!(2B3!meters)!through!lakeBopenings!designed!to!prevent!upstream!flooding,!prohibits!weed!regeneration,!no!matter!how!much!grant!funding!is!behind!the!initiative.!!!Individuals!participating!in!“backBend”!lake!clean!up!initiatives!also!experienced!frustration!with!ineffectiveness!of!efforts!to!document!impacts!of!intensified!grazing!and!expanded!irrigation!channel!development.!!In!2013,!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!hired!freshwater!ecologist!Amy!Smith!to!monitor!fresh!water!fisheries!and!document!places!where!endangered!koura&(freshwater!lobster)!lived.!!Freshwater!koura!is!a!species!with!historical!importance!to!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!who!report!fishing!and!catching!it!in!the!streams!upstream!from!Te!Waihora!that!have!been!reBchanneled!for!irrigation!to!supply!farms.!!Amy’s!task,!however,!was!challenging.!!Irrigation!system!development!was!continuing!at!the!same!time!Amy!was!attempting!to!

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identify!freshwater!koura!habitats.!!Amy!identified!possible!freshwater!upstream!habitat!locations!using!oral!histories!from!iwi!elders!in!the!region.!!However,!irrigation!system!development!meant!that!the!regional!council!was!continually!paying!diggers!to!clear!out!potential!habitat!sites!to!prevent!irrigation!flow!blockages.!!Moreover,!as!Amy!attempted!to!document!the!presence!of!kouru&in!order!to!argue!that!further!irrigation!system!development!would!adversely!impact!the!species,!the!regional!council’s!appointed!commissioners!continued!to!approve!farmers’!applications!for!resource!consents!for!dairy!intensification.!!In!2016,!funding!ran!out!for!Amy’s!position.!!The!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi’s!data!on!impacts!of!upstream!irrigation!on!freshwater!fish!formerly!living!in!the!rivers!feeding!Te!Waihora!is!limited!to!oral!accounts!from!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!who!grew!up!fishing!these!areas!–!accounts!that!to!date!have!been!ineffective!in!resisting!irrigation!drain!development.!!!4.3&&Regulating&Fishers,&Rarely&Farmers&!Instead!of!addressing!the!drivers!of!upstream!pollution,!most!of!the!lake!governance!rights!Ngāi!Tahu!obtained!in!settlement!involve!the!authority!to!implement!restrictions!on!lake!fishers.!!In!2009,!Ngāi!Tahu!sought!to!obtain!benefits!from!their!settlementBgranted!ownership!of!the!lakebed!bottom,!in!an!effort!to!realize!value!from!lakebed!ownership!rights.!!Ngāi!Tahu!implemented!a!tax!on!eel!fishers’!wooden!stakes,!which!fishers!insert!in!the!lakebed!bottom!to!prop!up!the!fyke!nets!in!which!schools!of!eel!are!caught.!!The!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!also!established!a!customary!reserve!area,!called!the!Horomaka!Kohunga,!on!the!eastern!side!of!the!lake.!Commercial!fishers!are!prohibited!from!fishing!in!this!area.!!Roger!Clark!fought!for!the!establishment!of!this!reserve!in!part!as!a!way!to!realize!customary!management!rights!imparted!in!the!treaty!settlement.!!!!Commercial!fishers!on!the!lake!view!restrictions!imposed!through!the!customary!reserve!area!and!the!eel!stake!tax!as,!respectively,!redundant!and!excessive!given!existing!fisheries!management!restrictions!imposed!by!the!government’s!implementation!of!the!ITQ!system.!!The!number!of!commercial!fishing!operations!on!the!lake!as!of!2015!was!rarely!more!than!six.!!This!small!number!is!a!reflection!of!the!increased!cost!of!fishing!and!smallBscale!commercial!fishers’!exclusion!following!ITQ!system!implementation.!!Additional!costs!of!fishing!include!purchases!of!ITQ!rights,!as!well!as!decreased!sales!avenues!imposed!by!regulations!on!processors!(Bodwitch!2017).!!The!rights!granted!to!Ngāi!Tahu!in!settlement!related!to!the!establishment!of!customary!reserve!areas!and!ownership!of!the!lakebed!bottom!were!designed!to!enable!the!iwi!to!promote!fishery!development,!but!commercial!fishers!see!these!as!additional!restrictions!on!top!of!regulations!already!implemented!under!the!ITQ!system.!!Degraded!water!quality,!coupled!with!already!existing!regulations!on!commercial!fishers,!indicates!that!fishing!pressure!is!not!the!primary!factor!shaping!fishery!health!in!contemporary!times.!!Fishers’!protests!to!the!customary!reserve!establishment!corresponded!to!iwi!lawyers!agreeing!to!evaluate!the!effectiveness!of!the!customary!reserve!area!five!years!after!implementation.!!The!evaluation!centered!on!the!question!of!whether!or!

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not!the!customary!reserve!corresponded!to!improvements!in!the!mullet!population.!!One!challenge!with!this!request,!however,!was!that,!mullet,!swimming!in!schools!around!the!lake,!move!in!and!out!of!the!customary!reserve!area.!!Additionally,!fishers!reach!commercial!catch!limits!for!mullet!on!the!lake!relatively!quickly!each!year,!indicating!that!the!mullet!population!is!not!impacted!by!commercial!fishing!pressure,!and!making!analysis!of!impacts!of!the!reserve,!which!primarily!exists!to!prohibit!commercial!fishing,!through!evaluation!of!the!mullet!population,!difficult!without!expensive,!technical!gear.!!This!impossibility!was!raised!by!fishers,!and!resulted!in!the!abandonment!of!the!evaluation!process.!!As!Roger!Clark!observed,!the!government!never!has!to!“prove”!the!effectiveness!of!their!marine!protected!areas,!why!should!Māori?!!Instead,!what!the!evaluation!process!did!was!take!resources!away!from!evaluation!of!upstream!impacts.!!The!ecologist!working!with!the!iwi!to!evaluate!impacts!of!the!customary!reserve,!Amy!Smith,!was!also!the!same!individual!hired!to!identify!impacts!of!upstream!land!use!change.!!Amy’s!deadBend!efforts!to!count!how!many!lake!mullet!were!living!in!the!customary!reserve!area!took!her!time!away!from!identifying!freshwater!fish!habitats!impacted!by!irrigation!drain!development.!!!Fishers!especially!upset!about!additional!restrictions!imposed!by!Ngāi!Tahu!include!those!such!as!Cliff!Smith,!who!lives!in!the!lake!hut!community!of!Tuahiwi!and!has!fished!the!lake!for!flounder,!mullet,!and!eel!for!over!40!years.!!Cliff!is!not!Ngāi!Tahu,!and!thus!cannot!be!a!recipient!of!the!Ngāi!TahuBowned!eel!quota.!!Cliff!expressed!frustration!with!new!regulations!imposed!by!iwi!officials,!based!over!thirty!miles!away!–!whose!governance!rights!were!achieved!with!accounts!of!the!historical!importance!of!Te!Waihora!as!a!food!gathering!site!–!at!a!time!when!Cliff!has!used!the!lake!longer!than!any!other!fisher!on!it!(as!of!2017)!for!food!gathering.!!Cliff!secured!ITQ!rights!to!fish!flounder!and!eel!on!the!lake!by!declaring!his!catches!on!his!taxes!in!the!preBquota!catch!history!years.!!Cliff’s!fishing!partner!and!longBtime!neighbor,!and!friend,!in!the!geographically!isolated!region,!Malcolm!Ward,!is!Ngāi!Tahu.!!Cliff!is!often!the!recipient!of!customary!permits!written!by!Malcolm!Ward.!!Cliff!distributes!fish!caught!on!customary!catch!permits!to!Ngāi!Tahu!and!nonBNgāi!Tahu!community!members!who!meet!Cliff!at!the!lake!shores!to!help!process!and!bring!the!fish!into!the!city!to!distribute!to!iwi!members.!!The!division!between!Ngāi!Tahu!and!nonB!Ngāi!Tahu!prior!to!the!settlement!was!less!significant!than!divisions!between!those!who!fished!and!those!who!lived!in!town.!!PostBSettlement,!Cliff’s!status!as!a!fisher!became!secondary!to!those!in!town!with!governance!rights,!with!no!experience!on!the!lake,!but!who!could!now!implement!restrictions!on!fishing!pressure.!!!The!implementation!of!the!tax!on!eel!stakes!was!especially!upsetting!to!Cliff,!who!several!years!prior!experienced!an!increased!cost!to!his!fishing!operation!due!to!the!system’s!taxes!on!quota.!!Cliff!in!response!organized!a!lakeBwide!boycott!amongst!fishers!against!anyone!fishing!the!Ngāi!Tahu!eel!quota!designated!for!the!lake.!!A!boycott!on!fishing!Ngāi!Tahu!quota!would!require!the!iwi!to!pay!the!national!government’s!taxes!on!this!property!right,!which!cover!costs!of!species!monitoring,!without!receiving!revenue!from!quota!leasing.!!However,!another!eel!fisher,!Ben!

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Tamati,!who!had!family!ties!to!the!lake!but!was!not!yet!a!hut!owner,!broke!the!boycott!by!offering!to!pay!for!the!Ngāi!Tahu!eel!quota!and!the!eel!stake!tax.!!Breaking!the!boycott!resulted!in!Tamati’s!tires!being!slashed.!!!!Despite!shortcomings,!various!lake!governing!attempts!have!achieved!two!notable!outcomes!in!efforts!to!manage!upstream!land!use!change.!!In!2016,!the!local!water!management!zone,!Selwyn/Waihora,!established!regulations!under!the!Canterbury!Land!&!Water!Regional!Plan!to!enhance!monitoring!of!nitrogen!applications.!!Farmers!with!documentation!of!high!nitrogen!losses,!those!farming!in!zones!that!are!identified!as!culturally!important!and!ecologically!at!risk!for!phosphorous!and!sediment!deposition,!must!apply!for!a!resource!consent!permit!to!farm.!!To!obtain!consent,!farmers!need!to!determine!a!nutrient!budget!that!will!limit!fertilizer!application!and!establish!farm!environment!plans!that!commit!farmers!to!engage!environmentallyBfriendly!practices!(Environment!Canterbury!2017).!!The!coBmanagement!group,!Whakaora!Te!Waihora,!collaborates!landowners!and!farmers!to!implement!provisions!of!farm!environment!plans,!including!the!planting!of!native!grasses!and!building!of!fences!along!waterways.!!The!new!regulations!for!farmers!in!the!Te!Waihora!region!are!the!most!stringent!in!New!Zealand!(Caygill!2017).!!However,!effectiveness!of!nitrate!and!farm!management!plan!audits!is!not!guaranteed,!as!enforcement!is!challenging.!!As!of!2015,!only!65%!of!farms!in!the!region!were!in!compliance!with!previous!regulations!designed!to!limit!phosphorous!and!nitrate!leeching!from!farms!by!requiring!stock!ponds!with!limited!depth!(Lomax!et&al.!2015).!!!5.((Where(to(Next?(&In!this!climate!around!the!lake,!whereby!neither!the!iwi!nor!fishers!are!empowered!to!address!the!drivers!of!upstream!land!use!change,!one!avenue!for!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!to!take!going!forward!is!to!develop!dairy!operations!that!demonstrate!alternative!farming!techniques.!!There!are!multiple!types!of!responses!to!crises!of!low!profits!arising!from!increased!market!competition!(Harvey!2002).!!Scaling!up!production,!as!New!Zealand’s!dairy!exporters!and!banks!have!encouraged,!is!only!one!option.!!Other!options!are!to!diversify!product!offerings!and!establish!new!markets!for!trade!of!higherBvalue!commodities.!!Ngāi!Tahu!could!explore!these!alternatives!through!the!development!of!sustainable,!smallBscale,!dairy!farming!practices.!!Unlike!farmers,!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!can!fund!their!own!operations!without!taking!out!loans!from!banking!institutions,!providing!a!flexibility!to!experiment!with!onBfarm!production!activities!in!a!way!that!farmers!with!high!debt!are!unable!to!do.!!Data!on!the!economic!benefits!of!alternative!styles!of!farming!in!the!lake!watershed!could!counter!the!government’s!narrative!purporting!dairy!farming!as!the!most!profitable!landBuse!activity!(Guide&to&New&Zealand&Milk&Price&Futures&and&Options!2017).!!This!suggestion!is!a!strategy!to!position!Ngāi!Tahu!as!a!leader!in!economic!–!as!well!as!ecological!–!lake!governance!initiatives.!!!Additionally,!moving!forward,!the!notion!of!iwi!as!economic!knowledge!holders!is!

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important!to!consider!for!next!steps!in!MāoriBstate!resource!governance!partnerships.!!Despite!being!one!of!the!customary!guardians!on!the!lake,!Roger!Clark’s!knowledge!of!drivers!of!lake!changes!is!not!accounted!for!in!coBmanagement!meetings.!!This!is!not!necessarily!because!those!involved!don’t!believe!him,!but!because!the!terms!of!the!collaborative!governance!arrangement!does!not!involve!participation!in!economic!governance.!!Economic!governance!decision!making!that!Ngāi!Tahu!and!other!Māori!groups!are!not!involved!in,!despite!the!government’s!commitment!to!the!principle!of!Treaty!partnership,!includes!decisions!related!to!trade!agreement!signing,!exportBsubsidy!removals,!and!determinations!of!interest!rates!on!loans.!!In!New!Zealand,!Māori!are!treaty!partners!with!the!government,!but!this!partnership!does!not!extend!to!discussions!within!Treasury,!despite!(or!perhaps!because!of),!the!fact!that!the!Treasury!is!the!ultimate!point!of!approval!for!largeBscale!resource!extraction!initiatives,!including!irrigation!system!development.!!Failure!to!include!economic!knowledge!as!indigenous!knowledge!is!also!problematic!in!light!of!the!growing!environmental!governance!trend!to!allocate!downstream!governance!rights!to!indigenous!groups!at!the!same!time!freeBtrade!agreements!continue!to!be!negotiated!across!the!Pacific.18!In!the!case!of!Te!Waihora,!and!likely!other!cases,!downstream!rights!allocation!typically!occurs!without!also!designating!authority!to!adjudicate!upstream!and!serves!to!create!political!divisions!between!the!iwi!and!other!downstream!users!as!the!iwi!implements!newly!acquired,!but!ineffective!management!rights.!!These!divisions!limit!formation!of!resistance!against!upstream!land!use!change.!!For!fishery!development!to!occur!in!this!context!–!and!likely!in!others!–!the!economic!issues!identified!by!Roger!Clark!–!drawn!from!his!traditional!economic!knowledge!base,!need!to!be!accounted!for.!!!!6.(Conclusion(((As!nations!across!the!Pacific!continue!to!sign!freeBtrade!agreements,!increased!market!competition!will!continue!to!destabilize!commodity!export!prices!for!New!Zealand!farmers.!!The!coupling!of!price!drops!with!resourceBuse!intensification!is!something!that!can!be!expected!with!increased!international!freeBtrade!agreement!signing.!!The!potential!for!increased!fishery!degradation!threatens!the!economic!security!of!Ngāi!Tahu!development!activities!based!on!fish!access.!!These!activities!are!thus!uneconomical.!!They!are!risky!investments.!!This!risk!highlights!limits!to!the!extent!to!which!Ngāi!Tahu!can!use!fishery!settlement!rights!to!promote!fishing!community!development.!!Despite!widespread!acknowledgement!by!the!government!in!treaty!settlement!signing!of!the!importance!of!Te!Waihora!to!Ngāi!Tahu,!all!rights!granted!cannot!address!the!main!cause!of!fishery!depletion:!upstream!land!use!change.!!Ngāi!Tahu’s!inability!to!adjudicate!upstream!land!use!change!helps!pave!the!way!for!stateBsponsored!development!that!benefits!big!capital!through!debtBfueled!investments.!!These!practices!show!no!sign!of!letting!up!resource!use!intensification!practices!any!time!soon.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!18!In!2017,!New!Zealand!and!China!reBnegotiated!their!trade!deal.!!

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!The!increased!documentation!of!pollution!from!upstream!farms!into!the!lake,!coupled!with!the!management!authority!currently!held!by!Ngāi!Tahu!to!the!lake,!as!obtained!in!settlements,!raises!the!question!of!why!political!resistance!to!upstream!development!has!not!effectively!emerged.!!This!lack!of!effective!resistance!is!the!result!of!two!interrelated!phenomena.!!First,!the!rights!allocated!to!Ngāi!Tahu!are!insufficient!to!address!upstream!land!use!change.!!Despite!widespread!documentation,!historically!and!today,!regarding!farming’s!impacts!on!Te!Waihora,!and!the!lake’s!status!of!one!of!New!Zealand’s!most!managed!fisheries,!existing!management!strategies!can’t!do!anything!to!address!upstream!decline.!!Second,!while!insufficient!to!address!upstream!activities,!rights!allocated!to!Ngāi!Tahu,!with!their!focus!on!downstream!fisheries,!have!an!effect!on!upstream!activities!by!creating!political!divisions!within!groups!on!the!lake!–!between!the!Ngāi!Tahu!governors!and!fishers!–!that!arguably!serves!to!limit!more!widespread!fisherBiwi!political!alliances!in!responses!to!the!dairy!farm!conversion!practices.!!!!As!with!colonial!times,!the!government!continues!to!privilege!development!on!land!primarily!owned!by!nonBMāori,!thanks!to!legacies!of!colonial!policies!that!allocated!land!to!nonBMāori!to!farm!sheep!for!wool!to!send!back!to!Britain.!!The!government’s!contemporary!and!historical!actions!promoting!upstream!agricultural!intensification!limits!the!potential!for!Ngāi!Tahu!to!use!rights!obtained!in!settlement!to!address!uneven!rural!development!experienced!by!fishing!communities!after!fishery!privatization.!!Designation!of!areas!as!“Māori”!governed!mitigates!government’s!urgency!in!needing!to!answer!to!downstream!users.!!In!this!context,!coastal!stateBindigenous!coBmanagement!initiatives!appear!as!a!situation!where!indigenous!groups,!forced!downstream!to!make!way!for!colonial!farmers,!are!now!called!upon!to!clean!up!the!mess!from!these!farms.!!Iwi!governors!are!left!with!responsibility,!but!without!authority,!to!clean!up!upstream!pollution.!!!!Significantly,!the!dynamics!taking!place!in!Te!Waihora!are!not!unique!to!New!Zealand.!!Histories!of!settler!colonies!globally!include!the!removal!of!indigenous!groups!to!coastal!regions!who!are!increasingly!called!upon!for!monitoring,!while!contemporary!dynamics!of!freeBtrade!agreement!signing!is!increasing!upstream!resource!extraction.!!What!fishers’!knowledge!of!coastal!resource!change!dynamics!indicates!is!that!for!coastal!development!to!occur,!indigenous!communities!responsible!for!coastal!governance!also!need!to!be!involved!in!economic!governing!decisions!related!to!freeBtrade!agreement!signing!and!farm!subsidy!removals.!!Community!placeBbased!expertise!can!serve!to!identify!capital!as!a!driver!of!potential!regime!shifts!in!contexts!where!stateBsupported!upstream!development!makes!it!difficult!to!collect!scientific!data!necessary!to!prove!upstream!impacts.!!(((((

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Chapter(Four((

The(Politics(of(Marine(Resource(Control((and(Limits(to(Ngāi(Tahu’s(Customary(Fishing(Rights!

&&1.((Introduction(((During!negotiations!between!the!New!Zealand!government!and!Māori!groups!over!the!privatization!of!New!Zealand’s!fisheries,!Māori!fishers!argued!that!their!customary!fishing!rights!were!always!commercial!fishing!rights,!established!by!multiBgenerational!fish!trade!practices!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!Nevertheless,!in!the!1992!Treaty!of!Waitangi!(Fisheries!Claims)!Settlement!Act,19!the!government!defined!Māori!customary!fishing!rights!as!rights!that!prohibit!fish!trade!for!economic!gain.!!The!government!defined!commercial!fishing!rights!as!a!privatized!property!right,!in!the!form!of!an!Individual!Transferable!Quota!(ITQ),!and!allocated!these!rights!to!Māori!tribes,!called!iwi,!collectively.!!Through!fisheries!management!regulations!implemented!in!the!wake!of!fisheries!privatization,!the!government!delineated!two!forms!of!newly!defined,!“customary”!fishing!provisions!for!Māori.!!Māori!customary!take!rights!create!the!possibility!for!designated!Māori!fishers!to!authorize!others!to!take!fish!for!subsistence!purposes!above!daily!recreational!catch!limits.!!Customary!reserve!rights!create!the!possibility!for!Māori!groups!to!implement!restrictions!on!where!others!can!fish!in!order!to!promote!conservation!goals!(Fisheries!Act!1996,!Fisheires!(Kaimoana!Custoamry!Fishing)!Regulations!1998).!!(!This!chapter!examines!how!Māori!implement!their!customary!take!rights!and!attempt!to!govern!fish!in!discrete!spatial!regions!that!are!also!managed!at!larger!geographical!scales!by!New!Zealand’s!Individual!Transferable!Quota!system.!!The!fishers!participating!in!the!ITQ!system!are!majority!nonBMāori.20!!I!identify!government!practices!that!constrain!the!processes!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!and!managers!engage!in!order!to!realize!their!customary!fishing!rights.21!!The!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi’s!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!19!Referred!to!here!as,!“the!Settlement”!or!“the!Fisheries!Settlement.”!!20!Although!Māori!groups!own!quota!rights,!few!Māori!are!fishers!or!processors.!!Lack!of!Māori!involvement!in!commercial!fishing!is!an!effect!of!Māori!exclusion!from!fisheries!access!upon!ITQ!system!implementation.!!Additionally,!in!the!South!Island!of!New!Zealand,!the!site!of!this!research,!the!coastal!communities!alongside!customarily!important!Māori!fishers!are!predominately!nonBMāori.!!This!is!an!effect!in!part!of!colonial!policies!of!acculturation!and!later!forced!assimilation!into!urban!areas,!that!removed!Māori!from!coastal!reserve!lands!into!cities!(Thomas!and!Nikora!1992).!!It!is!also!an!effect!of!the!high!prevalence!of!interBmarriage!between!Māori!and!nonBMāori,!dating!back!to!the!early!1800s!when!whalers!and!sealers!came!to!New!Zealand,!prior!to!British!colonization!(Orange!2004).!!21!I!draw!on!experiences!of!fishers!and!fisheries!managers!from!the!iwi!Ngāi!Tahu,!collected!while!conducting!ethnographic!fieldwork!with!Māori!and!nonBMāori!fishers,!managers,!and!leaders,!from!2013B2015.!!!I!also!draw!on!the!experiences!and!perspectives!of!nonBMāori!fishers!and!fisheries’!managers!in!the!region.!!!

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traditional!territory!covers!most!of!New!Zealand’s!South!Island.!!Ngāi!Tahu!is!one!of!the!largest!and!wealthiest!iwi!in!New!Zealand,!and!the!iwi!owns!significant!portions!of!the!region’s!commercial!fishing!rights!(ITQ).!!!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers’!and!managers’!experiences!described!here!identify!the!importance!of!the!iwi’s!simultaneous!roles!as!commercial!quota!owners!and!customary!fishery!governors,!which!alternately!rely!on,!and!restrict,!commercial!fishers’!access!to!fisheries.!!This!occurs!in!two!ways.!!First,!in!efforts!to!establish!customary!reserves,!Ngāi!Tahu!managers!garner!government!support!by!orchestrating!with!nonBMāori!commercial!fishers,!as!well!as!with!fishery!scientists!and!community!members.!!In!these!contexts,!commercial!fishers’!support!for!Ngāi!Tahu!management!initiatives!is!affected!by!the!iwi’s!political!economic!authority!established!by!Māori!ownership!of!approximately!50%!of!the!nation’s!fishing!quota!(McClurg!2013).!!!!Second,!Ngāi!Tahu!individuals’!access!to!fish!for!subsistence!purposes!is!contingent!on!their!relationships!with!Ngāi!Tahu!commercial!fishers.!!In!particular,!access!to!Ngāi!TahuBowned!quota!enables!and!incentivizes!fishers!to!obtain,!process,!and!distribute!fish!to!community!members,!without!compensation.!!Certain!commercial!fishers!report!participating!in!fish!take!practices!as!a!form!of!insurance!in!order!to!maintain!their!access!to!MāoriBowned!quota!rights.!!These!dynamics!of!reciprocity!occur!as!a!process!of!what!Ngāi!Tahu!commercial!fisher!Ed!Tamati!describes!as!an!exercise!of!his!mana,!or!his!authority.!!Ed!describes!mana!as!a!practice!of!reciprocity.!!“I!give!so!that!I!can!take.”!!This!“giving”!in!order!to!“take”!also!occurs!with!Ngāi!Tahu’s!work!in!customary!reserve!establishment.!!This!takes!place!through!a!process!that!Ngāi!Tahu!customary!fishery!manager,!Hamish!Gorden,!refers!to!as,!“gifts!and!gains,”!whereby!Ngāi!Tahu!customary!governors!agree!to!reduce!the!expanse!of!their!desired!customary!governance!regions!in!order!to!obtain!support!from!other!stakeholders.!!!!Where!this!reciprocity!has!failed!to!occur,!however,!is!with!the!government’s!implementation!of!noBtake!marine!reserves!in!historically!important!fishing!grounds!for!Māori.!!The!government!can!implement!a!marine!reserve!that!restricts!Māori!fishers’!access!to!culturally!important!fisheries!without!the!agreement!of!local!Māori!fishers.!When!this!occurs,!the!government’s!establishment!of!marine!reserves!limits!Māori!groups’!authority!over!their!fishing!rights!obtained!in!Settlement—they!cannot!fish!in!the!reserve.!!Thus,!although!the!Fisheries!Settlement!and!other!regulations!after!have!allocated!property!and!governance!rights!to!Māori,!sovereignty!over!these!resources!ultimately!remains!with!the!national!government.!!This!analysis!challenges!the!dominant!narrative!that!the!government’s!allocation!of!customary!governance!rights!to!Māori!groups!has!precipitated!a!“race!for!space”!between!commercial!fishers,!Māori!groups,!and!conservationists!(Lawson!et&al.!2004,!Bess!and!Rallapudi!2007).!!Instead,!in!the!cases!described!here,!tensions!between!fisheries!stakeholders!are!largely!an!effect!of!topBdown!governing!

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initiatives!that!preclude!local!stakeholder!collaborations,!rather!than!that!arising!from!Māori!customary!reserve!establishment.!!!This!analysis!also!contributes!to!understandings!of!barriers!and!constraints!for!local!community!involvement!in!coastal!fisheries!governance,!in!New!Zealand!and!elsewhere.!!As!researchers!increasingly!identify!the!importance!of!local!communities!in!resource!governing!initiatives!(Ostrom!1991,!Scott!1998,!Berkes!et&al.!2000,!Olsson!and!Folke!2004,!Poteete!et&al.!2010,!Vaughan!and!Ardoin!2014),!this!chapter!highlights!the!importance!of!commercial!fishing!rights!to!making!possible!communityBbased!coastal!governance!initiatives!that!include!Māori.!!Similarly,!in!places!where!fish!is!an!important!food!source,!these!findings!highlight!the!importance!of!fish!trade!practices!for!economic!gain,!for!the!role!they!place!in!facilitating!community!members’!access!to!fish!for!subsistence.!!For!Ngāi!Tahu!and!other!Māori!groups!who!own!commercial!quota!rights,!these!findings!emphasize!the!importance!of!ensuring!that!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!fish!Ngāi!TahuBowned!quota!rights.!!This!Chapter!proceeds!as!follows.!!Part!Two!describes!the!role!that!commercial!fishers,!especially!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!fishing!Ngāi!TahuBowned!quota!rights,!play!in!supporting!Ngāi!Tahu!community!members’!access!to!fish!for!subsistence.!!Part!Three!explores!the!roles!that!collaborations!with!commercial!fishers!and!commercial!fishing!industry!representatives!play!in!facilitating!multiBstakeholder!collaborations!that!give!rise!to!successful!attempts!to!establish!customary!reserves.!!It!also!identifies!how!customary!reserves!address!key!spatial!governance!limitations!in!New!Zealand’s!Individual!Transferable!Quota!system!related!to!commercial!fishery!rebuild!efforts.!!Part!Four!identifies!how!the!government’s!establishment!of!marine!reserves!precludes!Ngāi!Tahu!tribal!leaders!and!community!members!from!administering!and!realizing!settlement!rights!for!equitable!distribution!of!fish.!!Part!Five!discusses!how!the!government’s!broader!imperatives!to!support!tourism!and!conservation!organizations!at!a!national!scale!help!to!explain!why!the!government!implements!marine!reserves!against!the!wishes!of!local!Māori!fishers.!!!!!!!2.(Implementing(Customary(Take(Rights(through(Collaborations(with(Ngāi(Tahu(Commercial(Fishers((!The!government!granted!customary!take!rights!to!Māori!groups!in!acknowledgement!of!the!importance!fishing!plays!for!Māori!communities!traditionally.!!Māori!groups’!and!individuals’!authorities,!or!their!mana,!are!established!through!their!ability!to!provide!food!from!the!local!area!to!regional!visitors.!!To!implement!these!rights,!Māori!groups!appoint!customary!fisheries!guardians,!called!kaitiaki.!!Kaitiaki!have!the!authority!to!write!permits!to!individuals,!Māori!or!nonBMāori,!above!daily!recreational!take!limits,!which!vary!based!on!species.!!The!government!regulates!these!rights!through!extensive!reporting!requirements.!!On!a!customary!take!permit,!prior!to!fishing,!fishers!must!first!report!how!much!fish!they!plan!to!take,!where!they!plan!to!fish,!and!where!the!fish!caught!will!be!consumed.!!After!fishing,!they!must!return!to!the!kaitiaki!who!

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authorized!the!take!to!report!their!actual!fish!take.!!Kaitiaki&are!required!to!regularly!submit!all!customary!permits!to!the!government.!!Customary!take!reporting!requirements!are!part!of!government!monitoring!efforts!to!ensure!that!no!fish!caught!on!customary!take!permits!are!traded!for!economic!gain.!!These!restrictions!on!trade!and!reporting!requirements!require!substantially!different!fishing!practices!than!that!engaged!by!Māori!fishers!and!others!prior!to!fisheries!privatization,!when!Māori!fishers!funded!their!fishing!operations!by!trading!fish!for!cash,!often!locally.!!!!Some!kaitiaki!argue!that!restrictions!on!fish!take!under!customary!permits!also!limits!realization!of!the!customary!rights,!as!without!the!ability!to!sell!their!fish,!those!who!might!otherwise!be!customary!fishers!cannot!afford!to!buy!boats,!fuel!or!gear!in!order!to!physically!access!the!fishery.!!Such!restrictions!can!also!pose!limits!to!broader!community!development.!!When!fishers!obtain!fish!caught!on!customary!permits!for!consumption!by!Māori!and!nonBMāori!community!members,!they!also!provide!social,!emotional,!and!nutritional!support!to!individuals!living!in!otherwise!economically!marginal!conditions.!!This!practice!often!occurs!in!collaboration!with!Ngāi!Tahu!individuals!who!also!have!commercial!fisheries!access.!!In!the!over!two!years!I!spent!working!with!fishers!in!New!Zealand,!almost!all!customarily!caught!fish!was!supplied!by!commercial!fishers!who!were!also!Māori.!!This!is!especially!the!case!in!situations!where!large!amounts!of!fish!are!caught!for!broader!distribution!to!local!community!members.!!Certain!conditions!are!more!likely!than!others!to!facilitate!collaboration!between!community!members!and!commercial!fishers,!collaborations!that!provide!nonBfishers!with!access!to!fish!for!subsistence.!!Ngāi!Tahu!community!members’!requests!to!Ngāi!Tahu!commercial!fishers!for!large!amounts!of!fish!for!customary!gatherings!can!lead!to!conflicts!when!the!fishers!who!are!obtaining!customary!catch!rights!are!doing!so!on!boats!that!they!do!not!own.!!When!Māori!commercial!fishers!obtain!customary!catches!while!working!on!others’!boats,!tensions!and!resentment!can!arise,!because!customary!catch!activities!take!away!time!from!paid!wage!labor!activities.!!According!to!law,!commercial!fishers!participating!in!customary!take!practices—including!allowing!their!boats!to!be!used!by!customary!fishersBB!are!exposed!to!additional!government!oversight,!and!possible!fines,!if!permits!are!not!in!order.!!Increased!tensions!with!nonBMāori!members!of!the!commercial!fishing!industry!pose!particular!problems!for!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!who!wish!to!own!their!own!quota,!as!almost!all!quota!up!for!sale!on!the!open!market!is!held!by!nonBMāori!fishers.!!Ngāi!Tahu!quota!managers!rarely!sell!iwiBowned!commercial!fishing!rights.!!Iwi!fishers’!best!bet!to!outcompete!others!for!quota!purchases!from!retiring!fishers!is!to!establish!an!interpersonal!relationship!with!that!fisher,!so!that!the!fisher!sells!the!quota!to!the!iwi!members!rather!than!on!an!open!market.!!In!situations!when!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers’!use!their!commercial!fishing!gear!to!supply!fish!for!customary!gatherings,!iwi&ownership!of!Ngāi!TahuBowned!quota!also!facilitates!broader!community!members’!access!to!fish!for!subsistence.!!The!following!account!of!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers’!practices!of!customary!fish!take!and!distribution!highlight!these!dynamics.!!

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!Ngāi!Tahu!commercial!eel!(Anguilla&australis)!fishers,!Ed!and!Ben!Tamati,!who!lease!quota!from!Ngāi!Tahu,!routinely!supply!fish!caught!on!customary!permits!to!rural!and!urban!community!members!in!the!Canterbury!region!of!New!Zealand’s!South!Island.!!On!their!days!off,!the!Tamatis,!who!fish!commercially!on!a!coastal!lagoon!called!Te!Waihora,!drive!their!boat!to!coastal!bays!to!fish!for!abalone!(Haliotis&iris)!and!other!culturally!significant!fish.!!After!a!full!day!at!sea,!they!return!to!shore!to!gut!the!fish!and!deliver!it!to!individuals!throughout!the!community.!!Community!members!who!receive!fish!from!the!Tamatis!include!former!fishers!who!were!excluded!from!fishery!access!when!the!government!privatized!the!nation’s!fisheries!in!the!midB1980s.!!The!Tamatis!cover!their!fishing!trip!costs!through!the!revenues!they!obtain!from!their!commercial!fishing!operation.!!Costs!include!payment!for!boat!and!truck!fuel!as!well!as!labor!time!away!from!commercial!fishing.!!Yet,!Ed!and!Ben!do!these!activities!without!blinking!an!eye.!!As!they!describe,!it!is!part!of!their!mana.&&They!give!so!that!they!can!take.!!!In!other!words,!Ed!and!Ben!supply!fish!throughout!the!community,!free!of!charge,!to!insure!their!access!to!quota!leases!from!Ngāi!Tahu.!!In!particular,!they!hope!that!their!customary!fish!distribution!practices!will!elicit!broader!support!for!their!fishing!operation!that!enables!them!to!secure!longerBterm!quota!leases!from!Ngāi!Tahu.!!Currently,!they!lease!quota!from!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi&for!five!year!periods.!!Security!of!future!quota!access!is!a!point!of!concern!for!Ben!and!Ed,!as!iwi&leaders!could!choose!not!to!renew!the!Tamatis’!lease.!!Ed!and!Ben!hope!to!purchase!their!own!quota!from!retiring!eel!fishers!in!the!region.!!In!the!meantime,!their!fish!distribution!practices!serve!as!an!investment!towards!their!future!fishing!operation,!by!establishing!political!support!within!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!for!their!fishing!operation.!!&Ben!and!Ed’s!economic!incentive!to!supply!fish!to!others!operates!in!contrast!to!the!disincentives!for!engaging!customary!fish!take!practices!experienced!by!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!working!as!wageBlaborers!on!nonBMāori!fishing!boats.!!When!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!work!as!wageBlaborers!on!a!nonBMāori!Bowned!boats,!the!process!for!obtaining!customary!permits!and!catches!can!be!especially!burdensome.!!Fish!caught!at!sea!by!Ngāi!Tahu!wage!laborers!on!others!boats,!often!on!multiday!trips,!must!also!be!frozen!and!potentially!gutted,!plus!offBloaded.!!After!multiple!days!at!sea,!these!tasks!can!be!exhausting,!especially!when!they!all!fall!on!one!individual!Ngāi!Tahu!fisher!working!as!a!deckhand,!sometimes!without!the!support!of!the!other!crew,!who!have!their!own!responsibilities!to!fulfill.!!Moreover,!the!whole!fishing!operation!is!under!threat!of!government!fines!if!the!proper!paperwork!verifying!the!customary!catch,!as!required!by!government,!is!not!properly!filled!out.!!The!fact!that!the!fish!caught!on!customary!catch!permits!take!laborBtime!and!cannot!be!sold!is!a!primary!source!of!these!tensions.!!!While!chatting!with!a!fisheries!manager!for!a!nonBMāori!owned!fishing!company!one!afternoon,!I!was!exposed!to!the!logistical!challenges!experienced!by!both!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers,!nonBMāori!boat!owners,!and!community!members!in!efforts!to!obtain!large!amounts!of!fish!for!community!gatherings.!!An!individual!from!the!local!

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rūnanga,!or!Ngāi!Tahu!community,!wanted!fish!for!a!funeral.!!One!of!the!individuals!working!on!one!of!the!company’s!commercial!trawling!boats!was!a!Ngāi!Tahu!man!in!his!early!20s,!and!he!had!agreed!to!provide!the!fish.!!He!was!the!only!commercial!fisher!from!the!rūnanga!working!somewhat!locally.!!He!had!provided!fish!for!his!rūnanga!in!the!past.!!This!time,!however,!the!permit!was!not!on!the!boat!when!the!boat!had!left!port!several!weeks!prior.!!!The!funeral!was,!of!course,!unplanned!when!the!boat!had!left!the!dock!to!travel!from!the!east!coast!to!the!west!coast!to!trawl!for!hoki!(Macruronus&novaezelandiae).!!The!fishing!company!manager,!back!at!the!dock,!had!received!the!call!from!the!community!member!organizing!the!funeral,!and!agreed!to!phone!the!boat!to!ask!them!to!obtain!additional!fish!for!the!gathering.!!!The!boat!was!scheduled!to!come!in!the!evening!that!I!was!there.!!The!rūnanga!member!drove!several!hours!on!winding,!fuel!consuming!roads!to!obtain!the!permit!from!the!kaitiaki!and!to!deliver!it!to!the!fishing!company’s!office!near!the!docks.!!She!arrived!at!the!manager’s!office!with!the!signed!permit!in!the!early!afternoon.!!However,!the!permit!was!filled!out!incorrectly.!!The!manager!became!visibly!stressed,!as!the!boat,!scheduled!to!dock!that!evening,!had!already!caught!the!customary!fish!catch,!an!amount!that!went!above!the!ITQ!rights!to!which!the!boat!had!access.!!The!fishers,!as!per!government!regulations,!had!reserved!the!customary!catch!in!a!separate!storage!container,!labeled!“customary.”!!Technically,!the!boat!was!required!to!have!the!permit!on!board!at!the!time!the!customary!fish!was!caught.!!Without!it,!if!fisheries!officers!were!around,!the!boat!could!be!fined!for!catching!fish!without!a!customary!permit!or!quota.!!!The!manager!did!not!want!to!require!the!rūnanga!member!to!drive!back!to!the!house!of!the!kaitiaki,!but!he!also!did!not!want!to!risk!his!own!job!by!not!having!the!proper!permits!in!place,!as!he!had!not!confirmed!the!supplemental!catch!with!the!fishing!company’s!owner.22!!As!the!afternoon!progressed,!the!manager!became!visibly!stressed,!for!fear!that!the!boat!would!return!before!the!rūnanga!member,!who!was!not!reachable!by!phone,!obtained!the!proper!permit.!!Fortunately,!for!all!involved,!the!community!member!returned!before!the!boat!docked,!mitigating!the!threat!of!a!potential!fine.!!That!night,!the!Ngāi!Tahu!deckhand!spent!several!hours!after!the!crew!left!gutting!the!customarily!caught!fish!before!delivering!it!to!the!rūnanga!marae,!or!meeting!house.!!The!alternative!risks!and!rewards!to!obtaining!customary!fish!take!for!community!members!experienced!by!the!nonBMāori!manager!and!the!Ngāi!Tahu!deckhand,!vs.!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!22!A!former!fisher!himself,!the!company!manager,!like!many!Ngāi!Tahu,!was!not!aware!preBITQ!system!implementation!that!he!needed!to!be!declaring!his!fish!in!order!to!ensure!his!continued!access!to!the!fishery.!!The!company’s!owner,!on!the!other!hand,!was!aware!of!the!quota!system’s!implementation,!and!put!extra!boats!out!on!the!water!in!the!preBquota!years!to!increase!his!catch!numbers.!!!

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the!Tamatis,!who!own!their!own!boat,!highlight!the!role!quotaBholding!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!can!play!in!facilitating!community!development!through!fishing!rights.!!It!is!one!of!several!reasons!why!many!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!want!Ngāi!Tahu!leadership!to!lease!more!iwiBowned!quota!directly!to!them!and!other!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers.!!!At!the!individual!level,!collaborations!with!commercial!fishers!aids!the!vast!majority!of!iwi!members!who!are!not!also!commercial!fishers!to!realize!their!customary!fish!take!rights.!!At!the!collective!level,!iwi!fisheries!managers’!collaborations!with!commercial!fishers!more!broadly,!helps!facilitate!collaborations!necessary!for!the!implementation!of!customary!governance!rights.!!These!dynamics!are!highlighted!in!the!work!Ngāi!Tahu!fisheries’!managers!do!to!establish!political!support!for!commercial!fish!take!restrictions.!!!!3.((Implementing(Customary(Governance(Rights(through(MultiWStakeholder(Collaborations(((!Through!government!fisheries!management!regulations!established!after!the!Settlement,!Māori!groups!obtained!rights!to!implement!customary!reserves,!called!mātaitai&and!taiāpure,!in!culturally!significant!fishing!regions.!These!reserves!are!forms!of!spatial!governance!rights,!understood!here!as!rights!that!enable!designated!groups!to!restrict!others’!rights!to!take!fish!in!certain!spatially!defined!fishing!regions.!!Māori!groups!have!the!authority!to!decide!where!they!wish!to!establish!a!customary!reserve!and!how!they!wish!to!manage!it.!!However,!reserve!implementation!is!contingent!on!government!approval;!Māori!authority!is!thus!partial!rather!than!sovereign.!!!Māori!groups!can!file!an!application!for!a!mātaitai,!as!established!by!the!Fisheries!(Kaimoana!Customary!Fishing)!Regulations!1998,!on!“traditional”!fishing!grounds,!“for!the!purpose!of!recognizing!and!providing!for!customary!management!practices!and!food!gathering.”!!To!obtain!approval,&the!site!must!hold!significance!for!cultural!or!spiritual!reasons,!for!food!gathering!purposes,!or!for!natural!resource!management!(Fisheries!(Kaimoana!Customary!Fishing)!Regulations!1998).!!!In!a!mātaitai,!commercial!fishing!is!prohibited.!!Māori!managers!can!decide!whether!or!not!to!allow!customary!and!recreational!fishing,!though,!again,!a!groups’!implementation!of!any!restrictions!requires!government!approval!(Hepburn!2017).!!!!Māori!groups’!applications!for!taiāpure,!as!outlined!in!the!Fisheries’!Act!1996,!can!be!submitted!for!freshwater!and!marine!regions!that,!“have!customarily!been!of!special!significance!to!any!iwi!or!hapū!either!–!(a)!as!a!source!of!food;!or!(b)!for!spiritual!or!cultural!reasons.”!!Māori!groups!can!choose!whether!or!not!to!restrict!commercial!fishing!in!a!taiāpure,!and!for!which!species!(Hepburn!2017).!!Both!mātaitai&and!taiāpure!enable!adaptive!management!provisions!based!on!local!community!monitoring!data.!!These!provisions!can!include!temporary!closures,!or!rāhui,!that!prohibit!all!fish!take!of!particular!species!for!a!designated!amount!of!time!(Hepburn!2017).!!Mātaitai!are!a!stronger!regulatory!measure!than!taiāpure,!as!they!

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always!prohibit!commercial!fishing!(Hepburn!2017).!!Some!taiāpure!exist!in!the!South!Island,!and!elsewhere,!that!have!no!Māori!Bspecific!regulations!yet!associated!with!them.!!This!is!in!large!part!because!the!process!to!obtain!government!approval!for!a!regulation!is!costly!and!time!consuming!(Gnanalingam!and!Hepburn!2015).!!!The!adaptive!management!possibilities!for!Māori!customary!reserves!operate!in!stark!contrast!to!the!nonBadaptive!management!strategies!that!define!marine!reserve!establishment.!!Marine!reserves!prohibit!all!fishing,!indefinitely!(Department!of!Conservation!and!Fisheries!2005).!!!When!the!government!implements!a!marine!reserve!in!a!particular!region,!they!also!prohibit!the!possibility!for!Ngāi!Tahu!and!other!Māori!groups&to!implement!mātaitai&or!taiāpure&or!participate!in!customary!fish!provisioning!practices.!!!!!To!increase!the!likelihood!that!the!government!will!approve!an!application!for!a!mātaitai!or!taiāpure,!Ngāi!Tahu!fisheries!managers!have!engaged!a!multiBstakeholder!consultation!process!to!select!sites!for!mātaitai&and!taiāpure&establishment.!!In!selecting!sites,!managers!prioritize!those!that!will!most!equitably!represent!iwi&members’!interests!across!Ngāi!Tahu!territory,23!while!minimizing!harm!to!commercial!fishers’!catches.!!As!part!of!this!effort,!iwi!leaders&hired!Ngāi!Tahu!fisher!Hamish!Gorden!to!head!a!customary!fisheries!management!team.!!!!To!identify!traditional!fishing!sites!for!possible!customary!reserve!establishment,!Hamish!Gorden!travelled!around!the!South!Island!to!interview!hundreds!of!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!and!fishers’!family!members!about!the!nature!and!locations!of!their!fishing!practices.!!These!locations!included!inBland!and!offBshore!fisheries,!as!well!as!coastal!regions!where!Ngāi!Tahu!members!had!conducted!shellBfish!reseeding!practices.!!Reseeding!involves!reBlocating!shellfish,!including!the!highly!lucrative!paua!(abalone),!from!densely!populated!areas!to!less!densely!populated!regions!to!increase!growth!sizes!and!rates.!!For!some!interviews,!Hamish!brought!a!Ngāi!Tahu!film!crew!to!visit!fishing!sites!and!record!elders!talking!about!their!fishing!practices!in!these!locations,!in!an!effort!to!disseminate!fishing!knowledge!to!other!Ngāi!Tahu.!!The!recordings!are!kept!on!a!tribal!database!and!linked!to!GIS!maps!of!the!iwi’s!traditional!territory.!!!!The!iwi!is!developing!some!fishers’!accounts!into!short!clips!in!digitallyBmastered!formats!for!distribution!to!younger!iwi&members!who!might!want!to!learn!fishing!skills.!!However,!given!that!historically,!the!locations!of!lucrative!fishing!spots!were!“fiercely!protected,”!as!multiBgenerational!fisher!Rawiri!Taiake!describes,!determinations!for!access!to!interview!recordings!are!given!to!Ngāi!Tahu!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!23!Ngāi!Tahu’s!customary!territory!extends!across!the!South!Island,!save!the!northern!most!tip,!which!is!governed!by!five!smaller!iwi&(Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!In!their!settlement!negotiations,!Ngāi!Tahu!asserted!that!their!customary!fisheries!included!freshwater!and!marine!fisheries,!including!those!in!the!deepBsea,!extending!out!the!nation’s!200Bmile!exclusive!economic!zone!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!Today,!this!area,!as!with!all!of!New!Zealand’s!land!base!and!exclusive!economic!zone,!is!under!the!territorial!sovereignty!of!the!New!Zealand!government.!!

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community!leaders!who!represent!the!region’s!subBiwi,!or!hapū.!!Ngāi!Tahu’s&hapū!are!organized!into!eighteen!governing!regions,!or!rūnanga24&(see!Figure!3!in!Appendix!One).&&Each!rūnanga&corresponds!to!a!territorial!region!within!the!larger!Ngāi!Tahu!rohe,!or!traditional!territory.!!Each!rūnanga!appoints!a!representative!who!serves!on!the!Ngāi!Tahu!board.!!The!board!holds!authority!over!all!submissions!for!customary!reserve!establishment,!as!well!as!that!for!postBsettlement!development!more!broadly.!!The!equitable!representation!between!governing!territories,!in!theory,!helps!to!ensure!that!the!iwi’s!efforts!to!promote!a!customary!reserve!do!not!inequitably!favor!one!geographical!fishing!region!at!the!expense!of!others.!!!Hamish’s!interview!process!came!at!an!important!moment!for!Ngāi!Tahu’s!fishery!knowledge!transfer.!!Despite!long!histories!of!Ngāi!Tahu!as!fishers,!the!government’s!privatization!of!the!nation’s!commercial!fisheries!in!the!midB1980s!excluded!many!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!from!fishery!access.!!Many!of!the!fishers!fishing!at!the!time!of!ITQ!system!establishment!are!nearing!old!age!or!have!passed!on!without!transferring!their!fishing!knowledge!to!the!next!generation.!!Roger!Clark,!a!Ngāi!Tahu!fisher!who!was!excluded!at!the!time!of!quota!system!establishment,!refers!to!these!dynamics!of!restricted!access!as!giving!rise!to!a!“lost!generation”!of!fishing!knowledge!in!Ngāi!Tahu!communities.!!Hamish’s!interview!recordings!are!important!records!of!practices!that!may!otherwise!have!been!lost.!!!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!identified!thousands!of!freshwater!and!marine!water!sites!across!the!iwi’s!rohe,!or!traditional!territory,!that!met!the!criteria!outlined!in!the!mataitai!and!taiāpure&legislation.!To!identify!priority!sites!for!customary!reserve!establishment,!that!would!also!be!most!likely!to!obtain!approval!from!the!government,!Hamish!reduced!this!list!to!those!regions!identified!in!accounts!from!multiple!fishers.!!He!then!analyzed!the!smallerBsubset!of!sites!against!government!data!on!commercial!fishers’!reported!catches!and!locations,!to!determine!the!locations!in!which!the!customary!reserve’s!potential!to!ban!commercial!fishing!would!be!least!likely!to!result!in!an!undesired!displacement!of!fishing!pressure!elsewhere.!!He!verified!his!site!identifications!in!discussions!with!commercial!fishers!and!industry!representatives!for!sedentary!species!in!particular,!including!paua!(abalone)!and!kina&(sea!urchins),!for!which!a!ban!in!one!location!can!effect!a!negative!outcome!for!the!fishery!by!displacing!that!fishing!pressure!elsewhere!(Ballantine!2014).!!!3.2&MultiBstakeholder&collaborations&in&Kaikoura’s&marine&management&strategy&&&!A!notable!outcome!of!Hamish’s!work!to!build!collaborations!between!Ngāi!Tahu!and!various!fisheries!groups!within!New!Zealand’s!commercial!sector!was!the!development!and!implementation!of!one!of!the!world’s!most!diversified!spatial!fisheries!governance!initiatives!off!shore!from!Kaikoura.!!Kaikoura,!once!a!predominately!Māori!fishing!community,!is!now!a!popular!tourist!destination!on!the!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!24!Te!Waihora,!described!in!Chapter!Two,!is!part!of!the!Taumutu!rūnanga.!!!

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northeast!coast!of!New!Zealand’s!South!Island.!!The!Kaikoura!coastline!is!home!to!some!of!New!Zealand’s!most!prolific!abalone!and!rock!lobster!beds.!!The!region!has!a!long!history!of!commercial!and!customary!fishing!by!members!of!the!Ngāi!Tahu!rūnanga,!Kaikoura,!and!nonBMāori!commercial!fishers!(Te!Rūnanga!o!Ngāi!Tahu!2014).!!!In!2014,!the!New!Zealand!government!implemented!an!innovative,!spatially!networked!approach!to!fisheries!management!in!along!the!Kaikoura!coast!through!the!Kaikoura!(Te!Wai!o!Marokura)!Marine!Management!Act.!!Included!in!the!network!of!strategies!governing!the!region!is!a!marine!reserve,!a!whale!sanctuary!that!is!protected!from!seismic!survey!activities,!a!fur!seal!sanctuary,!three!mātaitai!that!prohibit!commercial!fishing!and!allow!recreational!and!customary!take,!and!two!taiāpure,!in!which!all!fishing!pressure!is!currently!allowed,!but!where!the!rūnanga!have!authority!to!implement!fishing!restrictions!in!the!future!(Department!of!Conservation!2014).!!The!Kaikoura!marine!management!area!is!overseen!by!a!multiBstakeholder!governing!board,!which!includes!government!appointees!as!well!as!representatives!from!the!local!Māori!and!nonBMāori!community,!and!fisheries!stakeholder!groups,!who!advise!governing!actions!to!government!(Department!of!Conservation!2014).!!Through!Ngāi!Tahu!customary!fisheries!manager!Hamish!Gorden’s!process!of!“gifts!and!gains,”!as!a!regional!management!strategy,!each!stakeholder!group!reduced!some!of!their!goals!for!regional!fisheries!management!in!return!for!others’!agreeing!to!implement!strategies!that!were!not!originally!on!their!agenda!(Te!Rūnanga!o!Ngāi!Tahu!2014).!!Gifts!and!gains!for!Ngāi!Tahu!as!commercial!rights!holders!and!customary!rights!holders,!can!occur!in!two!ways.!!!First,!Ngāi!Tahu!customary!governance!managers,!such!as!Gorden,!can!“give”!by!limiting!the!size!of!customary!reserve.!!Second,!Ngāi!Tahu!fisheries!managers!can!“give,”!by!requiring!fishers!who!are!leasing!Ngāi!Tahu!owned!quota!to!acquiescing!to!restrictions!on!where!they!can!take!fish.25!!!In!Kaikoura,!the!“gifts!and!gains”!negotiation!process!involved!over!nine!years!of!collaborations!with!recreational,!customary,!and!commercial!fishers,!marine!scientists,!local!rūnanga!representatives,!representatives!from!the!region’s!tourism!industry,!and!representatives!from!Greenpeace!and!regional!conservation!groups.!The!goal!of!the!stakeholder!negotiations!was!to!ensure!fisheries!management!would!simultaneously,!(i)!promote!conservation!outcomes,!(ii)!increase!local!rūnanga!fishers’!capacity!to!access!and!govern!their!fishing!grounds,!and!(iii)!promote!the!economic!development!of!both!the!commercial!fisheries!and!the!region’s!tourism!industry,!which!has!been!built!around!whale!watching!and!seafood!restaurants.!This!process!was!unprecedented!in!New!Zealand.!!It!resulted!in!conservationists!agreeing!to!allow!some!commercial!take!and!commercial!fishers!agreeing!to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!25!Although!not!referred!to!as!such,!a!similar!process!of!“gifting”!to!acknowledge!tribal!governance!strategies!also!occurred!at!Te!Waihora,!when!fishers!boycotted!the!Ngāi!Tahu!managers’!attempts!to!implement!an!eel!stake!tax.!!The!boycott!was!solved!by!a!Ngāi!Tahu!fisher,!Ed!Tamati,!who!said!he!would!pay!for!the!tax,!and!in!return,!was!able!to!obtain!lease!rights!to!Ngāi!Tahu!quota.!!

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implement!a!marine!reserve.26!!The!government’s!approval!of!the!group’s!proposed!plan!was!streamlined!by!the!fact!that!the!stakeholders!involved!agreed!to!the!proposal!prior!to!submission!to!government.!!!!Commercial!paua!fishers!credit!the!success!of!the!multiBstakeholder!project!to!Hamish!Gorden!and!others!working!with!him!at!Ngāi!Tahu.!Hamish!credits!the!success!to!the!rūnanga’s!early!identification!of!sites!for!customary!reserve!establishment.!!As!he!describes,!“We&knew&that&once&we&had&the&customary&tools&locked&in,&that&all&the&other&solutions&would&follow&to&complement&the&customary&tools.&...&All&these&tools&acting&in&combination&set&Te&Korowai&apart.&&In&most&other&regions&of&our&takiwā&[area]!,&the&customary&tools&sit&as&standBalone&tools,&and&they&are&more&vulnerable&to&surrounding&pressures”!(Te!Rūnanga!o!Ngāi!Tahu!2014).!!!3.3&&Commercial&Fishers’&Support&for&Customary&Reserves&within&an&ITQ&System&&!In!addition!to!promoting!conservation!and!economic!development!outcomes,!the!Kaikoura!negotiations!also!heightened!commercial!fishers’!awareness!of!the!potential!benefits!to!the!commercial!fishing!industry!found!in!Māori!customary!governance!rights.!!Commercial!fishers!from!the!paua!industry!express!particular!support!for!Māori!customary!reserve!establishment!because!these!reserves!hold!the!potential!to!address!what!some!paua!fishers!see!as!one!of!the!key!issues!in!the!management!of!New!Zealand’s!Individual!Transferable!Quota!(ITQ)!system!–!the!lack!of!spatial!governance.!!In!theory,!ITQ!systems!incentivize!spatial!governance!by!allocating!fishers!a!longBterm!property!right!to!fish.!!The!defined!amount!of!the!asset!is!designed!to!mitigate!fishery!depletion!corresponding!to!a!“race!for!fish,”!as!the!amount!of!fish!a!fisher!may!catch!each!year!is!set!regardless!of!who!gets!to!the!fishery!first.!!Drawing!on!Lockean!ideas!of!stewardship,!this!right!is!meant!to!incentivize!fishers!to!promote!longBterm!ecological!development!of!fishing!regions,!due!to!the!longevity!of!quota!as!a!permanent!property!right!(Yandle!2003,!Yandle!and!Dewees!2008).!!!!Under!New!Zealand’s!ITQ!system,!quota!is!allocated!for!a!particular!geographical!area,!called!a!quota!management!area!(QMA).!!This!area!size!varies!depending!on!species,!but!it!is!designed!to!be!large!enough!to!promote!a!competitive!market!for!quota!trading.!!The!government!designed!a!competitive!market!for!quota!trading!with!the!goal!of!incentivizing!fishers!to!sell!their!way!out!of!the!fishery,!in!order!to!reduce!overfishing!due!to!overcapitalization,!or!the!problem!of!too!many!boats!and!not!enough!fish!(Sissenwine!and!Mace!1992).!!Fishers!who!own!quota!can!choose!where!in!the!quota!management!area!to!fish.!!In!theory,!fishers’!can!address!fishery!depletion!due!to!commercial!fishing!pressure!that!is!taking!place!in!one!area,!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!26!An!earlier!attempt!to!implement!a!similar!strategy!in!the!remote!Fiordlands!region!on!the!southwest!coast!of!New!Zealand’s!South!Island,!where!Hamish!and!Ngāi!Tahu!also!worked,!resulted!in!a!management!plan!for!a!network!of!heterogeneously!managed!reserves!and!fisheries.!!However,!in!the!Fiordlands’!case,!the!regions!in!which!fishing!pressure!was!reduced,!experienced!far!less!fishing!pressure!prior!to!system!establishment.!!!

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without!jeopardizing!their!incomes,!by!fishing!elsewhere!in!the!quota!management!area!until!the!fishery!rebuilds.!!!!However,!the!incentive!for!fishers!to!promote!fishery!rebuild!by!diverting!fishing!pressure!elsewhere!does!not!exist!for!many!of!the!quotaBmanaged!fisheries!in!New!Zealand.!!Much!of!the!quota!fished!in!New!Zealand!is!fished!by!fishers!who!are!leasing!the!quota!from!a!thirdBparty!operation,!often!a!Māori!group,!which!owns!the!quota!as!an!investment!asset.!!Fishers!who!are!leasing!quota!operate!under!a!different!set!of!incentives!than!quota!owners.!!Lessees!need!to!ensure!that!at!the!end!of!each!year!they!will!have!enough!profits!left!over!to!fund!their!boat!gear!and!purchases,!as!well!as!quota!leases!(called!Annual!Catch!Entitlement),!for!the!next!year.!!The!need!for!high!profits!to!cover!the!cost!of!next!years’!quota!leases,!incentivizes!lease!fishers!to!fish!closer!to!shore!to!reduce!trip!fuel!costs,!which!are!relatively!high!in!New!Zealand,!as!almost!all!oil!is!imported!(Ministry!of!Business!2017).!!Lease!fishers!are!incentivized!to!fish!close!to!shore!even!if!this!means!degrading!nearBshore!fisheries.!!!!The!logic!behind!the!quota!lease!provisions!under!New!Zealand’s!ITQ!system!is!an!effect!of!the!system’s!goal!to!incentivize!quota!trade.!!The!goal!of!quota!trade!was!to!incentivize!fishers!to!sell!their!quota!and!exit!the!fishery,!in!order!to!reduce!overfishing!due!to!overcapitalization,!or!the!problem!of!too!many!boats!and!too!few!fish!(Annala!1996).!!The!system’s!provisions!that!enable!nonBfishers!to!own!quota!increase!price!competition!for!quota!purchases,!incentivizing!fishers!who!were!allocated!quota!initially!to!sell!their!way!out!of!the!fishery.!!Competition!from!outside!investors,!as!well!as!larger!fishing!companies,!makes!it!difficult!for!new!fishers!to!access!quota.27!!!However,!while!the!possibility!for!nonBfishers!to!own!quota!may!work!well!for!reducing!the!numbers!of!fishers!on!the!water,!it!does!not!work!well!for!ensuring!fishery!rebuild.!!The!incentive!for!lease!fishers!to!fish!close!to!a!boat’s!harbor!to!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!27!Important!to!note!ecologically,!consolidated!quota!holdings!held!by!larger!fishing!companies!can!reduce!fish!discard!in!situations!where!boats!catch!fish!they!do!not!intend!to!take.!!An!individual!corporation!holding!multiple!amounts!of!quota!minimizes!potential!fish!discard!by!increasing!the!likelihood!that!any!fish!caught!unintentionally!can!be!covered!by!the!organizations’!quota!holdings,!and!not!thrown!overboard.!!Indeed,!while!working!with!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!fishing!others’!quota,!there!were!multiple!times!we!caught!species!unexpectedly!that!we!were!able!to!hand!to!the!processor—and!receive!a!minimal!amount!for!the!fish—because!the!processor!owned!large!amounts!of!quota!and!had!extra!he!could!take!off!a!larger!boat!to!cover!the!individual!fish!we!caught.!!!The!possibility!for!a!consolidated!corporation!to!cover!the!cost!of!quota!minimizes!incentives!for!byBcatch!found!when!the!skipper!cannot!access!quota!to!cover!the!fish.!!Quota!owners’!incentives!to!trade!quota!between!boats!within!the!year!is!offBset!by!their!knowledge!that!if!they!hold!out!for!the!end!of!the!season,!they!may!be!able!to!obtain!a!higher!price!for!the!quota.!!At!that!stage!the!fisher’s!time!to!secure!quota!before!risking!a!deemed!value!fee!is!decreasing.!!For!the!fisher,!the!high!cost!required!to!trade!for!quota!to!cover!the!fish!caught,!encourages!discard.!!This!problem!is!increasingly!identified!in!New!Zealand’s!fisheries!(Simmons!et&al.!2016).!!!!

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decrease!the!cost!of!their!fishing!trips!is!especially!problematic!for!sedentary,!nearBshore!fisheries,!including!paua!(abalone).!!Paua!are!obtained!by!freeBdivers,!who!are!not!allowed!to!use!oxygen!tanks.!!Paua!beds!close!to!harbors!experience!depletion!earlier!than!those!within!a!quota!management!area!that!are!located!further!along!New!Zealand’s!rocky!shores.!!For!commercial!paua!divers!who!are!leasing!quota,!fishing!close!to!a!boat!launch!location!not!only!reduces!boat!fuel!costs,!but!it!also!reduces!the!physical!threats!to!diver!and!gear!safety!associated!with!diving!in!regions!outside!launching!points.!!Remote!paua&fishing!sites!are!usually!exposed!to!the!elements,!increasing!the!risk!of!damaging!a!boat.!!By!remaining!near!the!shore,!to!facilitate!the!diver’s!return!in!these!turbulent!regions,!!the!boat!is!at!risk!of!hitting!rocks.!!Outlying!sites!in!rough!seas!also!threatens!the!divers’!physical!safety,!especially!if!the!diver!is!unfamiliar!with!the!area,!as!is!likely!the!case!for!a!diver!leasing!quota.!!!Paua&divers!often!lease!quota,!as!a!paua!quota!is!prohibitively!expensive!for!most!fishers.!The!high!price!for!paua!quota!is!an!effect!of!the!high!price!of!the!fish!itself.!!The!wholesale!price!of!paua&is!almost!always!well!over!$100!per!kilogram!(O’Neill!2015).!!These!high!prices!are,!in!large!part!due!to!the!fact!that!on!a!global!scale,!the!coastal!fisheries!supporting!abalone!are!experiencing!major!collapses!(Pinsky!et&al.!2011).!!High!overseas!value!for!paua!corresponds!to!high!quota!prices!domestically.!!Paua&quota!is!attractive!for!nonBfishers!to!purchase!as!investment!assets,!as!the!high!market!price!for!the!fish!ensures!investors!there!will!be!a!demand!for!potential!fishers!to!catch!the!fish.!!Additionally,!paua&represents!a!comparatively!active!recreational!fishing!sector.!!As!compared!to!offBshore!species!that!require!larger!boats!to!access,!paua!does!not!require!a!large!boat!or!gear!for!access.!A!relative!ease!of!access!increases!the!number!of!potential!commercial!paua!divers!vying!for!quota!and!leases!in!New!Zealand,!and!increases!the!potential!for!the!rogue!fisher!to!destroy!years!of!other!fishers’!rebuild!efforts.!!!The!paua!industry!is!one!of!more!organized!fishing!commercial!fishing!groups!in!New!Zealand,!for!the!purposes!of!selfBgoverning!of!fishery!rebuild!efforts.!!The!industry!council!provides!technical!assistance!to!fishers,!shares!research!about!the!species,!and!helps!foster!collaborations!between!fishers!for!the!purposes!of!fishery!rebuild!efforts.!!However,!fishery!rebuild!efforts!are!challenged!by!the!fact!that!the!industry!lacks!enforcement!capacity.!Under!New!Zealand’s!1996!Fisheries!Act,!it!is!technically!possible!for!the!industry!council!to!appeal!to!the!government!for!a!temporary!fishery!closure.!!However,!as!observed!at!the!2015!paua!industry!conference,!the!likelihood!that!the!government!will!respond!to!a!request!from!the!industry!is!minimal.!!At!the!conference,!paua&industry!representatives!presented!ten!legislative!priorities!to!government!representatives.!!The!possibility!to!implement!a!temporary!closure!to!rebuild!paua!fisheries!was!a!top!request.!!!!!However,!as!part!of!the!government’s!efforts!to!streamline!bureaucratic!operations,!the!Ministry!for!Fisheries!had!recently!been!consolidated!into!the!Ministry!for!Primary!Industries.!!What!this!meant,!according!to!the!government!representatives,!was!that!government!bureaucrats!were!extremely!overworked,!and!were!unlikely!to!

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be!able!to!meet!any!of!the!industry’s!requests.!Somewhat!surprised,!but!not!demoralized,!the!discussion!amongst!the!predominately!nonBMāori!commercial!fishers!at!the!conference!almost!immediately!turned!towards!the!possibility!of!supporting!Māori!groups!to!implement!taiāpure!in!places!where!a!paua&rebuild!was!deemed!necessary,!as!had!occurred!at!Kaikoura.!!A!Māori!group!governing!a!taiāpure!could!implement!a!temporary!ban!on!fishing!in!a!designated!area.!!They!could!reBopen!the!area!to!fishing!pressure!once!the!rebuild!was!successful.!!!!A!second!point!of!request!to!the!government!from!the!industry!was!to!promote!research!to!better!understand!the!impacts!of!density!on!species!size.!!Fishers!had!observed!a!proliferation!of!stunted!stocks,!or!paua!fisheries!where!the!maximum!individual!size!is!smaller!than!the!legal!limit.!!Here!too,!the!industry!has!begun!collaborating!with!Ngāi!Tahu!and!other!Māori!groups,!as!well!as!scientists,!to!examine!whether!fishing!to!reduce!paua!bed!density!can!also!serve!to!diminish!the!prevalence!of!stunted!stocks.!!The!government’s!minimum!size!limits,!which!are!typically!80mm!for!yellow!foot!paua!(Haliotis&Australia),!and!125mm!for!the!more!prolific!black!foot!paua!(Haliotis&iris),!prohibit!fishers!from!taking!stunted!paua.!!However,!under!the!customary!fishing!regulations!granted!to!Māori,!Māori!fisheries!governors,!or!kaitiaki,!may!write!permits!for!take!of!paua&under!the!government’s!minimum!size.!This!possibility!enables!fishers!to!take!stunted!paua&from!one!location!to!another!location,!or!use!for!food!distribution!to!community!members,!in!order!to!study!at!a!scale!large!enough!to!identify!whether!a!reduction!in!the!species’!density!through!fishing!would!mitigate!the!prevalence!of!stunting!(Naylor!and!Andrew!2004).!!Māori!customary!reserves,!made!visible!to!the!commercial!fishing!industry!as!a!regulatory!strategy,!in!large!part!through!Hamish!Gorden’s!work,!are!a!potential!way!forward!for!sedentary!species’!rebuild!efforts.!!In!this!context,!multiBstakeholder!collaborations,!between!Māori!managers!and!commercial!fishers,!has!given!rise!to!new!forms!of!Māori!governing!authority!over!fishing!spaces.!!&!2.4&&Customary&Reserves&and&Innovations&in&Community&Monitoring&&In!addition!to!building!collaborations!between!scientists,!the!commercial!fishing!industry,!and!Māori!fishers!in!the!implementation!of!spatial!governing!strategies,!Ngāi!Tahu’s!customary!reserve!implementation!initiatives!governance!have!also!opened!up!possibilities!for!innovations!in!Māori!and!nonBMāori!communityBbased!fisheries!monitoring!initiatives.!!At!Karitane,!a!remote!fishing!community!on!the!southeast!coast!of!New!Zealand’s!South!Island,!local!fishers!from!the!rūnanga,!Kati!Huirapa!Runaka!ki!Puketeraki,!spent!over!seven!years!working!with!Ngāi!Tahu!customary!fisheries!managers!and!the!government!to!implement!a!customary!reserve!to!enhance!the!community’s!ability!to!access!their!traditional!food!sources.!!!In!2001,!the!government!approved!a!smaller!version!of!the!initially!proposed!East!Otago!taiāpure.!!The!rūnanga&submitted!applications!to!the!government!for!amendments!to!the!government’s!recreational!fishing!allowances!for!species!in!the!taiāpure&region.!!Approved!amendments!included!reductions!in!the!daily!recreational!take!allowances!for!certain!species,!including!paua,!and!prohibitions!on!paua!take!from!important!breeding!grounds!(Ministry!for!Primary!Industries!2017).!!

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!However,!as!rūnanga&member!and!taiāpure&committee!chair!Patrick!Arnold!reports,!enforcement!of!the!new!management!provisions!was!challenging.!!Fisheries!officers,!who!in!New!Zealand!carry!more!authority!than!police!(fisheries!officers,!unlike!police,!can!carry!weapons),!rarely!visit!the!area,!instead!focusing!their!efforts!on!harbors!with!higher!levels!of!commercial!and!recreational!fishing!activities,!including!neighboring!Dunedin!and!Timaru.!!Moreover,!community!members!who!had!governed!the!region!for!generations!did!not!necessarily!want!an!enhanced!“big!brother”!government!presence!postBmātaitai!establishment.!While!the!local!community!was!heavily!consulted!in!the!development!of!these!regulations,!eliciting!compliance!from!individuals!coming!from!out!of!town!proved!more!difficult.!!Outsiders,!including!people!who!have!come!for!many!years!to!harvest!paua,!at!Karitane,!resisted!acknowledging!the!local!Māori!groups’!new!governing!authority.!!!In!the!absence!of!law!enforcement,!the!rūnanga!had!signs!made!to!post!information!about!the!new!policies!on!beach!entrances!along!the!Karitane!bay.!!To!convey!authority,!the!signs!included!two!large!emblems:!one!from!the!New!Zealand!government’s!Ministry!for!Primary!Industries,!and!one!from!Ngāi!Tahu.!!However,!as!Patrick!reports,!within!days!the!signs!were!vandalized.!!!The!management!committee!ordered!a!new!set!of!signs.!!This!time,!without!the!government’s!logo,!only!that!of!Ngāi!Tahu.!!The!second!time!around,!the!signs!were!legible!for!several!weeks!before!they!were!undesirably!redecorated!with!spray!paint.!!!!The!management!committee’s!third!strategy!to!convey!information!about!the!new!management!protocols!established!under!the!taiāpure!was!novel.!!This!time,!instead!of!signs,!he!placed!long!sticks!around!the!cove,!with!carved!figures!on!top.!!The!carvings!represented!po,!or!spirits!of!the!dead.!!They!were!positioned!staring!out!to!sea.!!The!goal!of!the!po,!as!Patrick!describes,!was!to!encourage!community!monitoring!and!knowledge!dissemination!about!the!status!of!the!fishery!to!visitors!to!the!area.!!The!idea!was!that!visitors!would!come!to!Karitane,!see!the!po,!and!ask!a!member!of!the!local!community,!Māori!or!nonBMāori,!what!it!meant.!!This!would!give!the!community!member!the!opportunity!to!explain!to!the!fishery!rebuild!efforts!to!the!visitor,!and!what!the!fishing!limits!were.!!Patrick!describes!his!hope!that!the!faceBtoBface!knowledge!transfer!would!enhance!the!likelihood!that!both!visitors!and!locals!comply!with!the!new!regulations.!!As!of!2015,!he!reported!that!the!project!was!beginning!to!see!success.!!Visitors!were!asking!local!store!clerks!for!information!about!the!po,!and!locals!walking!on!the!beach!were!empowered!to!let!visitors!know!when!they!were!acting!against!the!taiāpure&protocols.!!In!theory,!over!time,!the!knowledge!transfer!and!monitoring!practices!associated!with!the!taiāpure’s!po!will!operate!as!an!antiBcolonial!strategy!by!effecting!the!return!of!local!community!authorities!over!their!traditional!territory.!No!armed!fisheries!officers!needed.!!!4.(Marine(Reserves(and(Limitations(to(Māori(Customary(Governance(Rights((&Kaikoura!and!the!East!Otago!taiāpure!were!two!of!over!twenty!sites!Hamish!has!identified!as!highly!important!customary!fishing!regions!where!customary!reserve!

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implementation!is!least!likely!to!displace!commercial!fishing!pressure,!and!thus!most!likely!to!obtain!political!support!from!the!commercial!fishing!industry.!!However,!despite!industry!support!for!many!of!his!site!proposals,!few!have!been!implemented.!!The!government’s!slow!approval!for!customary!reserve!implementation!is!mirrored!in!accounts!from!other!iwi!across!New!Zealand,!for!whom!the!submission!process!lasts!upwards!of!tenBplus!years,!costing!human!and!financial!resources!(Molloy!2011).!!!!However,!much!to!the!frustration!of!Hamish!Gorden!and!other!customary!fishers,!while!the!government!has!taken!pains!to!ensure!all!stakeholder!groups’!interests!are!heard!in!debates!for!or!against!customary!reserve!establishment,!the!government!has!taken!a!much!less!integrated!and!more!streamlined!approach!to!implementing!its!own!spatial!governance!strategy!for!marine!space,!through!the!implementation!of!marine!reserves.!28!!!!!In!1977,!New!Zealand!became!the!first!country!to!implement!a!marine!reserve!in!which!fishing!was!prohibited!(Forest!and!Bird!2017).!!As!of!2016,!44!marine!reserves!existed!in!New!Zealand!(Forest!and!Bird!2017).!!Marine!reserves!prohibit!all!fishing!indefinitely.!!In!doing!so,!marine!reserves!also!prohibit!the!adaptive!management!potentials!of!customary!reserves,!including!the!potential!to!collaborate!with!the!commercial!fishing!industry!for!the!implementation!of!temporary!closures.!!Marine!reserves!also!make!illegal!all!customary!food!provisioning!practices!deployed!by!Ngāi!Tahu!historically,!as!well!as!the!potential!for!Ngāi!Tahu!to!develop!of!smallBscale!fishing!economies!using!ITQ!rights!granted!in!settlement.!!The!limitations!for!Ngāi!Tahu’s!postBsettlement!development!are!highlighted!in!the!government’s!implementation!of!a!marine!protected!area!in!Akaroa.!This!initiative!obliterated!the!possibility!for!the!iwi!to!promote!equity!in!postBsettlement!fisheries!development!by!extending!the!iwi’s!quota!reBallocation!initiatives!that!took!place!at!Bluff!and!at!Te!Waihora!(Ch.!2!&!Ch.!3),!to!additional!rūnanga,!despite!growing!support!from!tribal!leadership.!!!However,!despite!increasing!support!for!Māori!customary!governance!rights!from!Māori!and!nonBMāori!commercial!and!nonBcommercial!fishers,!broader!dissemination!of!these!efforts!is!limited!by!the!government’s!authority!where!customary!governance!reserves!are!established.!!It!is!also!limited!by!the!government’s!authority!to!implement!an!additional!form!of!spatial!governing!right,!in!the!form!of!a!noBtake!marine!reserve,!that!preclude!possibilities!for!customary!reserve!establishment.!!NoBtake!marine!reserves!limit!the!possibilities!for!former!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!to!use!Ngāi!Tahu!quota!rights!to!promote!regional!fishery!development!and!customary!fish!distribution!practices.!!These!dynamics!are!highlighted!in!the!formerly!robust!fishing!town!of!Akaroa.!!In!Akaroa,!Māori!fishers!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!28!The!government!has!also!implemented!a!privatized!property!rights!regime!for!marine!space!for!use!in!aquaculture.!!This!process!is!also!contentious,!as,!typically!allocations!for!aquaculture!facility!establishment!do!not!overlap!with!sites!that!iwi!have!identified!as!including!customarily!important!fisheries.!!

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who!were!excluded!from!commercial!fishery!access!with!the!governments’!implementation!of!the!ITQ!system,!were!doubly!excluded!from!their!customary!fisheries!with!the!government’s!implementation!of!a!marine!reserve!in!2013.!!!!4.2&&Exclusion&and&Reserve&Implementation&in&Akaroa&&An!examination!of!Akaroa,!a!traditional!Ngāi!Tahu!fishing!community!where!the!government!implemented!a!marine!reserve!in!2013,!demonstrates!that!marine!reserve!establishment!limits!opportunities!for!equity!in!Ngāi!Tahu’s!postBsettlement!development.!Instead,!the!marine!reserve!enables!the!government!to!promote!a!“clean,!green”!image!in!international!tourism!advertising!campaigns!while!simultaneously!supporting!river!diversions!for!agricultural!irrigation!and!marine!floor!alterations!for!mining!and!oil!drilling!operations!that!threaten!marine!and!freshwater!species!(Ministry!for!the!Environment!2001,!Barnett!and!Pauling!2005,!Milman!2014).!Implemented!against!the!wishes!of!local!Māori!fishers,!the!Akaroa!case!demonstrates!that!property!rights!allocated!to!Ngāi!Tahu!and!other!Māori!groups!in!settlement!do!not!also!convey!sovereignty!over!property!and!governance!rights!obtained!in!settlement.!The!decision!limits!possibilities!for!equitable!distributions!of!fisheries!benefits!to!Ngāi!Tahu!community!members!postBsettlement.!!!Akaroa!is!a!historical!fishing!and!whaling!town!located!on!Banks!Peninsula!on!the!east!coast!of!New!Zealand’s!South!Island.!!Akaroa,!or!“Long!Harbor,”!is!located!within!an!hour’s!drive!from!Te!Waihora,!the!site!of!Ngāi!Tahu’s!postBsettlement!economic!development!initiatives!through!the!redistribution!of!eel!quota!to!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers.!It!is!the!home!of!the!Ngāi!Tahu!rūnanga,!Onuku.!!Fishers!from!Onuku!would!like!to!see!the!quota!reBallocation!initiative!deployed!with!the!Tamati’s!at!Te!Waihora!also!utilized!at!Akaroa.!!Ngāi!Tahu!owned!quota!would!be!leased!to!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers,!with!the!goal!of!promoting!local!economic!benefits!for!Māori!fishers!and!the!broader!community.!!!As!per!the!terms!of!the!Fisheries!Settlement,!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!owns!at!least!10B20%!of!the!quota!to!all!species!of!fish!found!in!the!Akaroa!region,!plus!any!additional!quota!purchased!postBsettlement!from!lease!revenues.!!Currently,!the!Ngāi!Tahu!seafood!company!that!manages!the!iwi’s!quota!holdings,!leases!almost!all!the!quota!for!the!region!that!includes!Akaroa!to!nonBMāori!fishing!companies.!Under!New!Zealand’s!ITQ!system,!expansive!quota!management!area!sizes!mean!that!quota!that!accounts!for!fish!offshore!from!Akaroa!can!also!account!for!fish!caught!along!the!coast!north!and!south!from!Akaroa.!!This!regulation!increases!the!likelihood!that!a!large!fishing!company!operating!out!of!a!larger!port,!will!catch!fish!off!Akaroa!without!redistributing!any!of!the!economic!benefits!from!employment,!fish!distribution,!and!knowledge!transfer!about!any!changes!in!a!fishery’s!ecological!conditions,!to!the!Onuku!rūnanga!or!Akaroa!community.!!This!type!of!extraction!practice!is!markedly!different!than!that!practiced!in!the!preBquota!years,!when!Akaroa!operated!as!a!local!port!with!several!processing!plants!where!predominately!Māori!fishers!skippered!nonBMāori!boats.!!!

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!PreBITQ!system!establishment,!Akaroa!was!a!robust!fishing!region.!!Up!until!the!1960s,!almost!all!of!the!fishers!fishing!out!of!Akaroa!were!Māori!from!Onuku!(Bell!Gully!2002).!!The!harbor!mouth!at!Akaroa!is!relatively!narrow,!and!nonBMāori!fishing!boats!would!often!get!lost!trying!to!find!it!when!returning!from!sea!(Bell!Gully!2002).!!Rūnanga&fishers!were!taught!to!read!the!landscape!and!stars!for!cues.!!Rawiri!Taiake,!an!intergenerational!fisher!from!Akaroa,!in!a!submission!for!customary!reserve!establishment!in!the!Akaroa!harbor,!describes!his!uncles!as!the,!“Hokianga!Boys,”!who!were!“famous…&for&their&abilities&to&read&the&stars&and&find&the&best&fishing&and&gathering&spots&from&the&local&landmarks&from&the&knowledge&that&the&old&people&taught&them”!(Bell!Gully!2002).!!NonBMāori!fishers!preferred!to!land!their!fish!at!what!they!felt!were!the!more!accessible!ports!of!Lyttelton,!to!the!north,!or!Timaru,!to!the!south!(Bell!Gully!2002).!!In!the!1960s!and!70s,!the!introduction!of!radar!to!fishing!boats!in!New!Zealand!changed!the!demographics!of!boat!ownership!in!Akaroa.!!Radar!enabled!boats!to!find!each!other,!making!it!possible!for!skippers,!who!did!not!grow!up!learning!the!coastline,!to!find!their!way!back!to!port.!!None!of!the!rūnanga&Ngāi!Tahu!could!afford!radar,!or!the!larger!trawling!boats!that!nonBMāori!also!brought!to!Akaroa!(Bell!Gully!2002).!!!These!larger!boats,!with!the!capacities!to!extract!large!amounts!of!fish!for!commercial!sales,!changed!the!nature!of!fishing!in!Akaroa!from!a!subsistence!based!fishery!to!commercial!fishery!(Bell!Gully!2002).!!NonBMāori!boats!owners!employed!Māori!fishers!as!skippers!and!crew.!!!!The!lack!of!boat!ownership!hurt!rūnanga!members!in!the!quota!allocation!process.!!Despite!years!of!work!bringing!in!substantial!amounts!of!fish,!no!Māori!fishing!out!of!Akaroa!received!quota!in!the!quota!allocation!period!(Bell!Gully!2002).!!Māori!fishers’!exclusion!in!Akaroa!was!largely!due!to!the!quota!allocation!systems’!provisions!to!only!allocate!quota!to!boat!owners,!and!only!to!those!who!were!reporting!up!to!80%!of!their!income!from!quota!in!the!preBquota!allocation!years.!!Many!Māori!were!not!reporting!catches!because!of!the!understanding!that!the!fishery!was!MāoriBowned.!!This!was!especially!the!case!for!nearBshore!species!such!as!paua!and!lobster,!as!well!as!eel,!as!these!species!were!almost!exclusively!consumed!by!Māori,!as!nonBMāori!New!Zealanders!preferred!whiteBfish!or!farmBraised!meat!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!!In!particular,!Māori!fishers!out!of!Akaroa!were!not!reporting!their!catches!in!the!preBquota!years!because!they!were!largely!unaware!of!system!implementation.!!Rawiri!Taiake!describes!how!he!spent!decades!of!his!life!learning!the!locations!of!lucrative!fishing!spots!from!the!“old!people”!(Bell!Gully!2002).!!Prior!to!ITQ!system!establishment,!Rawiri!had!worked!on!over!ten,!nonBMāori!Bowned!fishing!boats!out!of!Akaroa,!Lyttelton,!and!Timaru.!!However,!despite!his!years!of!experience!bringing!boats!to!lucrative!fishing!locations!around!and!outside!the!Akaroa!harbor,!Rawiri!was!unaware!of!the!potential!benefits!of!obtaining!a!boat!and!declaring!catch!histories!in!the!preBquota!years.!!Growing!up!during!the!government’s!assimilation!period!as!one!of!two!Māori!families!at!the!formerly!nonBMāori!Anglican!school,!

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Rawiri!talks!about!how!he!used!to!think!it!was!cool!that!Māori!children!were!tasked!with!manual!labor!outside,!such!as!painting!fences!and!planting!the!school!garden,!while!the!nonBMāori!children!stayed!inside!to!learn!to!read,!write,!and!do!math.!!It!was!not!until!years!later!that!he!realized!the!violence!of!this!exclusion!when!his!own!literacy!was!jeopardized!in!ways!that!limited!his!ability!to!read!news!of!ITQ!system!implementation!that!was!reported!in!newspapers.!!As!Rawiri!notes,!“We!should!have!been!fishing!the!shit!out!of!the!fishery.”!!!!Rawiri’s!frustration!with!the!settlement!granting!rights!to!the!iwi!and!not!directly!to!fishers!is!tied!to!the!fact!that!the!government!provided!an!alternative,!nonBsettlement,!option!for!fishers!without!catch!histories!to!obtain!quota!after!ITQ!system!establishment.!!Used!primarily!by!nonB!Māori,!this!option!involved!direct!negotiations!between!individual!fishers!and!the!Ministry!of!Fisheries.!!In!these!negotiations,!fishers!presented!reasons!for!a!lack!of!catch!histories!in!exchange!for!quota.!!This!practice!was!especially!common!in!the!Chatham!Islands,!located!off!the!east!coast!of!the!South!Island,!where!few!fishers!had!recorded!catch!histories!to!government.!!These!fishers,!primarily!nonBMāori,!negotiated!directly!with!Ministry!of!Fishery!officers!to!receive!ITQ!rights,!so!much!so!that!fishery!scientists!argue!that!quota!allocated!in!these!regions!may!have!surpassed!what!fishers!were!actually!catching!(Sissenwine!and!Mace!1992).!!Stories!of!the!reBallocation!process!in!the!Chathams!include!accounts!from!fishers!blaming!distance,!their!child’s!illness,!and!school!attendance!as!reasons!for!low!catch!histories!in!the!preBquota!years.!!Unable!to!predict!that!the!Māori!Fisheries!Settlement!would!allocate!quota!to!a!Trust!(Te!Ohu!Kaimoana)!not!fishers,!Māori!fishers!including!Clark!and!Taiake!focused!their!efforts!on!the!Māori!settlement!negotiations!and!missed!the!window!for!quota!allocations!via!direct!negotiations!with!government!–!decisions!they!now!regret.!!!!4.3&PostBSettlement&Development&Dreams&at&Akaroa&&&Rawiri!Taiake!would!like!Ngāi!Tahu!to!lease!quota!for!fish!species!caught!around!Akaroa!to!Onuku!fishers.!!At!one!point,!Onuku&held!most!of!the!land!around!Akaroa.!!Today,!the!Ngāi!Tahu!rūnanga!owns!a!much!smaller!piece!of!property!up!the!hill!from!town,!where!the!marae&is!located.!!Rawiri!grew!up!in!a!house!close!to!the!marae,!but!in!the!midB1900s,!as!part!of!the!government’s!“assimilation”!program,!the!government!moved!his!family!to!a!house!in!town!next!to!the!police!station!(Thomas!and!Nikora!1992).!!Rawiri!notes!that!the!government!did!this!to!keep!an!eye!on!his!Māori!family.!!Over!the!course!of!his!adult!life,!Rawiri!saved!enough!money!to!purchase!a!small!piece!of!land!by!the!marae&outside!of!town!with!a!view!of!Akaroa!harbor.!!Prior!to!fisheries!privatization,!Akaroa!was!primarily!supported!by!commercial!fishing.!!As!of!2015,!commercial!fishing!boats!no!longer!dock!at!Akaroa.!!In!the!years!after!quota!system!establishment,!almost!all!of!the!fishers!(all!nonBMāori)!fishing!out!of!Akaroa!who!did!receive!quota!either!sold!their!quota!or!leased!it!to!larger,!nonBlocal!companies.!In!contemporary!times,!Akaroa!is!no!longer!a!fishing!port!and!operates!almost!exclusively!on!tourism!(Akaroa!Information!Centre).!!However,!

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despite!the!hundreds!of!years!of!Māori!presence!in!the!region,!tourists!travelling!the!winding!roads!of!Banks!Peninsula!leading!to!Akaroa,!experience!a!French,!not!Māori,!history.!!The!Akaroa!“District!Promotion”!website!advertises!the!town!for!its!French!and!British!history!(Akaroa!District!Promotions!2015).!!Visitors!to!the!site!receive!no!mention!of!the!region’s!Māori!history!(Akaroa!District!Promotions!2015).!!!!In!the!four!decades!before!New!Zealand!became!a!British!colony!through!the!1840!Treaty!of!Waitangi,!French!whalers!worked!in!New!Zealand’s!waters,!primarily!to!supply!whale!oil!to!Paris!(Buick!1928).!!!In!August!1938,!French!whalers!attempted!to!purchase!the!land!encompassing!Akaroa,!from!Māori,!to!establish!New!Zealand’s!South!Island!as!French!(Buick!1928).!!A!major!part!of!the!British!Crown’s!motivation!for!signing!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi!was!to!ensure!that!New!Zealand!would!become!a!British,!rather!than!French,!colony!(Orange!2004).!!French!whalers!abandoned!their!colonization!plans!the!year!after!the!Treaty!signing!(Orange!2004),!but!in!Akaroa,!their!architectural!legacies!remain.!!Houses!dotting!the!streets!in!the!coastal!town!are!now!a!tourist!destination!for!New!Zealanders!and!foreign!travellers!driving!the!roads!of!New!Zealand’s!South!Island.!!!!Rawiri!Taiake,!and!other!Ngāi!Tahu!from!the!Akaroa!rūnanga,!would!like!to!establish!the!marae&as!a!stopping!point!on!the!tourist!circuit,!as!occurs!in!the!North!Island.!!Located!a!tenBminute!drive!up!the!hill!from!town,!on!land!overlooking!the!harbor,!the!marae!is!a!ideal!location!for!a!tourist!stopping!point.!!!In!Rawiri’s!vision,!visitors!to!the!marae!would!learn!about!the!region’s!history,!and!how!fishers!could!read!the!landscape!and!stars,!as!well!as!smoke!signals!from!rūnanga&across!the!harbor.!!They!would!have!an!opportunity!to!smoke!and!dry!fish!in!traditional!ways,!and!eat!a!traditional!Māori!meal!showcasing!mahinga&kai,!or!places!that!produce!traditional,!wild!foods.!!The!marae&visit!would!serve!as!an!antiBcolonial!economic!revenue!generating!activity!by!reBwriting!the!history!of!the!region!to!include!Māori!as!food!providers.!!It!would!also!enable!the!rūnanga!to!exercise!their!mana,!by!showcasing!to!visitors!the!best!food!that!the!region!has!to!offer.!!!!In!Rawiri’s!vision,!the!possibility!to!sell!fish!to!marae&visitors!requires!access!to!quota,!as!it!is!illegal!to!sell!fish!in!New!Zealand!without!owning!or!leasing!quota.!!Rawiri’s!interest!in!getting!Ngāi!Tahu!to!lease!quota!for!species!caught!around!Akaroa!to!rūnanga&fishers!is!motivated!in!part!because!his!son,!who!is!also!a!fisher,!is!unable!to!develop!his!own!fishing!operation!without!quota!rights.!!Rawiri’s!son!currently!works!on!a!commercial!fishing!boat.!!Despite!decades!of!fishing!experience,!he!does!not!make!enough!money!to!purchase!his!own!quota.!!Ngāi!Tahu!has!quota!that!his!son,!who!is!Ngāi!Tahu,!could!potentially!lease!in!order!to!establish!a!local!fishing!operation.!!!!Rawiri’s!desire!to!have!local!Akaroa!fishers!fishing!the!Ngāi!Tahu!quota!for!species!that!were!formerly!caught!in!the!harbor!is!also!an!answer!to!his!frustration!with!the!current!situation!of!fish!extraction!from!the!region.!Currently,!fishing!boats!based!out!of!neighboring!ports!travel!down!the!coast!and!fish!outside!the!Akaroa!harbor,!a!region!that!was!previously!understood!to!be!Onuku!territory!(Waitangi!Tribunal!

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1992).!!!As!Rawiri!notes,!“I!guess!we’re!all!Ngāi!Tahu!now.!!We!have!to!get!used!to!that.”!!His!comment!is!a!reference!to!the!sentiment,!echoed!by!many!Ngāi!Tahu,!that!their!hapū,!or!subBiwi,!which!rūnanga!represent,!is!a!more!accurate!presentation!of!their!political!interests!than!is!the!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!as!a!collective.!!This!sentiment!varies!based!in!large!part!on!the!relationship!a!particular!hapū!had!to!Ngāi!Tahu’s!own!colonial!history.!!Members!from!some!hapū,!especially!Ngati!Mamoe,!who!travelled!to!the!South!Island!before!Ngāi!Tahu,!assert!that!the!Ngāi!Tahu!settlement!does!not!apply!to!them.!!Some!Ngati!Mamoe,!including!descendants!of!those!who!lived!in!Akaroa,!assert!that!their!settlement!negotiations!have!yet!to!take!place.!!Politically,!additional!settlement!negotiations!are!unlikely!to!occur,!as!the!government’s!interest!in!settling!with!Ngāi!Tahu!as!one!of!the!first!Treaty!of!Waitangi!settlements!was!tied!to!the!understanding,!established!in!legislation,!that!the!iwi!represented!a!collective!group!in!the!South!Island.!!!!Tensions!surrounding!differences!between!rūnanga’s!historical!relationships!with!Ngāi!Tahu!leadership!manifest!in!debates!around!equity!in!Ngāi!Tahu’s!postBsettlement!governance.!!Often,!Ngāi!Tahu!leaders!are!viewed!to!be!responsible!for!amending!this!inequality.!Some!Ngāi!Tahu!believe!that!Ngāi!Tahu!leadership!privileges!some!rūnanga!over!others!in!postBsettlement!development.!!Some!fishers!feel!that!it!is!unfair!that!some!rūnanga&have!access!to!tribal!quota!and!others!do!not,!and!that!some!rūnanga!have!customary!reserves!established!in!their!traditional!fishing!territories,!while!others!do!not.!!Although!while!ITQ!rights!are!nonBterritorial!in!the!sense!that!they!can!be!fished!from!multiple!regions,!the!regions!where!fishers!keep!their!boats,!process!and!land!their!fish,!and!establish!their!homes,!is!territorial.!!!The!Onuku!rūnanga,!until!the!quota!system’s!implementation,!was!economically!supported!by!fishing!and!fish!processing.!!Since!the!quota!implementation,!the!community!suffers,!due!to!the!cessation!of!their!livelihood.!!Fishers!no!longer!land!at!docks!in!Akaroa.!!Ngāi!Tahu!development!initiatives!acknowledge!the!territorial!governance!aspect!of!Ngāi!Tahu!groups!historically!through!their!tribal!development!initiatives,!whereby!rūnanga!representatives!can!apply!for!funds!for!community!and!economic!development!initiatives.!!Rawiri!would!like!to!see!Ngāi!Tahu!quota!return!to!Akaroa!and!used!to!promote!a!mahinga&kai&centered!tourism!operation!at!his!marae.!!This!would!be!an!effort!to!return!economic!revenue!generating!possibilities!for!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!in!the!community.!!The!possibility!is!not!farBfetched.!!The!marae!already!exists,!as!does!the!fish!drying!rack!and!smoker.!!!!While!Ngāi!Tahu!managers!negotiate!strategies!for!equitable!postBsettlement!development,!and!orchestrate!multiBstakeholder!collaborations!for!local!fishery!governance,!the!government!is!actively!pursuing!spatial!governance!initiatives.!This!is!being!realized!through!the!implementation!of!a!marine!reserve!establishment,!which!limits!the!possibility!for!a!deBcentralized!distribution!of!Ngāi!Tahu’s!fishery!settlement!assets.!!4.4&&The&Akaroa&Marine&Reserve&and&GovernmentBImposed&Limits&to&postBSettlement&Equity&!

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!In!2013,!the!New!Zealand!government!squashed!Rawiri’s!dreams!of!Akaroa!serving!as!a!site!for!a!local!Ngāi!Tahu!fishing!business!when!they!opened!the!Akaroa!Marine!Reserve.!!The!Akaroa!Marine!Reserve,!located!at!the!northern!mouth!of!the!harbor,!encompasses!12%!of!the!Akaroa!harbor,!or!512!hectares,!including!the!coastline!closest!to!Rawiri’s!recentlyBacquired!property.!!The!marine!reserve!encompasses!traditional!Ngāi!Tahu!fishing!regions,!as!well!as!several!caves!that!Onuku!used!for!various!forms!of!storage.!!The!marine!reserve!makes!it!illegal!to!fish!or!remove!anything!from!these!caves,!including!paua,!which!arguably!exist!in!the!region!in!part!thanks!to!generations!of!Onuku!fishers’!paua!reseeding!practices!in!the!harbor!(Bell!Gully!2002).!!By!increasing!the!distance!fishers!have!to!travel!to!catch!fish,!the!marine!reserve!limited!the!potential!for!Ngāi!Tahu!governors!to!use!fishing!quota!to!promote!economic!development!in!Akaroa,!as!it!is!more!financially!attractive!for!fishers!to!dock!their!boats!elsewhere.!!The!marine!reserve!also!prohibits!the!possibility!for!Ngāi!Tahu!to!implement!customary!fisheries!governing!practices!in!the!region.!!These!practices!include!adaptive!management!of!fishing!pressure,!a!strategy!that!is!possible!under!the!taiāpure!that!Ngāi!Tahu!implemented!over!the!rest!of!the!harbor!in!2006.!!!!The!reserve’s!establishment!was!especially!upsetting!to!Rawiri!and!other!rūnanga!members!in!light!of!the!time!and!effort!they!committed!to!documenting!the!customary!significance!of!the!harbor.!!Rawiri!and!others!submitted!several!testimonies!describing!fishing!practices!and!historical!uses!of!coastal!caves!to!the!Waitangi!Tribunal,!the!biBcultural!research!organization!charged!with!interpreting!the!meaning!of!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi!in!contemporary!times!(Waitangi!Tribunal!1992).!!Moreover,!despite!the!government’s!claims!that!Ngāi!Tahu!was!altered!prior!to!the!public!announcement!of!the!reserve’s!establishment,!Rawiri!and!other!rūnanga!members!report!first!hearing!news!of!implementation!through!the!local!papers.!!Indeed,!included!in!the!government’s!press!release!was!acknowledgment!of!the!fact!that!the!process!had!been,!“…!particularly!disempowering!for!the!local!rūnanga!of!Ngāi!Tahu”!(Office!of!the!Minister!of!Conservation!2014b).!!!Rawiri!and!others!expressed!resistance!to!the!reserve!multiple!times!over!the!course!of!the!20Byear!period!while!the!reserve’s!establishment!was!considered!by!the!government.!!The!proposal!for!the!reserve!was!first!submitted!in!1996!by!the!Akaroa!Marine!Protection!Society,!an!almost!entirely!nonBMāori!group!comprised!primarily!of!landBowners!in!Akaroa!(Akaroa!Harbour!Marine!Protection!Society!Incorporated!1996).!!The!government’s!ultimate!approval!for!the!reserve!with!the!understanding!that!the!reserve!would!be!used!for!scientific!analysis,!as!is!the!requirement!for!all!marine!reserves!in!New!Zealand!(Marine!Reserves!Act!1971).!!As!the!Akaroa!Marine!Protection!Society’s!proposal!asserts,!reserves!act!as!“living!laboratories”!(Marine!Protection!Society!Incorporated!1996).!!!!But!who’s!lab!is!this?!!The!type!of!learning!promoted!by!a!noBtake!reserve!prohibits!the!possibility!for!learning!through!adaptive!fisheries!governance!initiatives!practiced!by!generations!of!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers,!and!permitted!in!mātaitai!and!

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taiāpure.!!Similarly,!the!reason!why!the!reserve!was!highlighted!as!a!prime!spot!for!protection!was!largely!due!to!depletion!from!nonBMāori!commercial!fishing!activities!elsewhere!in!the!harbor.!!!!5.((Discussion:(Who(benefits(from(marine(reserves?((!Given!the!resistance!from!the!local!rūnanga,!and!that!Māori!customary!reserves!can!offer!the!same!types!of!fisheries!closures!offered!by!marine!reserves,!with!the!added!benefit!of!lifting!these!closures!if!a!fishery!rebuild!occurs,!it!seems!surprising!that!the!New!Zealand!government!chose!to!implement!a!marine!reserve!in!the!Akaroa.!!However,!when!read!against!the!government’s!development!in!other!industries,!at!a!national!scale,!reserve!establishment!appears!somewhat!less!surprising.!!The!Akaroa!Marine!Reserve!was!implemented!as!part!of!the!government’s!plan!to!establish!10%!of!the!nation’s!marine!space!in!reserves!by!2020,!when!at!that!time!only!1%!was!in!reserves!(Department!of!Conservation!and!Ministry!of!Fisheries!2005).!!Conservation!groups,!however,!argue!that!this!effort!is!misleading,!as!simultaneously,!the!same!government!opened!up!12%!of!the!nation’s!marine!space!to!oil!and!gas!exploration!(Forest!and!Bird!2017).!!Additionally,!the!government!removed!inland!water!conservation!orders!in!order!to!divert!rivers!for!agricultural!irrigation!(Forest!and!Bird!2017).!!Both!these!practices!are!shown!to!degrade!fisheries!(Forest!and!Bird!2017).!!In!light!of!the!government’s!conflicting!development!goals,!marine!reserve!establishment!in!Akaroa!appears!as!part!of!an!effort!to!promote!New!Zealand’s!“100%!Pure,!Clean,!Green”!brand!internationally,!while!perpetuating!resourceBdegrading!activities!domestically,!as!freshwater!ecologists!and!marine!scientists!increasingly!argue!(Joy!2015).!Indeed,!the!most!direct!beneficiaries!of!marine!reserve!establishment!in!Akaroa!are!primarily!nonBMāori!tourism!operations,!who!promote!the!reserve!to!tourists!as!a!site!for!snorkeling.!!!The!Akaroa!case!highlights!limits!to!Māori!groups’!abilities!to!realize!benefits!from!their!commercial!and!customary!fishing!rights!found!in!the!government’s!implementation!of!a!marine!reserve.!!The!problem!in!this!case,!however,!is!not!the!marine!reserve,!per&se,!but!rather!Māori!groups’!lack!of!authority!over!culturally!and!economically!important!coastal!fisheries.!!Importantly,!the!government’s!assertion!of!other!forms!of!territorial!control!over!waters,!including!the!allocation!of!marine!mining!and!oil!exploration!permits!and!lease!rights!for!aquaculture!development,!likely!also!effect!similar!forms!of!exclusion!for!Māori!fishers.!!Thus,!this!analysis!is!not!a!call!against!marine!reserves,!but!rather!a!call!to!better!understand!the!colonialBlike!effects!that!arise!in!contemporary!times!when!reserves!are!implemented!indefinitely!in!the!same!regions!Māori!have!managed!and!fished!for!generations.!In!an!effort!to!mitigate!future!exclusion!going!forward,!Ngāi!Tahu!iwi!leaders!should!make!a!unified!effort!to!support!local!rūnanga!positions!against!(or!for)!reserve!establishment.!!!!

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6.((Conclusion(((Māori!implementation!of!customary!management!rights!is!made!possible!through!–!and!has!given!rise!to!–!unprecedented!collaborations!between!commercial!and!customary!fishers!and!governors!in!New!Zealand.!!This!occurs!in!two!ways.!!First,!customary!take!rights!are!made!possible!via!collaborations!with!commercial!fishers.!!Second,!for!customary!reserve!establishment,!to!increase!the!likelihood!of!government!approval,!Ngāi!Tahu!fisheries!managers!orchestrate!multiBstakeholder!collaborations!with!commercial!fishers,!community!members,!and!fishers!to!determine!sites!for!customary!reserves!that!are!least!likely!to!detrimentally!impact!commercial!fishing!operations!and!most!likely!to!promote!fishery!conservation.!!These!collaborations!with!commercial!fishers!have!given!rise!to!onBgoing!relationships!of!consultation!between!Ngāi!Tahu!customary!fisheries!managers!and!commercial!fishing!industry!representatives.!!A!decade!ago,!fishing!industry!conferences!in!New!Zealand!were!comprised!almost!entirely!of!nonBMāori.!!Today,!these!meetings!have!a!visible!Māori!presence.!This!is!due!in!part!to!political!economic!authority!conveyed!by!Māori!quotaBownership.!!It!is!also!an!effect!of!the!adaptive!fisheries!governance!possibilities!found!in!customary!reserve!regulations.!!In!this!context,!the!primary!site!of!conflict!in!fisheries!is!not!that!between!Māori!customary!governors!and!the!commercial!industry.!!Instead,!conflicts!arise!when!the!government!implements!noBtake!marine!reserves!without!approval!from!local!community!fishers.!!This!is!a!problem!for!Māori!postBsettlement!development.!!!When!the!government!asserts!territorial!control!over!an!aspect!of!Ngāi!Tahu!territory,!it!precludes!economic!and!ecological!development!initiatives!for!historically!selfBgoverning!Ngāi!Tahu!subBgroups.!!Although!settlement!wealth!and!fishing!quota!rights!can!move!around!and!outside!Ngāi!Tahu!traditional!territories,!where!it!is!that!people!are,!and!the!coastal!resources!they!rely!on!and!govern,!is!territorial.!!The!government’s!decision!to!establish!a!marine!reserve,!and!not!a!customary!reserve,!in!Akaroa!is!one!example!of!how!the!government’s!territorial!authority!precludes!possibilities!for!equitable!distribution!of!settlement!benefits!across!the!iwi’s!eighteen!rūnanga,!or!governing!regions.!!In!this!context,!the!lack!of!equitable!distribution!of!settlement!assets!to!Ngāi!Tahu!rūnanga&postBsettlement!is!a!direct!consequence!of!the!government’s!asserting!territorial!control!over!marine!space.!!!Despite!this!clear!example!of!how!Māori!sovereignty!is!constrained!by!the!government’s!implementation!of!a!marine!reserve,!this!chapter!also!explores!the!ways!Māori!exercised!their!authority!over!customary!fishing!rights.!!Māori!fishers!and!fisheries!managers!adapted!their!approaches!to!governing—and!negotiating!access!to—historically!accessed!fisheries!through!unprecedented!multiBstakeholder!collaborations!in!order!to!realize!the!benefits!of!customary!fish!take!practices!and!customary!governing!rights.!!In!identifying!the!role!that!commercial!fishers!and!managers!play!in!supporting!customary!reserve!establishment,!this!analysis!highlights!the!importance!of!continuing!to!facilitate!Ngāi!Tahu!and!other!smallBscale!fishers’!access!to!commercial!fishing!quota!rights.!!By!examining!the!potential!that!

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customary!reserves!hold!for!fishery!rebuild,!and!the!undesired!effects!of!noBtake!marine!reserves!on!Māori!development!initiatives!it!also!highlights!the!importance!of!considering!customary!reserve!implementation!in!lieu&of,!or!possibly!alongside!of,!noBtake!marine!reserves.!!!&&((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((

((((((

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Chapter(Five((

Conclusion:(Exclusions,(Inclusions,(and(Implications((for(Resource(Management(

((1.((Introduction(((This!dissertation!has!examined!how!Māori!groups’!abilities!to!use!the!rights!they!obtained!the!1992!Treaty!of!Waitangi!(Fisheries!Claims)!Settlement!Act29!are!limited!by!the!New!Zealand!government’s!restructuring!of!fishery!and!market!access!in!the!wake!of!the!Settlement.!!The!Māori!Fisheries!Settlement!allocated!property!and!governance!rights!to!Māori!groups!as!part!of!a!“full!and!final”!settlement!that!precluded!possibilities!for!further!reBnegotiation!on!their!part.!!The!Settlement!also!made!possible!the!government’s!implementation!of!a!nationally!comprehensive!Individual!Transferable!Quota!(ITQ)!system,!a!privatized,!marketBbased,!commercial!fishery!management!system.!!Yet,!the!policy!environments,!competing!demands,!and!underlying!circumstances!in!which!these!rights!are!implemented!are!continually!changing.!!!!I!have!shown!that,!As!Māori!have!tried!to!govern!their!fisheries!in!the!wake!of!the!Settlement,!the!government!has!made!changes!in!the!policy!and!institutional!environments!of!those!same!fisheries,!even!though!the!Settlement!was!meant!to!be!full!and!final!at!completion.!!The!government!has!implemented!food!safety!requirements!through!a!new!policy!that!quota!fish!must!be!sold!to!processors!to!improve!monitoring!(Chapter!Two),!allowed!and!encouraged!the!development!of!upstream!land!for!dairy!farming!(Chapter!Three),!and!enclosed!marine!spaces!that!overlap!with!Māori!fishing!grounds,!disallowing!fishing!for!scientific!study!and!conservation!(Chapter!Four).!!These!initiatives!limit!how!Māori!groups!can!govern!their!Fisheries!Settlement!assets!to!address!smallBscale!Māori!fishers’!exclusion!from!fisheries!after!ITQ!system!implementation.!!This!dissertation!identifies!these!new!forms!of!exclusion!and!demonstrates!their!effects!on!Māori!livelihoods,!resource!management,!and!development!capacities.!!!!This!analysis!challenges!the!dominant!notion!in!New!Zealand!that!tribal!leaders’!failure!to!mitigate!uneven!development!in!New!Zealand’s!fisheries!since!ITQ!system!implementation!is!due!to!leaders’!poor!management!decisions.!!I!show!that!the!creation!and!allocation!of!private!property!rights!to!indigenous!groups,!who!were!not!given!the!authority!to!amend!political!regulations!shaping!the!economic!and!ecological!contexts!in!which!their!Settlement!rights!are!implemented,!is!unlikely!to!address!the!effects!of!indigenous!groups’!dispossession!from!land!and!marine!resources.!!Importantly,!Māori!groups,!in!settlements,!were!not!granted!sovereignty!over!natural!resource!access!and!trade!regulations.!!Rather,!they!are!expected!to!reB

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!29!Referred!to!here!as!the!“Fisheries!Settlement”!or!the!“Settlement.”!!I!use!the!lowercase!“settlement”!in!reference!to!Treaty!of!Waitangi!settlements!more!broadly.!!

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organize!hundreds!of!years!of!practices!to!meet!entirely!new!–and!still!changingBBconditions!in!the!current!political!economic!regime.!!!I!engage!a!situated!political!ecology!approach!to!examine!these!dynamics.!!&In!this!dissertation,!I!have!employed!!“access”!as!an!analytic!to!understand!ecological,!historical,!legal,!and!political!factors!influencing!Māori!fishers!and!fisheries’!managers!abilities!to!derive!benefits!from!their!settlement!rights!(Ribot!and!Peluso!2003).!!“Access”!is!a!more!appropriate!analytic!than!“property!rights”!for!understanding!constraints!and!opportunities!for!Māori!development!in!New!Zealand!because!Māori!have!rights!to!fish!commercially!and!for!subsistence!take,!as!well!as!governance!rights,!but!cannot!enjoy!the!benefits!of!these!rights.!!Throughout!my!research,!and!as!reflected!in!the!various!chapters!of!this!dissertation,!Māori!fishers!pointed!out!that!accounting!for!rights!alone,!whether!state!sanctioned!or!customary,!could!not!explain!the!reasons!for!their!onBgoing!exclusion!from!fish!and!markets.!Political!ecologists!examine!how!ecological,!historical,!legal,!and!institutional!contexts!shape!individuals’!and!social!groups’!access!to!resources,!thus!in!this!dissertation,!I!deploy!multiBscalar,!historically!situated,!and!geographically!contextualized!analyses!to!understand!who!benefits!and!how!from!the!management!New!Zealand!fisheries.!!Resource!management!includes!governance!of!and!access!to!resources.!!!Using!an!access!analysis!enables!consideration!of!external!and!contextual!factors!limiting!Māori!fishers’!access!to!the!Fisheries!Settlement!benefits!they!were!given.!!Limiting!institutional!factors!include!those!related!to!the!settlement’s!provisions!to!act!as!a!“full!and!final”!settlement!for!all!Māori,!past!and!present,!as!well!as!other!policies,!laws,!and!practices!governing!land,!and!ocean!environments!within!or!adjacent!to!which!Māori!are!only!one!set!of!actors!and!claimants.!!Material!barriers!to!realizing!of!the!full!extent!of!Māori!settlement!rights!include!ecological!constraints!on!fisheries!access!created!by!upstream!land!use!changes!over!which!Māori!have!no!authority!or!control.!Legacies!of!colonial!land!acquisitions!have!effected!a!situation!today!where!the!beneficiaries!of!agricultural!development!are!primarily!nonBMāori.!!Historical!government!actions!that!continue!to!restrict!Māori!individuals’!access!to!capital!today!include!early!20th!century!policies!that!made!sales!of!Māori!land!to!nonBfamily!members!illegal!and!created!a!huge!collectivity!of!owners!of!what!were!often!small!plots,!making!it!difficult!to!raise!capital!from!Māori!Bowned!land.!!!In!contemporary!times,!Māori!land!management!decisions!require!approval!from!upwards!of!300!owners!(Reid!2011).!!Excluded!from!accessing!agricultural!or!financial!resources!from!land,!Māori!individuals!relied!on!coastal!fisheries!for!subsistence!and!trade!until!ITQ!system!implementation.!!!In!each!of!the!three!empirical!chapters!(Two,!Three,!and!Four),!I!examined!the!barriers!to!Māori!development!in!depth.!!The!following!discussion!returns!to!each!of!these!chapters!and!explores!their!implications!for!indigenous!rights!activism!and!for!anticipating!the!politics!of!resource!governance.!!(

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2.((Challenges(for(New(Zealand’s(Individual(Transferable(Quota(System:(Processor(Consolidation,(Fisher(Exclusion,(&(Māori(Quota(Rights(&In!Chapter!Two,!I!examined!how!government!regulations!related!to!the!Fisheries!Settlement!and!ITQ!system!establishment!have!intersected!with!colonial!legacies!of!Māori!exclusion!to!restrict!quotaBholding!Māori!fishers’!access!to!markets—i.e.,!their!ability!to!sell!their!fish.!!The!first!part!of!the!chapter!identified!government!regulations,!practices,!and!contextual!constraints!around!the!ITQ!system!that!have!facilitated!the!increasing!consolidation!of!market!control!by!a!few!verticallyBintegrated!fisherBprocessor!operations.!!These!contexts!and!regulations!include,!(i)!The!ITQ!system’s!explicit!provisions!to!exclude!smallBscale!fishers,!or!any!one!making!less!than!80%!of!their!income!from!fishing.!!This!excluded!Māori!who!were!not!reporting!their!catches!due!to!their!prior!understanding!that!fisheries!were!MāoriBowned!and!therefore!fish!catch!did!not!need!to!be!reported.!!(ii)!Fishers’!lack!of!capital!to!invest!in!quota!purchases!after!the!ITQ!system’s!implementation;!as!compared!to!processors!which!had!much!more!capital!and!could!buy!quota.!!Māori!had!difficulty!acquiring!bank!loans,!!in!part!because!banks!were!uncertain!about!the!longBterm!value!of!the!quota!asset,!as!a!new!property!right!that!the!government!had!created!for!Māori.!!However,!the!large!number!of!owners!on!a!single!title!deed,!also!meant!that!acquiring!coBowner’s!permission!to!borrow!money!for!investment!was!difficult!and!in!many!cases!impractical.!At!the!same!time,!those!with!private!property!in!land—mostly!nonBMāori—could!obtain!credit,!using!their!land!as!collateral,!to!acquire!additional!quota!after!ITQ!system!implementation.!This!privileged!processors!over!Māori!fishers,!especially!subsistence!ones.!!(iii)!The!government’s!negotiation!of!the!Fisheries!Settlement!with!all!Māori,!and!the!subsequent!allocation!of!quota!to!a!Māori!Trust!(Te!Ohu!Kaimoana),!which!managed!the!quota!as!an!asset!by!leasing!to!the!highest!bidding!fishing!operations,!created!a!pool!of!quota!available!for!processors!to!lease!above!the!government’s!limits!on!quota!consolidation,!do!not!apply!to!quota!leases.!!!(iv)!Trade!regulations!make!it!illegal!for!fishers!to!market!their!fish!publicly!without!also!having!access!to!governmentBcertified!processing!facility.!!!The!second!part!of!this!Chapter!traced!through!three!strategies!deployed!by!Ngāi!Tahu!to!manage!the!quota!asset!to!benefit!both!individual!fishers!and!Ngāi!Tahu!tribal!members!collectively,!in!contemporary!times!and!into!the!future.!However,!the!first!two!strategies!deployed!by!Ngāi!Tahu!that!I!discuss!in!Chapter!Two,!iwi!leaders’!efforts!to!manage!the!quota!on!behalf!of!the!collective!interfere!directly!with!smallBscale!fishers’!development.!!The!first!strategy!involved!leasing!Ngāi!TahuBowned!quota!to!highest!bidding!processor!operations,!with!the!requirement!that!processors!privilege!Māori!fishers!when!they!lease!the!quota!on!to!fishers.!!This!strategy!results!in!a!“sharecropper,”!or!tenant!fisher,!situation!for!Māori!fishers,!in!which!fishers!are!mandated!to!sell!their!fish!to!the!Ngāi!Tahu!quotaBholding!processing!plant!and!cannot!negotiate!market!prices!for!their!fish.!!In!other!words!the!strategy!provides!a!market!to!Māori!fishers!but!creates!downward!pressure!on!their!potential!returns!from!fishing.!!The!second!strategy!involved!the!development!of!an!iwiBowned!processing!plant,!which!leases!quota!to!tribal!fishers!at!a!subsidized!

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rate.!!In!theory,!iwi&fishers!will!eventually!earn!enough!money!to!save!and!purchase!their!own!quota.!!However,!the!same!tribal!processing!plant!is!also!seeking!to!purchase!quota,!in!order!to!ensure!their!own!access!to!fish.!!As!a!result,!the!tribal!processing!plant!competes!against!tribal!fishers!for!quota!purchases.!!The!third!strategy!involves!the!iwi!leasing!its!quota!directly!to!iwi!fishers.!!In!this!strategy,!Māori!fishers!leasing!iwiBowned!quota!can!theoretically!negotiate!markets,!as!they!have!no!mandates!to!land!their!quota!to!a!particular!processing!plant.!!Market!control!remains!in!the!hands!of!several!processing!companies,!at!least!until!iwi!fishers!can!raise!enough!capital!to!establish!their!own!processing!plants.!!As!highlighted!by!fisher’s!attempts!to!develop!their!own!processing!plants,!government!regulations!require!all!fish!caught!by!quotaBholding!fishers!be!sold!to!a!governmentBcertified!processing!plant.!!Processing!plants!must!be!indoor!facilities!in!order!to!obtain!certification.!!Indoor!facilities!require!land.!!Māori!fishers’!rarely!own!land!due!to!colonial!legacies!discussed!throughout!the!dissertation.!!The!capital!required!to!purchase!land!and!establish!a!processing!plant,!in!addition!to!leasing!quota!and!funding!a!boat,!gear,!and!labor,!is!more!than!most!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!can!accumulate.!!Only!scalingBup!their!fishing!operations!and!selling!their!fish!in!higher!paying!markets,!but!they!cannot!do!this!on!their!own!and!generally!end!up!relying!on!nonBMāori!to!do!so.!These!findings!about!how!explicit!property!rights!can!be!constrained!by!production!and!marketing!contexts!demonstrate!why!few!Māori!are!fishing,!processing,!or!selling!fish,!despite!holding!some!50%!of!the!nation’s!fishing!quota.!!!(3.((Indigenous(Rights(and(FreeWtrade(Agreements:(Limits(to(AntiWColonial(Development(Strategies(on(Te(Waihora/Lake(Ellesmere(&Chapter!Three!described!how!quotaBholding!smallBscale!Māori!fishers’!development!is!constrained!by!government!policies!that!have!expanded!and!intensified!exportBbased!dairy!farming!upstream!and!increasingly!degraded!the!water!quality!for!fish!downstream.!!Ngāi!Tahu!coastal!governance!rights!allocated!to!downstream!fisheries!do!not!have!the!authority!to!address!the!primary!cause!of!fishery!depletion—pollution!and!effluent!from!the!dairy!farmsBBaffecting!the!inshore,!culturally!important!eel!fishery!of!Te!Waihora/Lake!Ellesmere.!Dairy!conversions!increased!following!the!government’s!signing!a!freeBtrade!agreement!with!China!in!2008.!!The!agreement!made!New!Zealand!the!first!country!in!the!Organization!for!Economic!Cooperation!and!Development!(OECD)!to!sign!a!freeBtrade!agreement!with!China,!and!tripled!the!export!demand!for!New!Zealand!milk!solids.!!However,!as!China!entered!into!additional!freeBtrade!agreements,!the!export!price!of!New!Zealand’s!milk!dropped.!!In!the!absence!of!state!subsidies,!farmers,!who!funded!their!dairy!farm!conversions!with!interestBladen!loans!from!financial!institutions,!have!intensified!their!production!practices—increasing!stocking!rates!and!fertilizer!useBB!in!order!to!repay!debt.!!These!upstream!practices!have!!increased!nitrate!levels!in!downstream!fisheries,!threatening!eutrophication.!!Upstream!irrigation!system!

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development!that!reBchannel!waterways!away!from!the!coast!further!destabilizes!and!threatens!fish!habitat.!!!Degraded!fishery!health—and!declining!or!unhealthy!fish!stocks—threaten!the!security!of!Ngāi!Tahu!quotaBholding!eel!fishers!and!the!sustainability!of!their!operations.!Upstream!land!use!change!also!limits!broader!expansion!of!smallBscale!fishers’!development!initiatives!that!are!contingent!on!the!amount!of!fish!their!quota!holding!corresponds!to,!an!amount!that!increases!as!fish!populations!grow,!and!the!benefits!smallBscale!Māori!these!fishers’!provide!to!the!local!community.!!As!a!result!of!fishery!degradation,!Māori!eel!fishers!are!less!able!to!provide!local!employment!to!previously!excluded!fishers,!provisioning!ecological!knowledge!about!changing!fishery!conditions!to!local!fishery!guardians!(kaitiaki),!or!distribute!their!fish!and!eels!to!community!members!for!community!gatherings!and!daily!sustenance.!!Māori!fishers’!and!tribal!leaders’!lack!of!authority!to!curb!polluting!upstream!land!uses!limits!fishers!and!leaders’!abilities!to!govern!their!own!fishing!resources.!!!!4.((Politics(of(Control(and(Limits(to(Equity(in(Ngāi(Tahu’s(Customary(Fisheries(&In!Chapter!Four,!I!described!strategies!deployed!by!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!and!fishery!governors!to!implement!their!customary!fish!take!and!customary!rights!that!were!allocated!to!them!in!the!Fisheries!Settlement!and!subsequent!regulations.!The!government!retained!the!authority!to!exclude!Māori!fishers!from!even!customarily!important!fishing!locations;!they!do!this!through!the!implementation!of!marine!reserves.!!The!chapter!demonstrates!a!somewhat!surprising!outcome:!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers’!and!fisheries’!managers!are!attempting!to!realize!the!benefits!from!their!new!customary!fishing!rights!by!developing!unprecedented!collaborations!with!commercial!fishers!and!community!members.!!!!Ngāi!Tahu!customary!guardians!formally!authorize!nonBMāori,!as!well!as!Māori,!commercial!fishing!operations!to!take!fish!for!distribution!to!local!community!members!in!order!to!access!large!amounts!of!fish!for!community!gatherings!such!as!funerals.!Customary!guardians!also!authorize!Ngāi!Tahu!commercial!fishers!who!are!fishing!Ngāi!TahuBowned!quota!to!take!fish!above!the!daily!recreational!limits!and!outside!of!their!quota!holding!rights!to!distribute!to!Māori!and!nonBMāori!community!members!for!family!consumption.!!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers!who!distribute!such!fish!check!in!on!elderly!community!members!and!others!experiencing!losses—many!becoming!food!insecure—as!effects!of!fisheries!privatization.!!These!distributed!fish!are!often!the!only!fish!consumed!by!these!impoverished!individuals;!storeBbought!fish!is!prohibitively!expensive!and!they!cannot!fish!for!their!own!economic!benefit!without!quota.!!!!This!chapter!also!identified!the!roles!that!Ngāi!Tahu!customary!fisheries!managers!have!played!in!orchestrating!previously!unknown!multiBstakeholder!collaborations!to!facilitate!the!governance!of!marine!space.!!Ngāi!Tahu!managers’!authority!in!implementing!these!strategies!is!due!to!their!power!to!encourage!commercial!

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fishers!to!comply!with!management!initiatives—a!power!that!is!attributable!to!the!iwi’s!large!quota!holdings.!!Commercial!fishers!increasingly!support!Māori!customary!reserves!as!an!ecological!management!tool!alongside!the!ITQ!system.!!Customary!reserves!enable!managers!to!implement!temporary!fisheries!closures,!while!intending!to!reintroduce!fishing!after!stocks!have!grown.!!This!adaptive!management!provision!addresses!a!key!problem!in!ITQ!system!governance!when!a!spatially!defined!fishing!region!needs!reduced!commercial!pressure!in!order!to!rebuild,!and!commercial!fishers’!are!unable!to!enforce!temporary!fisheries!closures,!even!when!a!majority!of!commercial!quotaBowners!support!such!closures.!!!!!To!implement!their!customary!reserve!governance!rights,!Ngāi!Tahu’s!customary!fisheries!managers!have!built!collaborations!with!nonBMāori!commercial!fishers,!scientists,!and!community!members!to!increase!the!likelihood!that!the!government!will!approve!a!proposal!for!a!Ngāi!TahuBgoverned!fishing!region!in!which!Ngāi!Tahu!managers!decide!who!can!fish,!where,!when,!and!for!how!much.!!Additionally,!Ngāi!Tahu!customary!fisheries!managers!consult!with!commercial!fishers!prior!to!developing!potential!regulations!for!a!customary!reserve!to!ensure!that!restrictions!on!commercial!and!recreational!fish!take!imposed!by!customary!reserves!do!not!result!in!an!ecologically!undesirable!displacement!of!fishing!pressure!elsewhere.!!After!a!customary!reserve!is!implemented,!Ngāi!Tahu!managers!collaborate!with!local!community!members!to!educate!the!public!about!new!fish!access!regulations!imposed!by!the!reserve.!!!!However,!despite!commercial!fishers’’!support!for!Māori!customary!governance!rights,!an!unusual!circumstance!in!light!of!commercial!fishers’!historical!resistance!against!others’!implementing!restrictions!on!where!they!can!fish,!wider!deployment!of!these!strategies!is!limited!by!government’s!retaining!authority!over!where!reserves!will!be!implemented.!!The!government!also!holds!the!capacity!to!implement!noBtake!marine!reserves!that!preclude!Ngāi!Tahu!governing!abilities!and!restrict!fishers’!access!to!fish!for!commercial!or!subsistence!purposes.!!As!highlighted!in!the!case!of!Akaroa,!a!traditional!fishing!region!for!the!Ngāi!Tahu!subBgroup,!the!New!Zealand!government!does!not!require!fishers’!support!for!marine!reserve!implementation!even!in!sites!with!significant!cultural!value!to!Ngāi!Tahu!families.!!In!these!contexts,!marine!reserves!limit!the!potential!for!Ngāi!Tahu!to!apply!their!governing!rights!or!to!take!fish!for!consumption!from!traditional!fishing!territories,!despite!obtaining!these!rights!in!the!Settlement!and!regulations!after.!!Marine!reserve!implementation!also!limits!the!extent!to!which!Ngāi!Tahu!can!distribute!ITQ!rights!to!fishers!from!each!of!the!iwi’s!eighteen!governing!jurisdictions,!or!rūnanga.!!The!effects!of!marine!reserves!on!postBSettlement!equity!are!highlighted!in!an!account!of!fishers’!postBSettlement!exclusion!in!Akaroa,!a!traditional!Māori!fishing!community!on!the!east!coast!of!the!South!Island.!!!In!Akaroa,!Māori!fishers!opposed!reserve!establishment!in!their!customary!fishing!regions.!!Primarily!nonBMāori!landBbased!tourism!operators!supported!it,!as!too!did!international!conservation!organizations.!!Despite!the!potential!for!Māori!customary!reserve!rights!to!offer!the!same!protections!as!a!noBtake!marine!reserve,!conservation!interests,!and!the!tourist!industry!won!out.!!

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!The!experiences!of!Ngāi!Tahu!Māori!fishers’!and!managers!described!in!each!empirical!chapter!reveal!that!Māori!commercial,!subsistence,!and!fisheries!governance!rights!are!constrained!by!the!broader!ecological!and!political!contexts!in!which!rights!are!implemented!–!over!which!they!have!little!to!no!authority.!!This!is!not!to!say!that!the!government!regulations!constraining!Māori!development!initiatives!intended!to!exclude!them.!!In!the!next!section,!I!present!several!recommendations!for!strategies!to!address!the!effects!of!fisher’s!exclusion.!((5.((Implications(for(Indigenous(Activism(and(Fisheries(Management(!My!findings,!and!Māori!experiences!can!be!used!to!suggest!changes!in!fisheries!governance!for!indigenous!development!in!New!Zealand!and!elsewhere.!!!5.1&&Indigenous&Activism&!For!understanding!the!potential!benefits!of!treaty!settlements!in!broader!contexts,!indigenous!negotiators!should!take!note!of!the!effects!of!the!“full!and!final”!provisions!in!treaty!settlements.!!In!the!wake!of!settlement!negotiations!in!New!Zealand,!the!“full!and!final!provision”!has!primarily!been!interpreted!to!only!apply!to!the!Māori,!not!to!the!other!party!to!the!Treaty!settlement—the!New!Zealand!government.!!This!is!not!necessarily!how!it!must!be!interpreted.!!The!government!could!also!be!legally!precluded!from!imposing!new!policies!and!laws!that!have!direct!and!indirect!effects!on!the!rights!allocated!in!Treaty!of!Waitangi!settlements.!!For!the!Fisheries!Settlement,!as!this!dissertation!explains,!new!policies!and!laws!that!limit!how!Māori!can!benefit!from!their!Settlement!rights!include,!fish!processing!regulations!(Chapter!Two),!policies!in!support!of!the!expansion!of!the!dairy!industry!(Chapter!Three),!and!marine!reserve!establishment!(Chapter!Four).!!!5.2&&Māori&Iwi&&For!Māori!groups!who!are!exploring!how!to!use!their!ITQ!rights!to!benefit!iwi!fishers,!quota!reBallocation!initiatives!to!smallBscale!fishers!should!continue!and!be!expanded.!!Iwi!should!also!consider!providing!loans!to!smallBscale!fishers!to!support!the!establishment!of!fisherBowned!processing!plants,!as!well!as!for!quota!purchases!and!leasing.!!In!addition,!for!iwi!attempting!to!develop!their!own!processing!facilities,!it!is!important!to!note!that!iwiBowned!processing!plants!compete!with!individual!tribal!fishers!for!quota!purchases.!!The!barriers!to!development!in!the!Bluff!rock!lobster!fishery!exemplify!this!challenge!(Chapter!Two).!There,!the!iwi!provides!quota!to!fishers!in!the!hope!that!those!fishers!will!eventually!purchase!their!own!quota.!However,!there!are!constraints:!!the!lease!is!contingent!on!the!fisher!landing!his!fish!at!the!iwi’s!processing!plant.!!This!limits!fishers’!abilities!to!profit!and!thereby!precludes!‘development’!in!the!community.!!

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Māori!groups!that!have!not!yet!completed!their!settlements!should!negotiate!for!complete!control!over!resource!access!and!trade,!in!ways!that!do!not!require!tribal!rights!holders!to!sell!through!processors!or!other!intermediaries,!for!example.!All!Māori!groups!should!also!hold!the!government!to!the!“full!and!final”!provisions!of!settlement!to!preclude!the!possibility!that!the!government’s!imposition!of!new!policies!will!limit!iwi!access!to!their!fisheries!and!other!resources.!!5.4&&Māori&Fishers&&&For!smallBscale!Māori!fishers,!in!addition!to!encouraging!Māori!leaders!to!lease!more!quota!directly!to!fishers,!building!relationships!with!retiring!quotaBowning!fishers!can!increase!the!likelihood!that!that!fisher!might!sell!directly!to!a!local!fisher,!instead!of!a!larger!processing!plant.!!Additionally,!fisherBowned!processing!plants,!possibly!funded!in!collaboration!with!other!regional!fishers,!can!serve!to!promote!regional!branding!for!fish!caught!from!New!Zealand,!a!potential!market!opportunity!not!yet!taken!up!by!larger!scale,!nonBMāori!operations.!!Furthermore,!as!Māori!leaders!play!larger!roles!in!the!nation’s!political!economy,!establishing!direct!MāoriBtoBMāori!trade!networks!for!fish!caught!locally!may!be!a!way!to!support!several!smallBscale!fishing!operations!and!mitigate!the!need!to!pay!additional!costs!up!front!for!overseas!markets.!!5.5&&The&New&Zealand&Government&&&Restricting!smallBscale!fishers’!access!and!rights!to!fish!has!ecological!implications!of!which!the!New!Zealand!government!is!not!currently!taking!account.!!When!thousands!of!individuals!experience!economic!hardship!in!coastal!communities!formerly!supported!by!fishing,!illegal!fishing!will!not!stop.!!It!is!the!terms!of!the!Settlement!that!render!these!fishers’!activities!illegal,!and!it!is!the!hardships!created!by!the!Settlement!that!force!smallBscale!fishers!to!continue!to!fish.!!Commercial!fishers!are!under!higher!levels!of!government!scrutiny!than!are!recreational!and!customary!fishers,!who!are!not!required!to!register!with!the!government!prior!to!fishing.!!Commercial!fishers!rarely!fish!illegally;!the!risks!are!too!high.!!Getting!more!local!commercial!fishers!on!the!water!and!helping!them!develop!processing!plants!in!their!coastal!communities!will!increase!local!fishers’!employment!and!help!relieve!the!impetus!to!fish!illegally.!!!!!In!regard!to!the!government’s!new!marine!conservation!initiatives,!Māori!groups!holding!quota!and!governing!customary!fisheries!have!demonstrated!the!potential!for!sustainable!fishing!under!their!watch,!as!exemplified!in!Kaikoura!(Chapter!Four).!!Thus,!Māori!customary!governing!strategies,!rather!than!noBtake!marine!reserves,!provide!a!potential!winBwin!starting!point!for!fish!conservation.!!Indeed,!Māori!customary!governing!initiatives,!or!mātaitai!and!taiāpure,!should!be!preferred!conservation!strategies,!as!Māori!fishers!have!common!interests!with!conservationists!in!maintaining!healthy!fish!stocks.!!Moreover,!unlike!the!inflexible!management!strategies!governing!marine!reserves,!Māori!governing!strategies!can!include!adaptive!management!strategies,!able!to!respond!to!changing!ecological!

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conditions!in!the!ocean!and!along!the!coast.!!Such!adaptive!management!practices!would!also!empower!local!fishers!and!fishing!communities!in!their!monitoring!and!stewardship!of!coastal!resources.!!!6.((Concluding(Thoughts(!The!intent!of!the!Fisheries,!and!other!Treaty!Settlements,!to!enable!Māori!to!“move!beyond!grievance!mode,”!is!an!acknowledgment!of!the!toll!that!publicly!identifying!historical!hardships!can!bring!on!individuals,!families,!and!tribes.!!It!is!also!an!acknowledgement!of!the!contradictory!and!constrained!situation!in!which!Māori!groups!find!themselves.!!Decades!after!the!Settlement,!Māori!groups!hold!substantial!assets!in!the!form!of!fishing!quota;!they!also!control!assets!that!generate!wealth.!!Yet!the!national!government!–!as!sovereign!–!continues!to!enact!regulations!that!affect!the!contexts!in!which!Māori!groups!attempt!to!derive!benefits!from!their!settlement!rights!and!assets.!!I!have!shown!here!that,!as!a!result!of!continued!government!incursions!on!how!Māori!can!exercise!of!their!rights,!critical!analyses!of!regulatory!policies!from!the!perspectives!of!Māori!who!are!both!included!and!excluded!are!also!needed.!!Critical!perspectives!would!help!reveal!ways!that!government!regulations,!and!further!settlements,!can!serve!to!promote!justice!in!resource!access!for!Māori!and!nonBMāori!in!settlerBcolonial!New!Zealand.!!!!(((((((((((((((((((((((

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Chapter(Six:((

Afterword:(A(Reflection(on(Beginnings((

(From!2013B15,!I!conducted!ethnographic!research!with!inshore!Māori!fishers!on!New!Zealand’s!South!Island.!!I!worked!with!fishers,!processors,!and!quota!managers!from!the!Māori&iwi!(tribe)!Ngāi!Tahu,!on!strategies!to!manage!quota!to!promote!smallBscale!fishers’!economic!development.!!In!this!Afterword,!I!reflect!on!the!approach!I!took!in!my!research!and!the!people!who!helped!me!along!the!way.!!In!2007,!as!an!undergraduate!at!Cornell!University,!I!spent!a!semester!taking!Māori!Studies!classes!at!the!University!of!Otago,!in!Dunedin.!!The!city!was!three!hours!up!the!coast!from!my!mom’s!childhood!home!at!the!southernmost!point!of!New!Zealand’s!South!Island.!!My!classmates!at!Otago!were!some!of!the!first!generation!of!Māori!students!growing!up!in!contemporary!Māori!language!immersion!schools,!called!Kohanga&Reo!(Spolsky!1989).!!In!our!classes!and!in!the!surrounding!communities,!I!was!struck!by!the!feelings!of!possibility!as!young!Māori!scholars!discussed!the!reports!coming!out!of!the!Waitangi!Tribunal,!which!were!documenting!New!Zealand!government!violations!of!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi!to!the!detriment!of!Māori.!!In!2009,!I!entered!a!graduate!program!in!the!Department!of!Environmental!Science,!Policy,!and!Management!at!the!University!of!California,!Berkeley.!I!hoped!in!the!course!of!my!studies!I!would!understand!the!extent!to!which!these!reports’!findings!could!benefit!the!Māori!who!had!been!previously!excluded!and!harmed!by!colonial!and!postBcolonial!government!actions.!!!During!my!first!several!years!as!a!graduate!student,!I!spent!two!summers!in!Wellington,!New!Zealand’s!capital.!!I!was!supported!by!a!Social!Science!Research!Center!Doctorial!Dissertation!Development!Fellowship!and!a!University!of!California,!Berkeley!Human!Rights!Center!Fellowship.!!I!interviewed!government!bureaucrats!and!politicians!about!the!Treaty!of!Waitangi!Settlement!process,!and!about!the!government’s!concurrent!efforts!to!privatize!formerly!stateBcontrolled!resources!in!fisheries,!forests,!and!hydropower!sectors.!!During!this!time,!I!frequently!heard!conversations!about!the!ways!New!Zealand!stateBMāori!relations!were!shifting.!!Not!many!years!after!my!time!there!as!an!undergraduate,!the!focus!had!changed!from!critiques!about!the!government’s!past!wrongs!to!how!Māori!groups!could!govern!their!settlement!assets.!The!common!phrase!was!that!the!government!wanted!to!enable!Māori!to,!“move!beyond!grievance!mode.”!!!Back!at!UC!Berkeley,!I!was!reading!articles!and!books!by!political!ecologists!and!political!economists!describing!how!government!privatization!initiatives!have!dispossessed!indigenous!peoples!elsewhere!in!the!world.!!In!New!Zealand,!I!wanted!to!better!understand!this!seemingly!unusual!situation,!in!which!the!government!was!allocating!private!property!rights!to!resources!to!Māori!individuals!and!groups,!hoping!to!mitigate!the!effects!of!exclusions!prior!to!settlement.!!!!

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In!2013,!I!returned!to!New!Zealand!for!a!full!year!of!fieldwork.!!I!went!to!Auckland,!on!the!North!Island,!the!home!base!of!the!nation’s!major!fishing!companies,!and!a!city!within!driving!distance!from!recently!privatized!hydropower!installations!and!industrial!forests.!!My!interests!were!still!broad.!!One!of!my!early!advisors,!Brad!Coombes,!a!geographer!at!the!University!of!Auckland,!encouraged!me!to!focus!on!fisheries,!as!Māori!fishers!were!growing!more!vocal!in!their!critiques!with!the!quotaBlease!model!of!Māori!quota!management.!!Trickle!down!development!had!not!materialized.!!How!MāoriBowned!quota!should!be!managed!to!promote!Māori!fishers’!development!(if!it!could!be!at!all)!was!not!well!understood.!!My!early!meetings!with!Māori!quota!managers!further!piqued!my!interest!in!fishing.!!Māori!and!nonBMāori!businessmen!with!soft!hands,!not!the!image!I!expected!for!fisheries!managers,!repeatedly!told!me!that!the!ITQ!system!was!working!great!for!Māori.!!I!wanted!to!know!what!Māori!fishers!thought!of!these!statements.!!!!My!interest!in!these!contradictions!corresponded!to!financial!support.!!I!received!a!National!Science!Foundation!East!Asian!and!Pacific!Summer!Institute!Fellowship!to!study!the!relationship!between!Māori!customary!fishing!reserve!establishment!and!displaced!commercial!fishing!pressure.!!I!also!received!a!National!Science!Foundation!Doctoral!Dissertation!Research!Improvement!Grant!to!examine!the!impacts!of!the!ITQ!system!on!fisheries!management!and!indigenous!development.!!Strangely,!at!first,!it!was!not!easy!to!find!Māori!fishers!participating!in!the!quota!system!resulting!from!the!Settlement.!!The!division!of!Māori!assets!from!the!Settlement!between!iwi!in!the!North!Island!was!still!in!progress,!due!to!political!challenges!in!determining!coastal!boundaries!between!territorially!adjacent!iwi.&&I!headed!to!the!South!Island.!!In!Christchurch,!the!largest!city!on!the!South!Island,!and!also!the!headquarters!for!Ngāi!Tahu,!I!met!with!Jason!Brown.!At!the!time,!Jason!was!a!Ngāi!Tahu!tribal!development!leader!working!to!reallocate!quota!to!Māori!fishers.!!The!goal!of!having!Māori!fishers!catch!Ngāi!TahuBowned!fish!was!in!part!to!enable!the!iwi&to!increase!the!value!of!fish!sales!by!branding!the!fish!as!MāoriBcaught.!!This!was!being!attempted!through!a!program!called!“Ahikā&kai,”!or!“food!from!the!homeBfires.”!!Jason,!who!had!received!scholarship!support!from!Ngāi!Tahu!to!attend!schools!in!New!Zealand!and!overseas,!chatted!with!me!about!Gramsci’s!notion!of!hegemony!as!a!concept!that!helped!to!explain!why!Māori!communities!adopted!western!models!of!family!structures!in!colonial!times!and!were!ashamed!to!celebrate!their!extended!kinship!networks.!!Jason!noted!that!he!thought!similar!dynamics!were!extending!into!iwi&governing!structures!today.!!!!Jason!introduced!me!to!his!Uncle,!Rawiri!Taiake,!a!Ngāi!Tahu!fisher!excluded!from!quota!allocation.!!In!our!first!meeting!at!his!house!in!Christchurch,!Rawiri!described!how!he!spent!years!explaining!his!exclusion!due!to!ITQ!system!implementation!to!tribal!leaders!and!government!officials!as!part!of!the!Fisheries!Settlement!negotiations.!!In!the!years!after!the!Settlement,!initially,!he!was!excited!that!the!Settlement!would!help!his!family!return!to!fishing.!!Recently,!he!had!started!to!give!up!hope.!!!!

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Rawiri!introduced!me!to!Roger!Clark,!another!excluded!fisher,!and!one!of!Rawiri’s!one!of!his!good!friends,!who!worked!on!the!claim!with!Rawiri.!!Roger!lives!in!a!hut!next!to!Te!Waihora!and!is!a!customary!guardian,!or!kaitiaki,!for!the!lake.!!This!formally!authorized!role,!made!possible!through!the!Fisheries!Settlement,!enables!Roger!to!write!permits!for!others!to!take!fish!for!nonBcommercial!sale!above!daily!recreational!catch!limits.!!Roger!was!much!less!optimistic!than!Rawiri!about!the!potential!benefits!from!the!Fisheries!Claim,!as!well!as!the!potential!for!the!1997!Ngāi!Tahu!Land!Settlement!claim!to!benefit!his!family.!!However,!Roger!did!introduce!me!to!a!family!that,!potentially,!was!benefitting!from!the!Fisheries!Settlement.!!After!living!in!tents!along!the!lakeshore!for!two!years,!in!an!effort!to!save!enough!money!to!lease!the!eel!quota!from!Ngāi!Tahu,!Ed!Tamiti!had!recently!bought!the!hut!next!to!Roger’s.!!!Ed!Tamiti,!a!nonBreader!and!writer,!has!dreadlocks!down!to!his!ankles.!!Prior!to!leasing!the!fishing!quota,!he!survived!off!his!piece!of!Māori!land,!just!over!an!hour!from!Te!Waihora.!!It!was!located!just!before!the!mountains!on!the!west!coast!of!the!South!Island.!!Ed’s!family!had!a!long!history!of!fishing,!but!they!also!did!not!receive!quota!when!the!ITQ!system!was!implemented.!!His!ability!to!continue!his!hunter!and!gatherer!lifestyle,!despite!his!exclusion!from!commercial!fishery!access,!made!him!one!of!the!few!individuals!left!living!the!lifestyle!that!supported!Ngāi!Tahu,!before!government!benefit!packages!and!the!Settlement.!!!To!understand!the!extent!to!which!Ngāi!TahuBowned!quota,!leased!to!Ngāi!Tahu!fishers,!could!promote!fishers’!development,!I!spent!the!next!several!years!periodically!working!on!Ed!Tamiti’s!20Bmeter!flatbed!aluminum!boat!with!his!son,!Ben!Tamiti.!!On!the!coastal!lagoon!of!Te!Waihora,!we!fished!commercially!for!eel,!mullet,!and!flounder.!!Around!the!east!coast!of!the!South!Island,!we!fished!for!abalone!and!other!fish!for!customary!distribution,!using!permits!supplied!by!Roger!Clark.!!I!picked!fish!out!of!set!nets,!dove!for!abalone,!and!gutted!our!catches!on!the!boat.!!!At!the!end!of!each!day’s!journey!offshore,!we!would!put!the!boat!back!on!the!truck!trailer!and!drive!back!down!the!dirt!road!to!the!huts.!!With!hands!frozen!from!handling!fish!all!day,!I!would!race!into!Roger’s!hut,!where!he!kept!a!warm!wood!stove!burning.!!Eventually,!Ben!and!Ed!would!join,!and!we!would!spend!the!late!afternoon!discussing!changing!fish!ecology.!!A!primary!aim!of!our!discussions!was!to!understand!the!extent!to!which!upstream!land!use!change!was!impacting!downstream!fisheries.!!!In!the!mornings,!I!delivered!fish!to!the!processor!with!Ben.!During!those!times,!I!learned!about!the!challenges!facing!processors!under!the!ITQ!system.!!I!was!surprised!by!accounts!from!heads!of!major!processing!companies!who!reported!that!they!were!in!a!quota!game!that!they!had!not!set!out!to!join.!!As!I!described!in!Chapter!Two!of!this!dissertation,!processors!had!to!consolidate!quota!to!ensure!fishers!would!land!fish!with!them.!I!also!accompanied!Ben!to!distribute!fish!to!individuals!throughout!the!broader!Christchurch!community,!and!I!helped!dry!eel!for!nonBcommercial!distribution!to!local!families!with!Roger,!Ed!and!Rawiri.!!Eventually,!for!a!period!of!time,!I!moved!into!a!hut!next!to!Roger’s.!!During!my!time!

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at!Te!Waihora,!I!shared!meals!with!other!excluded!fishers,!spent!time!fishing!and!processing!fish!caught!from!nonBMāori!fishers’!boats,!and!chatted!with!farmers!about!reasons!why!landowners!were!taking!on!substantial!debts!to!convert!to!dairy.!!!From!my!relationships!with!fishers,!I!connected!with!Ngāi!Tahu!leaders!and!others!at!the!Ngāi!Tahu!Research!Centre!at!the!University!of!Canterbury!in!Christchurch,!where!I!worked!when!I!wasn’t!out!on!a!boat!or!interviewing!fishers.!!Drawing!on!knowledge!I!had!gained!about!the!fishing!industry!from!my!time!at!Te!Waihora,!I!interviewed!nonBMāori!fishers!and!processors,!and!quota!managers!from!Ngāi!Tahu,!to!explore!strategies!to!manage!quota!to!promote!smallBscale!fishers’!economic!development.!!I!also!conducted!semiBstructured!interviews!with!Māori!and!nonBMāori!scientists,!treaty!negotiators,!tribal!leaders,!and!state!regulators!throughout!New!Zealand.!!In!these!interviews,!I!discussed!individuals’!experiences!and!perceptions!on!the!relationships!between!marketBbased,!or!neoliberal,!governing!strategies,!natural!resource!management,!and!indigenous!development!in!New!Zealand.!!!!Each!chapter!of!this!dissertation!draws!from!concerns!raised!by!Ben,!Ed,!Rawiri,!and!Roger!in!those!early!months!of!getting!to!know!the!South!Island’s!fisheries.!!Working!with!the!Tamitis,!I!recognized!the!challenges!they!faced!when!they!could!not!negotiate!prices!for!their!eel!and!when!the!eel!processor!could!not!pay!them!for!their!fish.!!I!was!also!aware!of!the!labor!and!financial!costs!the!assumed!while!navigating!government!bureaucracy!in!their!efforts!to!establish!their!processing!plant!(Chapter!Two).!!Living!and!working!on!the!shores!of!Te!Waihora,!I!felt!fishers’!rising!concerns!as!upstream!land!was!converted!to!dairy!pastures.!!This!frustration!was!especially!experienced!by!individuals!such!as!Roger,!who,!despite!his!role!as!kaitiaki&(customary!fisheries!guardian),!felt!powerless!to!mitigate!these!upstream!threats!to!downstream!fisheries!(Chapter!Three).!!On!day!trips!out!to!Akaroa!with!Rawiri,!I!bore!witness!to!his!dismay!when!the!government!established!a!marine!reserve!directly!on!top!of!the!sites!that!he!and!his!family!had!fished!for!generations!(Chapter!Four).!!!In!support!of!the!solutionsBbased!aims!of!my!collaborators!at!the!Ngāi!Tahu!Research!Centre,!this!dissertation!includes!prescriptive!ideas!of!how!to!overcome!the!barriers!identified!in!each!section.!!However,!these!suggestions!will!not!solve!all!the!resource!access!dilemmas!faced!by!Māori.!!The!structural!constraints!I!address!in!this!dissertation!will!continue!as!Māori!are!brought,!through!property!rights!and!market!regulations,!deeper!and!deeper!into!the!nation’s!capitalist!political!economy.!!!!!!

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!!!!!!!

((((((((

!

!108!

Appendix(One((Figure(1:!Completed!Treaty!of!Waitangi!Settlements!and!Current!Negotiations!!!!

Source:&Ministry&of&Justice,&Office&of&Treaty&Settlements&2017.&!

North&Island,&New&Zealand&

South&Island,&New&Zealand&&

!

!109!

Figure(2:(Te!Waihora/Lake!Ellesmere!Nutrient!Allocation!Zones&(

(!Source:&Environment&Canterbury&Regional&Council&2015.&!!

LakeColer idge

LakeLyndon

LakeTaylor

LakeGrasmere

LakeHeron

LakeColer idge

CoopersLagoon /Muriwai

LakeEmma

LakePearson

LakeForsyth

(Wairewa)

Ka itunaLagoon

Little MountPeel/Huatekerekere

MountGrey/Maukatere

Rakaia River

Waimakariri River

Waikirikiri / Selwyn River

Halswell River

Styx River

Methven

ASHBURTONTinwald

Hororata

Hawarden

Leeston

Diamond Harbour

Darfield

Dunsandel

Rakaia

Rangiora

Lincoln

Springfield

Oxford

Rolleston

Pegasus

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W a i m a k a r i r iZ o n e

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Kaikoura

CHRISTCHURCH

Source: Esri, DigitalGlobe,GeoEye, Earthstar Geographics,CNES/Airbus DS, USDA, USGS,AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN,IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS UserCommunity

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Canterbury RegionalBoundaryCWMS ZoneBoundary

Selwyn/Waihora Catchment

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Te Waihora Cultural Landscape/Values Management Area - Lake Area

Nutrient Allocation ZonesLake Zone

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!110!

Figure(3:(Ngāi!Tahu!Rūnanga!Map((

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South&Island,&New&Zealand&&

!

!111!

Appendix(Two((

Glossary(of(Māori(Terms30(&&ahikā&kai………food!from!the!home!fires!

hapū…………….subBtribe!or!large!family!unit!

iwi……………….Māori!tribe!(

kaitiaki………...customary!fisheries!formally!authorized!by!the!government!and!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!iwi!leaders!to!write!take!permits!for!nonBcommercial!fish!take!

kina……………..sea!urchin!

koura…………...fresh!water!crayfish!

mahinga&kai….places!that!produce!traditional,!wild!food!

mana……………authority!or!power!

marae…………..!community!gathering!place(

mātaitai………..a!communityBgoverned!Māori!customary!fishing!reserve!where!

! !commercial!fishing!is!prohibited!

pātiki…………….flounder!

paua……………..abalone!!

po………………….spirit!

rāhui…………….a!temporary!restriction!on!access!!

rohe……………...traditional!territory!!

rūnanga………..Ngāi!Tahu!governing!region!

taiāpure………..a!communityBgoverned!Māori!customary!fishing!reserve!where!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!commercial!fishing!may!be!allowed!

tītī………………...or!muttonBbird,!a!shearwater!species!(Ardenna&grisea)!

whānau………...family!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!30!These!translations!make!sense!in!the!context!of!this!dissertation.!!I!am!certainly!open!to!alternative!interpretations.!!!