Chapters 6-8 (both LeUnes and Orlick Chapters 6-8 (both LeUnes and Orlick books):books):

Anxiety and Anxiety ReductionAnxiety and Anxiety Reduction

Psychology of SportPsychology of Sport

Sep 2-Sep 9, 2009Sep 2-Sep 9, 2009Classes #5-7Classes #5-7

Divisions of the Nervous Divisions of the Nervous SystemSystem

Consists of two systemsConsists of two systems– Central Nervous SystemCentral Nervous System

Brain and spinal cordBrain and spinal cord– Peripheral Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Which connects the CNS to the rest of Which connects the CNS to the rest of the bodythe body

Organization of the Nervous SystemOrganization of the Nervous SystemOrganization of the Nervous SystemOrganization of the Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous SystemPeripheral Nervous System

Two components: Two components: – Somatic Nervous SystemSomatic Nervous System

Transmits sensory input to the CNS Transmits sensory input to the CNS from the outside world and directs from the outside world and directs motor outputmotor output

– Autonomic Nervous SystemAutonomic Nervous System Controls glands and muscles of our Controls glands and muscles of our

internal organs – “automatic pilot”internal organs – “automatic pilot”

Autonomic Nervous SystemAutonomic Nervous System

Dual system:Dual system:– Sympathetic Nervous SystemSympathetic Nervous System

Arouses the bodyArouses the body– Parasympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms us downCalms us down

Central Nervous System Central Nervous System Structures Controlling Structures Controlling

ArousalArousal Cerebral CortexCerebral Cortex HypothalamusHypothalamus Ascending Reticular Activating Ascending Reticular Activating

System System

State and Trait AnxietyState and Trait Anxiety

Spielberger (1971)Spielberger (1971)– State Anxiety:State Anxiety:

A transitory form of apprehension that varies A transitory form of apprehension that varies in intensity depending on the fear-eliciting in intensity depending on the fear-eliciting cuecue

– Trait Anxiety:Trait Anxiety: An enduring type of anxietyAn enduring type of anxiety

Spielberger (1971)Spielberger (1971)

TWO SOURCES OF ANXIETY:TWO SOURCES OF ANXIETY:

Trait AnxietyTrait Anxiety State AnxietyState Anxiety

InheritedInherited Linked with arousalLinked with arousal

Always anxious Always anxious Anxious at certain Anxious at certain timestimes

Predisposition Predisposition Learned from Learned from experiencesexperiences

Is participating in sports Is participating in sports stressful??? stressful???

Does someone enjoy sports Does someone enjoy sports because because

of the stress involved?of the stress involved?

Precompetitive State Precompetitive State AnxietyAnxiety

Anxiety that occurs prior to a competitive situationAnxiety that occurs prior to a competitive situation– Five antecedents leading to an increase in anxiety in Five antecedents leading to an increase in anxiety in

anticipation of an achievement situation (Endler, 1978)anticipation of an achievement situation (Endler, 1978) Fear of performance failureFear of performance failure

– Fear of the upsetFear of the upset

Fear of negative social evaluationFear of negative social evaluation– Being booed by the home team’s (your) fans (ex: Philadelphia, NY)Being booed by the home team’s (your) fans (ex: Philadelphia, NY)– Being booed by the opposition team’s fansBeing booed by the opposition team’s fans

Fear of physical harmFear of physical harm– Fear of injury especially after an injuryFear of injury especially after an injury

Situation AmbiguitySituation Ambiguity– What’s my role”What’s my role”

Disruption of a well-learned routineDisruption of a well-learned routine– Asked to do something new without ample time to practiceAsked to do something new without ample time to practice

Understanding PressureUnderstanding Pressure

StressStress ArousalArousal AnxietyAnxiety

What is stressful?What is stressful?

ImportanceImportance Uncertainty (50-50 probability of Uncertainty (50-50 probability of

winning)winning) Low controlLow control

EventEvent

New taskNew task New placeNew place High expectationsHigh expectations High fan involvementHigh fan involvement Prior successPrior success

Can sports be too Can sports be too stressful?stressful?

ArousalArousal

Signs of arousalSigns of arousal Physiological effectsPhysiological effects Cognitive effectsCognitive effects TheoriesTheories

Do you remember a Do you remember a time when you were time when you were

very excited? very excited?

What were the signs?What were the signs?

Types of AnxietyTypes of Anxiety

SomaticSomatic– Somatic anxiety is a conditioned Somatic anxiety is a conditioned

response to competitionresponse to competition CognitiveCognitive

– Cognitive anxiety is marked by worry Cognitive anxiety is marked by worry and negative expectations, a distractionand negative expectations, a distraction

Somatic (Physical) Somatic (Physical) EffectsEffects

Martens & Russell (2003)Martens & Russell (2003)– Body is jittery, tense, etc.Body is jittery, tense, etc.– Stomach achesStomach aches– Heart poundingHeart pounding– Hands get clammyHands get clammy– Body feels tightBody feels tight

Somatic (Physical) Somatic (Physical) EffectsEffects

Neurons fireNeurons fire Muscles contractMuscles contract Hormones (epinephrine, etc.)Hormones (epinephrine, etc.) Heart rate & breathingHeart rate & breathing Blood to musclesBlood to muscles Digestive shutdownDigestive shutdown

Cognitive EffectsCognitive Effects

Martens & Russell (2003)Martens & Russell (2003)– They think they will lose, choke, or play They think they will lose, choke, or play

poorlypoorly– Disappoint othersDisappoint others

CognitiveCognitive

Narrowing of perceptual fieldNarrowing of perceptual field Less aware of environmentLess aware of environment Shift to dominant attentional styleShift to dominant attentional style

Arousal TheoriesArousal Theories

Drive theoryDrive theory Inverted-U HypothesisInverted-U Hypothesis IZOF TheoryIZOF Theory Reversal TheoryReversal Theory Catastrophe TheoryCatastrophe Theory

Drive TheoryDrive Theory

Theory of learning that predicts a Theory of learning that predicts a linear relationship between drive linear relationship between drive (arousal) and learning(arousal) and learning– See next slide See next slide

Arousal

Performance

Drive Theory

Inverted-U HypothesisInverted-U Hypothesis

Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908)Yerkes-Dodson Law (1908)– Their hypothesis applied to sport, which Their hypothesis applied to sport, which

states that performance improves as states that performance improves as arousal levels increase up to an arousal levels increase up to an optimum point, beyond which it optimum point, beyond which it deterioratesdeteriorates See next slide See next slide

INVERTED-U HYPOTHESISINVERTED-U HYPOTHESIS

LEVEL OF AROUSAL

PERFORMANCE

LEVEL

OPTIMUM LEVEL

IZOFIZOF

Hanin (1976)Hanin (1976)– Individual zones of optimal functioning Individual zones of optimal functioning

(IZOF) theory contends that for each (IZOF) theory contends that for each individual there exist a specific range, or individual there exist a specific range, or zone, of state anxiety that is most zone, of state anxiety that is most conductive to superior performanceconductive to superior performance

IZOFIZOF Athlete A

Low IZOF

Athlete B

Mid IZOF

Athlete C

High IZOF

IN ZONE OUT OF ZONE

Out of zone IN ZONE Out of zone

OUT OF ZONE IN ZONE

Reversal TheoryReversal Theory

Kerr (1985, 1990)Kerr (1985, 1990)– Sport psychologists mention this similar Sport psychologists mention this similar

theory referred to IZOFtheory referred to IZOF– How an individual interprets anxiety is How an individual interprets anxiety is

the key herethe key here– What may be unpleasant for one person What may be unpleasant for one person

is positive for someone elseis positive for someone else– Individual interpretations also are Individual interpretations also are

subject to change and thus a shift or subject to change and thus a shift or reversal in how one views an anxiety-reversal in how one views an anxiety-provoking situation is possibleprovoking situation is possible

Catastrophe TheoryCatastrophe Theory

Thom, 1965; Hardy, 1990Thom, 1965; Hardy, 1990– A mathematical model developed by the A mathematical model developed by the

French mathematician, René Thom, to show French mathematician, René Thom, to show how the interaction of varying factors produce how the interaction of varying factors produce sudden, dramatic changessudden, dramatic changes

– Sports psychologists (for example, Hardy 1990) Sports psychologists (for example, Hardy 1990) use catastrophe theory to explain why athletes use catastrophe theory to explain why athletes subjected to a critical level of stress experience subjected to a critical level of stress experience a huge and sudden loss of performancea huge and sudden loss of performance See next slide See next slide

Arousal

Performance

Catastrophe

Case StudyCase Study Greg NormanGreg Norman

– Master golf Master golf tournament (1996)tournament (1996)

– Norman blows six Norman blows six stroke lead on stroke lead on final roundfinal round

– In one four-hole In one four-hole stretch Norman stretch Norman went from three went from three strokes ahead to strokes ahead to two behind, two behind, enabling Nick enabling Nick Faldo to play the Faldo to play the kind of golf he kind of golf he does best - does best - methodical, methodical, precise, controlledprecise, controlled

Do different sporting Do different sporting events or different events or different

positions in the same positions in the same event require event require

different levels of different levels of arousal?arousal?

High Arousal?High Arousal? Football:Football:

– Blocker?Blocker?– QBQB– Wide ReceiverWide Receiver

Wrestling?Wrestling? Basketball:Basketball:

– OffenseOffense– DefenseDefense

Baseball/Softball:Baseball/Softball:– Pitcher?Pitcher?– Hitter?Hitter?

Bowling?Bowling? Gymnastics?Gymnastics? Soccer?Soccer?

Motivational SpeechesMotivational Speeches

Would they work with any of these Would they work with any of these athletes?athletes?

Baumeister (1984)Baumeister (1984)

Defined choking under pressure as Defined choking under pressure as “a metaphorical expression used to “a metaphorical expression used to describe the occurrence of inferior describe the occurrence of inferior performance despite individual performance despite individual striving and situational demands for striving and situational demands for superior performance”superior performance”

The Choking ProcessThe Choking Process

P H Y S IC A L C H A N G E Sm u sc le ten s ionin c reased H Rin c reased B R

A TTE N TIO N A L C H A N G E Sin te rn a l focu sn arrow focu s

red u ced flexib ility

P E R F O R M A N C E IM P A IR M E N Ttim in g & coord in a tion b reakd ow n

m u sc le t ig h tn ess & fa tig u em iss in g re levan t cu es

C O N D ITIO N SIm p ortan t g am es

E va lu a tionC rit ica l P lays

Lewis and Linder (1997)Lewis and Linder (1997)

Reported that when pressure to Reported that when pressure to perform a motor skill is increased, perform a motor skill is increased, individuals commonly perform more individuals commonly perform more poorly at a golf-putting task than poorly at a golf-putting task than when there was less pressurewhen there was less pressure

They found that participants exposed They found that participants exposed to high pressure performed worse to high pressure performed worse than those in the low-pressure than those in the low-pressure condition and distracted participants condition and distracted participants performed better than their performed better than their nondistracted counterpartsnondistracted counterparts

DistractionsDistractions External External

distractions:distractions:– NoiseNoise– GamesmanshipGamesmanship– WeatherWeather– Playing conditionsPlaying conditions– Visual distractionsVisual distractions

Internal Internal distractions: distractions: – ThoughtsThoughts– FearsFears

DistractionsDistractions

Anxiety can lead Anxiety can lead athletes to athletes to perceive cues as perceive cues as threatening and to threatening and to focus on irrelevant focus on irrelevant cuescues

Optimal level of Optimal level of arousal will help arousal will help prevent distractionprevent distraction

““The ironic opposite”The ironic opposite”

Wegner, Ansfield, and Pilloff (1998):Wegner, Ansfield, and Pilloff (1998):– Individuals find themselves producing Individuals find themselves producing

movement errors that represent the “ironic movement errors that represent the “ironic opposite” of what they intended to opposite” of what they intended to accomplishaccomplish

– Found further evidence for this effect by Found further evidence for this effect by showing that subjects who were asked to try showing that subjects who were asked to try to keep a pendulum from swinging in a to keep a pendulum from swinging in a particular direction were, in fact, more likely particular direction were, in fact, more likely to commit movement errors that were the to commit movement errors that were the opposite of their intended actionsopposite of their intended actions

Attentional AllocationAttentional Allocation

High-level performers are exceptionally High-level performers are exceptionally efficient at allocating attentionefficient at allocating attention

As anxiety increases, response times to As anxiety increases, response times to relevant cues increaserelevant cues increase

Attentional AllocationAttentional Allocation

It may be It may be possible to train possible to train athletes to athletes to enhance visual enhance visual control to create control to create more appropriate more appropriate responses to responses to attentional cues attentional cues (e.g., “quiet (e.g., “quiet eye”) eye”) (Vickers, 2007)(Vickers, 2007)

Attentional FlexibilityAttentional Flexibility

The ability of athletes to quickly and The ability of athletes to quickly and effectively shift attention from one effectively shift attention from one location to anotherlocation to another

When “in the zone” this appears to When “in the zone” this appears to be easybe easy

Three Uses of the Term Three Uses of the Term AttentionAttention

AlertnessAlertness

CapacityCapacity

SelectivitySelectivity

(Posner & Boies, 1971; (Posner & Boies, 1971; Abernethy, 2001.)Abernethy, 2001.)

Attention As AlertnessAttention As Alertness Alertness depends on the Alertness depends on the

athlete’s emotional state.athlete’s emotional state. Anxiety, arousal, and Anxiety, arousal, and

visual attention are visual attention are related (Janelle, 2002). related (Janelle, 2002).

As anxiety increases, it As anxiety increases, it can lead tocan lead to– Attentional narrowingAttentional narrowing– Controlled processingControlled processing– Inefficiencies in Inefficiencies in

attentional allocationattentional allocation– Distraction by Distraction by

irrelevant or irrelevant or threatening cuesthreatening cues

Attentional NarrowingAttentional Narrowing

Width or breadth of Width or breadth of attention is narrowedattention is narrowed– Example: Weapons-Example: Weapons-

focus effectfocus effect

Important cues are missedImportant cues are missed

Mistakes are made; Mistakes are made; attention may be directed attention may be directed to errors. A vicious cycle to errors. A vicious cycle occursoccurs

Controlled ProcessingControlled Processing

Once a task becomes automated, it Once a task becomes automated, it no longer requires conscious no longer requires conscious attentionattention

But as pressure increases, attention But as pressure increases, attention can shift from relevant cues to focus can shift from relevant cues to focus on control of performanceon control of performance– Media often says “choking” occursMedia often says “choking” occurs

Attention Control Attention Control TrainingTraining

The process of narrowing or widening The process of narrowing or widening attention through arousal attention through arousal management and reduction strategiesmanagement and reduction strategies– Imagery skillsImagery skills– HypnosisHypnosis– VMBRVMBR– Maintaining Optimal IntensityMaintaining Optimal Intensity– Understanding and Practicing RelaxationUnderstanding and Practicing Relaxation– Distraction ControlDistraction Control

Focus of AttentionFocus of Attention

Internal or External FocusInternal or External Focus– Which is better?Which is better?

Enhancing Enhancing Attention for Attention for CompetitionCompetition

Research by Gabrielle Wulf and Research by Gabrielle Wulf and Richard MastersRichard Masters– Performance was increased on tasks by Performance was increased on tasks by

focusing attention on the effects of the actionfocusing attention on the effects of the action– Should athlete think about own movements or Should athlete think about own movements or

the movement of the racket head, club, or the movement of the racket head, club, or other equipment?other equipment?

– Focusing on immediate effects is more Focusing on immediate effects is more advantageous than focusing on resultant advantageous than focusing on resultant effects (flight of ball or where ball lands)effects (flight of ball or where ball lands)

The “reinvestment” of The “reinvestment” of conscious processing…conscious processing…

Could it be that there is a type of Could it be that there is a type of personality that is highly susceptible personality that is highly susceptible to thisto this

Could there be a predisposition that Could there be a predisposition that could lead to reinvestment?could lead to reinvestment?

Skill breakdowns under pressure?Skill breakdowns under pressure? Can we be over-motivated?Can we be over-motivated?

– See inverted U theorySee inverted U theory

Flow and AttentionFlow and Attention Csikszentmihalyi argues Csikszentmihalyi argues

that we don’t help people that we don’t help people get into flow by trying to get into flow by trying to create itcreate it

Flow happens as a result Flow happens as a result of creating an of creating an environment that matches environment that matches the skills of the athlete the skills of the athlete with the challenges of the with the challenges of the tasktask

For focused concentration, For focused concentration, athletes need skills, athletes need skills, perceptual awareness, perceptual awareness, self-confidence, and self-confidence, and emotional controlemotional control

Measurement Of AnxietyMeasurement Of Anxiety

Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT)Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2

(CSAI-2)(CSAI-2)

Credits:Credits: Several slides prepared by:Several slides prepared by:

– http://www.psynt.iupui.edu/users/jkremer/sports/sptsarousal.phttp://www.psynt.iupui.edu/users/jkremer/sports/sptsarousal.pptpt

– http://www.humankinetics.com/theSportPsychHandbook/PP/http://www.humankinetics.com/theSportPsychHandbook/PP/chap07.pptchap07.ppt