Chapters 2 and 3: The Chapters 2 and 3: The Classical Period in China and Classical Period in China and

IndiaIndia

AP World History, Mr. BartulaAP World History, Mr. Bartula

The Classical EraThe Classical Era

ca 1000 BCE- ca 500 CEca 1000 BCE- ca 500 CE

What is a Classical Period?What is a Classical Period?

A period of advanced civilizationA period of advanced civilization TechnologyTechnology Cross cultural trade and contactCross cultural trade and contact Ethical religion and philosophyEthical religion and philosophy Population growthPopulation growth SyncretismSyncretism

Ca 1000 BCE—500 CECa 1000 BCE—500 CETechnological DevelopmentsTechnological Developments

Iron metallurgyIron metallurgy Hittites (Asia Minor ca 1200 BCE)Hittites (Asia Minor ca 1200 BCE) Stronger and more versatile than Stronger and more versatile than

bronzebronze Levers, inclined planes, pulleys, Levers, inclined planes, pulleys,

wedges, wheels, sailswedges, wheels, sails Power from human and animal laborPower from human and animal labor

Ruins of Hattusas, the Hittite Ruins of Hattusas, the Hittite CapitalCapital

Population changesPopulation changes

Population growth in civilized areasPopulation growth in civilized areas Diseases in civilized areas spread to hunter-Diseases in civilized areas spread to hunter-

gathering societies.gathering societies. Many diseases became endemic in civilized Many diseases became endemic in civilized

areasareas Exposure to pathogens caused virulent Exposure to pathogens caused virulent

epidemics among other societiesepidemics among other societies Isolation caused substantially less disease Isolation caused substantially less disease

in the Americas, Australia, and the Pacific in the Americas, Australia, and the Pacific Islands: Virgin soil areas.Islands: Virgin soil areas.

Gender StructuresGender Structures

Patriarchal societiesPatriarchal societies Patrilocal structurePatrilocal structure Philosophies and religions considered Philosophies and religions considered

women necessary, but inferior to women necessary, but inferior to men.men.

Women had little access to education Women had little access to education or economic poweror economic power

Religious Changes in the Religious Changes in the Classical EraClassical Era

The Axial Age ca 800 BCE- 200 BCEThe Axial Age ca 800 BCE- 200 BCE Zoroaster ca 600 BCEZoroaster ca 600 BCE Isaiah and the “Age of the Prophets” 770-Isaiah and the “Age of the Prophets” 770-

600 BCE600 BCE Confucius 551-479 BCE and Laozi 606-530 Confucius 551-479 BCE and Laozi 606-530

BCEBCE Upanishad texts ca 550 BCE, Buddha 563-Upanishad texts ca 550 BCE, Buddha 563-

483 BCE483 BCE Greek philosophyGreek philosophy

ZoroasterZoroaster

DualismDualism ApocalypticApocalyptic Ahura-Mazda vs Ahura-Mazda vs

AhrimanAhriman DevasDevas

Hebrew MonotheismHebrew Monotheism

Growing emphasis on personal God Growing emphasis on personal God of moralityof morality

Early Hebrews worshipped Elohim Early Hebrews worshipped Elohim (plural for “lords”) or El Shaddai “God (plural for “lords”) or El Shaddai “God the Mountaineer”the Mountaineer”

HenotheismHenotheism

Moses: El Shaddai became YHWH Moses: El Shaddai became YHWH (Yahweh)(Yahweh)

TranscendantTranscendant Monotheism Monotheism

Isaiah and the ProphetsIsaiah and the Prophets God of RighteousnessGod of Righteousness Ethics: do right, show mercy, punish Ethics: do right, show mercy, punish

evil, do justice to ensure harmonious evil, do justice to ensure harmonious societysociety

Classical Age ChinaClassical Age China

Later Zhou DynastyLater Zhou Dynasty Period of weak central governmentPeriod of weak central government Ca 600 BCE, only eight or nine large Ca 600 BCE, only eight or nine large

states remainedstates remained

Warring States PeriodWarring States Period

Large population (There is no point in Large population (There is no point in history in which China has not been history in which China has not been the most heavily populated region.)the most heavily populated region.)

Large, conscripted armies led by Large, conscripted armies led by professional soldiersprofessional soldiers

Professional governing class Professional governing class developeddeveloped

““The Period of the One The Period of the One Hundred Schools” 551-233 BCEHundred Schools” 551-233 BCE

The most creative period in Chinese The most creative period in Chinese philosophyphilosophy

All the major schools of Chinese All the major schools of Chinese philosophy beganphilosophy began

ConfucianismConfucianism

Kung fu tzu 551-479 Kung fu tzu 551-479 BCEBCE

““Master Kung”Master Kung” Born in province of LuBorn in province of Lu Early successful Early successful

political careerpolitical career Dismissed from Dismissed from

government servicegovernment service Became itinerant Became itinerant

teacherteacher

The AnalectsThe Analects

Confucius’ Confucius’ teachings, teachings, recorded by his recorded by his studentsstudents

What is the right way to What is the right way to live?live?

Determine the right pattern to live Determine the right pattern to live and govern by.and govern by.

Do this by studying the past.Do this by studying the past. Follow rituals, which are prescribed Follow rituals, which are prescribed

for conduct of every day life.for conduct of every day life. Neglecting ritual demonstrates moral Neglecting ritual demonstrates moral

anarchy.anarchy.

Confucianism’s Basic TenetsConfucianism’s Basic Tenets

Confucius’ teachings have been Confucius’ teachings have been followed by more people for more followed by more people for more generations than any other human generations than any other human being.being.

Confucianism has influenced the Confucianism has influenced the development of Chinese and other development of Chinese and other East Asian civilizations: Japan, Korea, East Asian civilizations: Japan, Korea, Southeast Asia, etc. Southeast Asia, etc.

What is the chief goal of What is the chief goal of Confucianism?Confucianism?

An orderly societyAn orderly society HierarchyHierarchy PatriarchyPatriarchy The Emperor is the father of his The Emperor is the father of his

peoplepeople The past is the model for the presentThe past is the model for the present

The ShiThe Shi

An educated gentlemanAn educated gentleman Kindly to those beneath himKindly to those beneath him Obedient and respectful to those Obedient and respectful to those

above himabove him Criticism of those above is Criticism of those above is

acceptable if done politelyacceptable if done politely Shi-Bureaucrats Shi-Bureaucrats

JenJen

HumanenessHumaneness Humanity, benevolence, goodness, Humanity, benevolence, goodness,

virtuevirtue Always follow the highest concepts of Always follow the highest concepts of

behavior, even if impractical or behavior, even if impractical or foolish.foolish.

TeTe

Moral virtueMoral virtue All people are basically goodAll people are basically good

The Second SageThe Second Sage

Mencius (Mong Ka) Mencius (Mong Ka) 372-289 BCE372-289 BCE

The foremost The foremost student of student of ConfuciusConfucius

Righteousness (i)Righteousness (i)

The humaneness (jen) you show to The humaneness (jen) you show to others is influenced by the type of others is influenced by the type of personal relationship you have to personal relationship you have to that person.that person.

Jen is displayed according to your Jen is displayed according to your positions and to the obligations you positions and to the obligations you owe to the other.owe to the other.

Mencius and Confucius Mencius and Confucius comparedcompared

Both believed rulers were divinely Both believed rulers were divinely placed to guarantee peace and order placed to guarantee peace and order within their realms.within their realms.

Mencius believed that a ruler who Mencius believed that a ruler who failed to bring about peace and order failed to bring about peace and order could be replaced, and the people could be replaced, and the people absolved of loyalty to him.absolved of loyalty to him.

People are basically good (te)People are basically good (te)

Xunzi (fl 298-238 BCE)Xunzi (fl 298-238 BCE)

The third great The third great Confucian scholarConfucian scholar

Xunzi’s teachings Xunzi’s teachings are called are called “Legalism”“Legalism”

People are People are fundamentally fundamentally depraved, selfish, depraved, selfish, greedy, and lustfulgreedy, and lustful

How can people be “made” to How can people be “made” to be good?be good?

people could be people could be made good made good through through acculturation and acculturation and educationeducation

Xunzi’s pupil Han Xunzi’s pupil Han Fei Tzu believed Fei Tzu believed people are made people are made good by state lawsgood by state laws

Laws should punish all actions that Laws should punish all actions that harm others or the state and reward harm others or the state and reward actions that benefit others or the actions that benefit others or the state.state.

Confucianism and Legalism Confucianism and Legalism ComparedCompared

To Confucius, power is to be wielded To Confucius, power is to be wielded for the benefit of the people.for the benefit of the people.

To the Legalists, power was to To the Legalists, power was to control individual selfishnesscontrol individual selfishness

Legalism’s InfluenceLegalism’s Influence

Utilitarianism: people should have Utilitarianism: people should have occupations that materially benefit occupations that materially benefit others.others.

““Rule of Law”: Law is supreme over Rule of Law”: Law is supreme over every individual, including rulersevery individual, including rulers

Law must be uniformly applied, Law must be uniformly applied, regardless of social standings regardless of social standings (equality before the law)(equality before the law)

DaoismDaoism

Laozi 606-530 BCELaozi 606-530 BCE

““The Teachings of The Teachings of the Yellow Emperor the Yellow Emperor and Laozi”and Laozi”

Tao te chingTao te ching

The teachings of The teachings of LaoziLaozi

DaoismDaoism

Behind all material things and all Behind all material things and all change in the world lies one change in the world lies one fundamental, universal principle:fundamental, universal principle:

The Dao (The Way) The Dao (The Way)

Characteristics of DaoismCharacteristics of Daoism

PassivityPassivity CalmCalm Non-striving (wu wei)Non-striving (wu wei) HumilityHumility Lack of PlanningLack of Planning

A Daoist Government A Daoist Government Would:Would:

Not wage warNot wage war Not be complexNot be complex Not interfere in people’s livesNot interfere in people’s lives Serve as a guide, not a governorServe as a guide, not a governor

Later Daoists Later Daoists enocouraged enocouraged mysticism and magicmysticism and magic

Many Chinese Many Chinese doctors were Daoistsdoctors were Daoists

Feng Shui is a Feng Shui is a version of Daoism version of Daoism popular today.popular today.

Qin Dynasty China 256-206 Qin Dynasty China 256-206 BCEBCE

Shi Huangdi Shi Huangdi became “First became “First Emperor”Emperor”

Conquered most of Conquered most of northern China by northern China by 221 BCE221 BCE

Qin DevelopmentsQin Developments

Centralized government under Centralized government under Legalist principlesLegalist principles

Standardized weights and measuresStandardized weights and measures Public works and building programsPublic works and building programs Great Wall constructed to prevent Great Wall constructed to prevent

invasions by Hsiung-nuinvasions by Hsiung-nu

The Great WallThe Great Wall

Qin Cavalryman and horseQin Cavalryman and horse

Bronze Chariot and Horses of Bronze Chariot and Horses of Shi HuangdiShi Huangdi

Tomb of Shi HuangdiTomb of Shi Huangdi

Diagram showing tomb as Diagram showing tomb as originally constructedoriginally constructed

Fall of the Qin DynastyFall of the Qin Dynasty

““Ruthless efficiency” led to harsh, Ruthless efficiency” led to harsh, Legalistic ruleLegalistic rule

Peasant Revolts over heavy taxation, Peasant Revolts over heavy taxation, forced laborforced labor

Qin collapsed in 206 BC, four years Qin collapsed in 206 BC, four years after the death of the First Emperorafter the death of the First Emperor

Han Dynasty 202 BCE-220 Han Dynasty 202 BCE-220 CECE

The Classical Period in Chinese The Classical Period in Chinese historyhistory

Legalism replaced by ConfucianismLegalism replaced by Confucianism ““Shi-Bureaucrats” ran centralized Shi-Bureaucrats” ran centralized

governmentgovernment Standardization of coinage, weights Standardization of coinage, weights

and measuresand measures

Han Wudi 141-85 BCEHan Wudi 141-85 BCE Greatest and most Greatest and most

powerful Han Emperorpowerful Han Emperor Defeated Hsiung-nuDefeated Hsiung-nu Expanded Chinese Expanded Chinese

territoryterritory Increased Chinese Increased Chinese

influence in Central influence in Central AsiaAsia

Helped lead to Helped lead to establishment of the establishment of the Silk Road Silk Road

Classical Age IndiaClassical Age India

Culturally, linguistically, and Culturally, linguistically, and ethnically diverseethnically diverse

14 major languages (most Indo-14 major languages (most Indo-European)European)

Indian culture synthesis of Harappan, Indian culture synthesis of Harappan, Aryan, and other influencesAryan, and other influences

We owe a lot to the Indians, who taught us how to count, without which no worthwhile scientific discovery could have been made. Albert Einstein.

India is the cradle of the human race, the birthplace of human speech, the mother of history, the grandmother of legend and the great grand mother of tradition. Mark Twain.

If there is one place on the face of earth where all dreams of living men have found a home from the very earliest days when man began the dream of existence, it is India . French scholar Romain Rolland.

Religions of South Asia

Religions of South Asia

HinduismHinduism

Early Aryan history Early Aryan history known as the known as the “Rig-Vedic” Period “Rig-Vedic” Period (1700-1000 BCE)(1700-1000 BCE)

Rig-Vedas are the Rig-Vedas are the earliest religious earliest religious texts of Hinduismtexts of Hinduism

Written in SanskritWritten in Sanskrit

Monotheism or Polytheism?Monotheism or Polytheism?

Over 3000 gods and goddessesOver 3000 gods and goddesses All considered aspects of Brahma, All considered aspects of Brahma,

the overall the overall

ShivaShiva

VishnuVishnu

KaliKali

The Hindu Caste SystemThe Hindu Caste System

Brahmin (priests)Brahmin (priests) Kshatriyas (warriors Kshatriyas (warriors

and rulers)and rulers) Vaisyas (merchants)Vaisyas (merchants) Sudras (peasants Sudras (peasants

and laborers)and laborers) Untouchables Untouchables

(people without (people without caste, Chandala)caste, Chandala)

The four varnas (castes) originated in The four varnas (castes) originated in the sacrifice of the macrocosmic, the sacrifice of the macrocosmic, primeval man, according to the Rig primeval man, according to the Rig Veda.Veda.

Brahmans: HeadBrahmans: Head Kshatriyas: ShouldersKshatriyas: Shoulders Vaisyas: ThighsVaisyas: Thighs Sudras: FeetSudras: Feet

Traditional Functions of the Traditional Functions of the CastesCastes

Brahman: priests, thinkers, Brahman: priests, thinkers, intellectualsintellectuals

Kshatriyas: rule, protect, maintain Kshatriyas: rule, protect, maintain orderorder

Vaisyas: commerce and agricultureVaisyas: commerce and agriculture Sudras: more menial tasksSudras: more menial tasks Untouchables: work with polluting Untouchables: work with polluting

substances: leather, excrement, filthsubstances: leather, excrement, filth

Castes and HierarchyCastes and Hierarchy

Hierarchical rank according to purity Hierarchical rank according to purity and pollutionand pollution

Rituals and ceremonies in each caste Rituals and ceremonies in each caste serve as caste identifiersserve as caste identifiers

Ultimate punishment: Ultimate punishment: excommunication from your casteexcommunication from your caste

Consequences of the Caste Consequences of the Caste SystemSystem

Individuals are judged by their caste, not Individuals are judged by their caste, not by their abilities. Caste interaction by their abilities. Caste interaction discourageddiscouraged

Benefits the top castes to the detriment of Benefits the top castes to the detriment of the lower castesthe lower castes

Some caste mobility through Some caste mobility through Sanskritization: groups within castes can Sanskritization: groups within castes can gradually raise their status by emulating gradually raise their status by emulating higher castes over several generationshigher castes over several generations

The system has survived for centuries, The system has survived for centuries, meaning Hindu society remains stablemeaning Hindu society remains stable

Modern India has legal equality for all Modern India has legal equality for all and guarantees basic human rights, but and guarantees basic human rights, but cultural discrimination against lower cultural discrimination against lower castes and untouchables continuescastes and untouchables continues

Hindu Religious textsHindu Religious texts

RamayanaRamayana MahabarataMahabarata UpanishadsUpanishads Written in Written in

SanskritSanskrit

Dharma: Life PathDharma: Life Path

Karma : Fate Karma : Fate

ReincarnationReincarnation

Siddhartha Gautama ca 563-Siddhartha Gautama ca 563-483 BCE483 BCE

Born the son of a Born the son of a Kshatriya chiefKshatriya chief

At age 29 assumed At age 29 assumed an ascetic lifestyle an ascetic lifestyle in search of Nirvana in search of Nirvana (Enlightenment)(Enlightenment)

Known as Buddha Known as Buddha “The Enlightened “The Enlightened One”One”

The Four Noble TruthsThe Four Noble Truths

1. All human life is 1. All human life is sufferingsuffering

2. All suffering is caused by 2. All suffering is caused by desiredesire

End suffering by ending End suffering by ending desiredesire

End desire by following the End desire by following the Eightfold Noble Path: right Eightfold Noble Path: right understanding, right understanding, right thought, right speech, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, action, right livelihood, right effort, right right effort, right mindfulness, and right mindfulness, and right concentration.concentration.

SelflessnessSelflessness Disapproval of Disapproval of

violence, meat violence, meat eating, animal eating, animal sacrifice, and warsacrifice, and war

Four Cardinal Four Cardinal Virtues: friendliness, Virtues: friendliness, compassion, joy, compassion, joy, and equanimityand equanimity

Buddhism and Hinduism Buddhism and Hinduism ComparedCompared

Belief in reincarnation, the Brahma or Belief in reincarnation, the Brahma or “Universal Soul”“Universal Soul”

Buddhism more egalitarian, no caste Buddhism more egalitarian, no caste systemsystem

Buddhism less patriarchal, women Buddhism less patriarchal, women have equal chance to achieve have equal chance to achieve NirvanaNirvana

Two Types of BuddhismTwo Types of Buddhism

Theravada Buddhism: philosophy rather Theravada Buddhism: philosophy rather than religion. Buddha a man, not god, than religion. Buddha a man, not god, practiced primarily in Sri Lankapracticed primarily in Sri Lanka

Mahayana Buddhism: salvation religion. Mahayana Buddhism: salvation religion. Buddha became a god, good and devout Buddha became a god, good and devout people can become bhoddisatvas: people can become bhoddisatvas: potential future Buddhas.potential future Buddhas.

Mahayana Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism spread through India spread through India to China, East Asiato China, East Asia

Emphasis on Emphasis on repetition of prayers repetition of prayers and devotions: and devotions: prayer flags, prayer prayer flags, prayer wheels, printing.wheels, printing.

Buddhism in the Subcontinent

Buddhism in the Subcontinent

Buddha’s

head :

2c Pakist

an

Buddha’s

head :

2c Pakist

an

Mandala: Wheel of Life Motif

Mandala: Wheel of Life Motif

Indian Contact with outside Indian Contact with outside WorldWorld Hinduism encouraged Hinduism encouraged

pilgrimagespilgrimages Mixing of Aryans with Mixing of Aryans with

indigenous cultures indigenous cultures encouraged syncretismencouraged syncretism

331 BCE Alexander the 331 BCE Alexander the Great marched to the Great marched to the edge of Indiaedge of India

Greek and Indian Greek and Indian culture began to culture began to intermixintermix

Chandragupta Maurya 321-297 Chandragupta Maurya 321-297 BCEBCE

Conquered Conquered Northern India, Northern India, Indus ValleyIndus Valley

Established Established Mauryan DynastyMauryan Dynasty

Ashoka 272-232 BCEAshoka 272-232 BCE

Last of the great Last of the great Mauryan EmperorsMauryan Emperors

Aggressive, cruel Aggressive, cruel conqueror in early conqueror in early lifelife

After the bloody After the bloody conquest of Kalinga, conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka converted Ashoka converted to Buddhismto Buddhism

Ashoka became a vegetarian and Ashoka became a vegetarian and renounced warfarerenounced warfare

State would rule by right or law, not State would rule by right or law, not mightmight

Religious tolerationReligious toleration Better treatment of women and lower Better treatment of women and lower

castescastes Encouaged Buddhist expansion Encouaged Buddhist expansion

throughout India and Asiathroughout India and Asia

Asoka’s law Asoka’s law codecode

Asoka’s law Asoka’s law codecode Edicts scattered inEdicts scattered in

more than 30 places more than 30 places in India, Nepal, in India, Nepal, Pakistan, & Afghanistan. Pakistan, & Afghanistan.

Written mostly inWritten mostly in Sanskrit, but one was in Sanskrit, but one was in Greek and Aramaic. Greek and Aramaic.

10 rock edicts.10 rock edicts.

Each pillar [Each pillar [stupastupa] is 40’-50’ high.] is 40’-50’ high.

Buddhist principles dominate his Buddhist principles dominate his laws.laws.

One One of of

AsokAsoka’sa’s

StupStupasas

One One of of

AsokAsoka’sa’s

StupStupasas

During Ashoka’s reign Buddhism During Ashoka’s reign Buddhism became dominant in India and became dominant in India and threatened to wipe out Hinduismthreatened to wipe out Hinduism

After Ashoka’s death, Hinduism After Ashoka’s death, Hinduism revived and Buddhism declinedrevived and Buddhism declined

Reasons for India’s Religious Reasons for India’s Religious Shift After AshokaShift After Ashoka

Hindu syncretism: Brahmins accepted Hindu syncretism: Brahmins accepted Buddha as god, encouraged Buddha as god, encouraged devotional cults and small sacrifices devotional cults and small sacrifices (personal worship and prayer), (personal worship and prayer), loosened caste restrictions and loosened caste restrictions and enhanced the role of womenenhanced the role of women

Buddhist withdrawal to monasteries, Buddhist withdrawal to monasteries, less active lives within Indialess active lives within India

Fa-Hsien: Life in Fa-Hsien: Life in Gupta IndiaGupta India

Fa-Hsien: Life in Fa-Hsien: Life in Gupta IndiaGupta India

Chinese Buddhist monk traveled along Chinese Buddhist monk traveled along the the Silk Road and visited India in the 5c. Silk Road and visited India in the 5c.

He was following the pathHe was following the path of the Buddha. of the Buddha.

He reported the people to He reported the people to be happy, relatively free of be happy, relatively free of government oppression, and government oppression, and inclined towards courtesy and inclined towards courtesy and charity. Other references in charity. Other references in the journal, however, indicate the journal, however, indicate that the caste system was that the caste system was rapidly assuming its basic features, rapidly assuming its basic features, includingincluding "untouchability," the social isolation of a "untouchability," the social isolation of a lowestlowest class that is doomed to menial labor. class that is doomed to menial labor.

India Under The Gupta Dynasty India Under The Gupta Dynasty 320-550 CE320-550 CE

Hinduism dominantHinduism dominant Heavy rice cultivation in Ganges valleyHeavy rice cultivation in Ganges valley Economic expansion due to Silk Road Economic expansion due to Silk Road

and Indian Ocean tradeand Indian Ocean trade Cultural FloweringCultural Flowering Indian cultural influence on Southeast Indian cultural influence on Southeast

AsiaAsia

International Trade International Trade Routes during the GuptasRoutes during the Guptas

International Trade International Trade Routes during the GuptasRoutes during the Guptas

Extensive Trade:Extensive Trade:4c4c

Extensive Trade:Extensive Trade:4c4c

spices

spices

spicesspices

gold & gold &

ivoryivory

gold & gold & ivoryivory

rice & rice & wheatwheathorseshorses

cotton goods

cotton goods

cotton goods

cotton goodssilkssilks

GuptGuptaa

ArtArt

GuptGuptaa

ArtArt

Greatly influenced Greatly influenced Southeast Asian art & Southeast Asian art &

architecture.architecture.

MedicineMedicineMedicineMedicine LiteratureLiteratureLiteratureLiterature

MathematicsMathematicsMathematicsMathematicsAstronomyAstronomyAstronomyAstronomy

PrintedPrintedmedicinal medicinal

guidesguides

1000 1000 diseasesdiseasesclassifiedclassified

PlasticPlasticSurgerySurgery

C-sectionsC-sectionsperformeperforme

dd

InoculatioInoculationsns

500 healing500 healingplants plants

identifiedidentified

DecimalDecimalSystemSystem

ConceptConceptof Zeroof Zero

PI = 3.1416PI = 3.1416

KalidasKalidasaa

SolarSolarCalendarCalendar

The The earthearth

is roundis round

GuptaGuptaIndiaIndia

Gupta Gupta AchievemeAchieveme

ntsnts

Gupta Gupta AchievemeAchieveme

ntsnts

Ajanta CaveAjanta Cave

Ajanta CaveAjanta Cave

Cave temple at ElephantaCave temple at Elephanta

Kalidasa, Gupta India’s Kalidasa, Gupta India’s greatest writergreatest writer

The Classical CivilizationsThe Classical Civilizations

Han ChinaHan China Mauryan-Gupta IndiaMauryan-Gupta India Greco-RomeGreco-Rome