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Chapters 12 & 13: Land UseChapters 12 & 13: Land UseChapters 12 & 13: Land UseChapters 12 & 13: Land Use

Tasso Azevado: Brazil Rainforest Ted Talk

Central Case: Battling over the last big trees

� In 1993, protestors blocked loggers from cutting ancient trees on Vancouver Island, British Columbia◦ Most of Canada’s old-growth temperate rainforest is already gone

◦ 20% of the jobs depends on the timber industry

Both sides struck a deal allowing environmentally friendly practices and encouraging ecotourism

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Land is generally broken up into two general categories:

Urban� Contains 2,500 or more people.� Has a government or city council.

Rural� Few people.� Large open spaces.

Resource Management……• Is harvesting resources in a way that doesn’t deplete them

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Primary Land-Use Categories

Rangeland Land used to graze livestock and wildlife.

Forest land Land used for harvesting wood, wildlife, fish, nuts, and other resources.

Cropland Land used to grow food and fiber.

Parks and preserves Land used for recreation and scenic enjoyment and for preserving native animal and plant communities and ecosystems

Wetlands, mountains, deserts, etc.

Land that is difficult to use for human purposes

Urban land Land that is used for houses, businesses, industry, and roads.

Primary Land-Use Categories

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Resource management

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Maximum Sustainable Yield

� extraction of the maximum amount of a resource w/o depleting the resource from one harvest to the next

� Favors keeping populations at intermediate levels

Reducing populations so drastically affects other species and can change the entire ecosystem

� Ecosystem-base management – manages resources in a way that minimizes impact on whole ecosystems; difficult to implement since ecosystems are so complex

Adaptive management – tests different techniques and aims to improve methods over time; may be complicated and time-consuming and draw resistance

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Forest Management

Forests….

• Cover 30% of Earth’s land surface

• Most are boreal forests or topical rainforests

• Provide many different niches for forest life, help prevent erosion, regulate the water cycle, slow runoff, prevent floods, purify water, regulate the climate, provide economic goods

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Deforestation

• Clearing and loss of forests• Impacts greatest in…….

-tropical areas due to loss of biodiversity-arid regions due to desertification

• Contributes to global climate change due to less tress available to take in CO2

• Occurring fastest in developing countries to make room for high population #s, better economies, and for fuel

Growth of U.S. fed by deforestation:

� Primary forest = natural forest uncut by people� Little remained by the 20th century

� Second-growth trees = grown to partial maturity after old-growth timber has been cut

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Timber•Fear of “timber famine” led to many public forest reserves set aside for new growth to prevent future scarcities of lumber

•U.S. Forest Service set up the national forest system with 77 million ha across the country and manages logging and sales on these public lands

•Most logging in U.S. takes place on private land owned by timber companies

• Timber harvesting has stabilized over the past 40 years and growth is exceeding removal in many areas ☺, except on private land owned by timber companies �

Harvesting Methods

• Even-ages stands: single-species monoculture planted at same time, harvested at same time, and replaced with new seedlings (viewed as a type of agriculture rather than an actual forest)

• Uneven-aged stands: mix of different species at different ages and more similar to a natural forest

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Clear-cutting Selective cutting

• Clear-cutting: all trees in an area are cut; cost efficient, but most damaging

• Seed-tree/shelterwood approach: few seed-producing trees are left to reseed area or provide shelter for new seeds to grow

• Selective cutting: middle-aged or mature trees are cut leaving young ones to continue to grow; allows uneven-aged management; disliked by most timber companies

Harvesting Methods

Public forests managed for many things

� The National Forest Management Act (1976) = Mandated that resource management plans had to be drawn up for every national forest (managed by U.S. Forest Service)

� Multiple use policy = national forests were to be managed for recreation, habitat, minerals and other uses◦ In reality, timber production is the primary use

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Fire policy stirs controversy

� For over 100 years, the Forest Service suppressed all fires◦ But many ecosystems depend on fires

◦ Fire suppression allows woody accumulation, which produces kindling for future fires� Which are much worse

� Housing development near forests and climate change will increase fire risk

Prescribed fires are misunderstood

� Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests under carefully controlled conditions◦ public misunderstanding and political interference come from fear that fires could get out of control

� Healthy Forests Restoration Act (2003) = promotes removal of small trees, underbrush and dead trees◦ Passed in response to severe forest fires

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Salvage logging

� Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance

� Seems logical, but is really destructive◦ Snags (standing dead trees) provide nesting cavities for countless animals

◦ Removing timber from recently burned areas increases erosion and soil damage

◦ Increases commercial logging in national forests

Sustainable forestry is gaining ground

� Sustainable forestry certification = only products produced sustainably can be certified◦ International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) have different standards

◦ Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably produced timber

◦ Encourages better logging practices

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Agricultural land use

� Agriculture covers 38% of the Earths’ terrestrial surface◦ 26% supports pasture, 12% supports crops◦ Governments spend billions of dollars on subsidies◦ Proponents say farmers need this insurance against bad years

◦ Critics say farmers should buy their own insurance

Wetlands have been drained for farming

� Many crop lands grow on former wetlands

� Governments encouraged wetland draining in past to promote settlement and farming

� Less than half the wetlands remain

� Many people now view wetlands as valuable ecosystems

� Conservation Reserve Program(1985) subsidized farmers to take highly erodable land out of production

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Livestock graze 1/4 of Earth’s land

� Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and at low intensity� Bureau of Land Management (BLM) = owns and manages most

U.S. rangeland◦ Nation’s single largest landowner: 106 million ha (261 million acres) across 12 western states

◦ Ranchers can graze cattle on BLM lands for low fees◦ Low fees encourage overgrazing

Parks and reserves

� Reasons for establishing parks and reserves include:◦ Monumentalism = preserving areas with enormous, beautiful or unusual features, such as the Grand Canyon

◦ recreational value ◦ Protect areas with utilitarian benefits, such as clean drinking water

◦ Use sites that are otherwise economically not valuable and are therefore easy to protect

◦ Preservation of biodiversity

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Federal parks & reserves began in U.S.

� National parks = public lands protected from resource extraction and development◦ Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872

� The Antiquities Act of 1906 = president can declare selected public lands as national monuments

� Nat’l Park Service =Created in 1916 to administer parks and monuments

National Wildlife Refuges

� Begun in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt� 37 million ha in 541 sites� U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers refuges◦ Management ranges from preservation to manipulation◦ Allows hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, photography, education

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Wilderness areas � Wilderness areas = area is off-limits to

development of any kind� Wilderness Act est. in 1964

◦ Open to the public for hiking, nature study, etc.

◦ Must have minimal impact on the land◦ Opposed by the wise-use movement: individuals/industries that oppose environ. protection; Farmers, ranchers, loggers, mineral and fossil fuel industries aim to protect private property, transfer federal lands to state or private hands, promote motorized recreation on public lands

Nonfederal entities also protect land

� Land trusts = local or regional organizations that purchase land to protect it◦ The Nature Conservancy is the world’s largest land trust with holdings in 50 states and Canada as well as Latin Am., Caribbean, and Asia; headquarters in VA

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Parks and reserves are increasing internationally

� Many nations have established national parks and benefit from ecotourism (cover 9.6% of land area)

� Parks do not always receive necessary funding (esp. in developing countries)

� Transboundary park = an area of protected land overlapping national borders

� Peace parks = transboundary reserves that help ease tensions by acting as buffers between nations

� Biosphere reserves = land with exceptional biodiversity◦ Couple preservation with sustainable development

Biosphere reserves have several zones

� This can be a win-win situation for everyone

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QUESTION: Review

If an area is managed for Maximum Sustained Yield, and the area can support 100 organisms, how many organisms will be allowed to remain in the area?

a) 100b) 75c) 50d) 25

QUESTION: Review

Which of the following is not part of the ecological value of forests?

a) Erosion preventionb) Decreased floodingc) Carbon storaged) Climate moderatione) All of the above are values of forests

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QUESTION: Review

Which agency manages national forests?

a) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serviceb) U.S. Forest Servicec) Bureau of Land Managementd) National Park Service

QUESTION: Review

Tree harvesting by clear-cutting….

a) Cuts most trees, but leaves some to shelter seedlings

b) Cuts most trees, but leaves some to produce seeds

c) Cuts all trees in an area, leaving only stumps d) Produces uneven-aged tree standse) Produces even-aged tree stands

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QUESTION: Review

The National Forest Management Act of 1976 guidelines included all of the following, except:

a) Consideration of economic factorsb) Soil protectionc) Increased harvesting under times of economic

stressd) Provisions for species diversity

QUESTION: Review

“Monumentalism” refers to:

a) Protecting very large treesb) Protecting areas with large buildingsc) Growing the largest crops possibled) Preserving lands with enormous or beautiful

features

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QUESTION: Review

Which areas are off limits to all development?

a) National forestsb) National parksc) Wilderness areasd) BLM lands

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data

Which area of the world had the largest increase in paper consumption between 1990 and 2000?

a) Africa

b) Asia

c) Europe

d) North America

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Ch. 13 Urbanization

Central Case: Managing growth in Portland, Oregon

� Oregon residents feared sprawling development would ruin their communities

� Urban Growth Boundaries (UGBs) allow development in urban areas and protect open spaces and rural land

� Measure 37 became Measure 49 and new regulations were put into place in 2007

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Our urbanizing world

� Urbanization = the movement of people from rural to urban areas◦ The greatest change of human society since its transition to a sedentary agricultural lifestyle

� Why are urban areas are growing rapidly?◦ growing human population◦ Industrialization causing movement from farms to cities

Global urbanizing trends

� In 1950, 30% of the population was urban, today it’s 49%

� In developed nations, urbanization has slowed ◦ Suburbs = the smaller communities that ring cities

� Developing nations are urbanizing rapidly◦ People are searching for jobs and urban lifestyles

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Today’s urban centers

� Metropolitan area: geographical area (or entire county) with a minimum pop. of 100,000 and at least 50,000 of pop. living in a center city

� Megalopolis: area of fused cities with 10 million or more people (New York, Los Angeles, Tokyo)

Urban growth has often been rapid

� Growth in U.S.:

◦Due to increased trade ◦ Crowding and deteriorating economic conditions occurred

◦ Residents moved to the suburbs

◦Movement to southern & western states due to warmer weather or more space

� Fast-growing cities are in developing countries:

◦ Less need for farm labor

◦Wars, conflict, and ecological degradation

� Many cities now face overcrowding, pollution, and poverty

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Factors influence geography of urban areas

� Climate, topography, and waterways determine if a small settlement becomes a large city

� Successful cities often located near corridors for trade

People have moved to suburbs

� By the mid-1900s, the U.S. accumulated more people than jobs◦ Unemployment caused poverty and crime◦ Inadequate infrastructure◦ Affluent city dwellers moved to cleaner, less-crowded suburbs

� Suburbs offer◦ More space, privacy, better economic conditions, cheaper real estate, less crime, and better schools

� But natural space decreased with increasing suburbs◦ People had to drive everywhere, increasing traffic congestion

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Sprawl

� Houses and roads take over more than 1 million ha (2.5 million acres) of rural land per year

� Sprawl = the spread of low-density urban or suburban development outward from an urban center◦ Caused by human population growth and per capita land consumption

◦ U.S. metropolitan areas grew by 80% since the 1950 but the land they covered grew by 305%

Several types of development lead to sprawl

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What is wrong with sprawl?

� Transportation: people are forced to drive cars◦ Pressure to own cars and drive greater distances

◦ Increases dependence on nonrenewable petroleum

◦ Lack of mass transit options◦ More traffic accidents

� Pollution from sprawl’s effects on transportation◦ Carbon dioxide, nitrogen- and sulfur-containing air pollutants contribute to global warming, smog, acid rain

◦ Runoff from polluted water from paved areas

� Health: impacts from pollution, promotes physical inactivity leading to increases in obesity & high blood pressure

� Land use: less land is left as forests, fields, farmland, or ranchland◦ Loss of ecosystem services, recreation, aesthetic beauty, wildlife habitat

� Economics: drains tax dollars from communities◦ For roads, water and sewer systems, electricity, police and fire services, schools, etc.

What is wrong with sprawl?

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City and regional planning

� City planning = the professional pursuit that attempts to design cities so as to maximize their efficiency, functionality, and beauty◦ Planners advise policymakers on development options, transportation needs, public parks, etc.

� Regional planning = deals with same issues as city planning, but with broader geographic scales that must coordinate with multiple municipal governments

� Zoning = the practice of classifying areas for different types of development and land use◦ Can restrict areas to a single use or can allow a combination of residential and commercial use

� Violation of individual freedoms or for the good of the community?

City and regional planning

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Urban growth boundaries (UGBs)

� Limits sprawl: keeps growth in existing urbanized areas◦ Revitalize downtowns ◦ Protect farms, forests, and their industries◦ Ensure urban dwellers some access to open space

� May reduce infrastructure costs

� Disadvantages:◦ Increases housing prices within their boundaries◦ Restricts development outside UGB◦ Increases the density of new housing inside the UGB

◦ Increasing pressure to expand boundaries

Smart growth

� Smart growth = urban growth boundaries and other land use policies to control growth

� Proponents promote:◦ Healthy neighborhoods and communities◦ Jobs and economic development◦ Transportation options◦ Environmental quality

� Building “up, not out”◦ Focusing development in existing areas◦ Favoring multistory shop-houses and high-rises

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Principles of smart growth� Mixed land uses� Compact building design� Range of housing opportunities and choices� Walkable neighborhoods� Distinctive, attractive neighborhoods� Preserve open space� Develop existing communities� A variety of transportation choices� Predictable development decisions� Community collaboration in development decisions

New urbanism

� New urbanism = neighborhoods designed on walkable scale so homes, businesses, and schools are close together & needs can be met without using a car

� Transit-oriented development = communities arrayed around stops on a major rail transit line

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Mass transportation� Public buses, trains & subways, rail transit� Cheaper, more energy efficient, and cleaner � Traffic congestion is eased� Expensive to replace existing roads, may involve raising fuel taxes, taxing other modes of transportation, rewarding carpoolers

Parks & open spaces

� Offers an escape from noise, commotion, and stress of urban life

� provide greenery, scenic beauty, and recreation

� Protecting natural lands becomes more important as urban dwellers become more isolated and disconnected with nature

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Greenways

� Greenways (or green spaces) = strips of land that connect parks or neighborhoods◦ Protect water quality◦ Boost property values◦ Corridors for wildlife movement

� Ecological restoration in cities◦ Enhances “naturalness” of cities

Urbanization impacts the environment

� Resource sinks = cities must import resources from long distances◦ rely on land elsewhere for water, timber, minerals, etc.

◦Material wealth grows as cities grow causing a bigger need for resources

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Consumption in urban areas

� Cites have ecological footprints far beyond their actual sizes◦ Cities take up only 2% of the land surface, but consume more than 75% of the world’s resources

◦ Urban dwellers have far larger ecological footprints that rural dwellers

◦ But, urban residents tend to be wealthier, and wealth correlates with consumption

Efficiency in urban areas

� Dense cities minimize per capita consumption b/c resources w/in city are easier to deliver and obtain◦ density facilitates social services that improve the quality of life such as medical services, education, water and sewer systems, waste disposal, transportation

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Cities preserve land but export pollution

� Because people are packed densely in cities, more land outside cities is left undeveloped◦ If cities did not exist, we would have much less room for agriculture, wilderness, biodiversity, or privacy

� Cities export wastes and transfer the costs of activities to other regions◦ Citizens are exposed to pollution such as heavy metals and chemicals

◦ The poor bear the brunt of pollution because they are too poor to move

Cities have noise and light pollution

� Noise pollution = undesired ambient sound◦ Degrades aesthetic surroundings◦ Can induce stress and harm hearing

� Light pollution = lights obscure the night sky, impairing the visibility of stars; no health effects

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Urban sustainability: cities should…

� Use resources efficiently� Recycle� Develop environmentally friendly technologies� Account fully for external costs� Offer tax incentives for sustainable practices� Use locally produced resources� Use organic waste and wastewater to restore soil fertility

� Encourage urban agriculture

QUESTION: Review

_______ occurred as a result of deteriorating conditions in the inner cities

a) Movement to suburbsb) Movement to rural areasc) Development of inner citiesd) Decentralization of city management

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“Sprawl” is defined as…?

a) Increased resource extraction from rural areasb) Creating more livable citiesc) The spread of low-density development outward

from an urban centerd) The spread of high-density development

outward from an urban center

QUESTION: Review

Which of the following is NOT a cause of urban sprawl?

a) People like their privacyb) Technology allows people to work from homec) Technology frees businesses from having to be

located in the cityd) All of the above are causes of sprawl

QUESTION: Review

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a) Urbanization will decrease

in more developed regions

b) Urbanization will decrease

in less developed regions

c) Urbanization will increase

most rapidly in less

developed regions

d) Urbanization will increase

most rapidly in more

developed regions

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data

What major conclusion can be drawn from this graph on

urbanization?