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Chapter09: Nuclear Marine PropulsionEdited by Dr. Mir F. Ali

As of November 2010, about 140 ships are, powered by, more than 180 small nuclear reactors andmore than 12,000 reactor years of marine operation has been accumulated. Most of these shipsrepresent submarines, but they range from icebreakers to aircraft carriers. In the last fifty-fiveyears since the first nuclear propelled voyage in 1955, five of the world's navies have combined for

well over a hundred million miles of nuclear powered ocean travel using over 700 marine nuclearreactors.

1. Nuclear Marine Propulsion Highlights:Here are some characteristics of the nuclear marine propulsions:

Naval nuclear reactors with a high enrichment level of 93 percent, capable of reaching 97.3percent in Uranium235, are designed for a refueling after 10 or more years over their 20-30years lifetime, whereas land based nuclear reactors use fuel enriched to 3-5 percent inUranium235 , and need to be refuelled every one to one and half years period. The focus ofnew cores designs is to last 50 years in aircraft carriers and 30-40 years in submarine, whichis the design goal of the Virginia class of submarines;

Naval nuclear reactors use high burnup fuels such as uranium-zirconium, uranium-aluminium, and metal ceramic fuels, in contrast to land-based nuclear reactors, which useuranium oxide (UO2). These factors provide the naval vessels theoretical infinite range andmission time. For these two considerations, it is, recognized that a nuclear reactor is theideal engine for naval propulsion;

The safety record of the US nuclear navy is excellent which is, attributed to a high level ofstandardization in naval power plants and their maintenance, and the high quality of thenaval training program. While early Soviet endeavours resulted in a number of seriousaccidents, five of those accidents involving the reactors where irreparably damaged andmore resulting in radiation leaks. However, by Russia's third generation of marine

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) in the late 1970s safety and reliability had become a highpriority; and

The Russian, British, and US navies, rely on steam turbine propulsion, the French andChinese in submarines use the turbine to generate electricity for propulsion.

At the end of the Cold War, in 1989, there were over 400 nuclear-powered submarines operationalor being, built. At least 300 of these submarines have now been, scrapped and some on ordercancelled, due to weapons reduction programs. Russia and USA had over one hundred each inservice, with UK and France less than twenty each and China 6.

2. Nuclear Marine Propulsion - Definition:Nuclear marine propulsion is commonly defined as a ship or submarine by an engine driven bysteam generated by nuclear energy in a reactor, rather than combustion of fuel in a boiler. Anuclear-powered ship is, constructed with the nuclear power plant inside a section of the ship inthe reactor compartment. The components of the nuclear power plant include a high-strengthsteel reactor vessel, heat exchanger(s) and steam generator, and associated piping, pumps, andvalves. Each reactor plant contains over 100 tons of lead shielding, part of which is, maderadioactive by contact with radioactive material or by neutron activation of impurities in the lead.The following considered to be, nuclear marine vessels:

a) Nuclear Submarines:

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Anuclear submarine is a submarine powered by a nuclear reactor. Submarines areextremely popular with world navies and this category of vessel type will include thefollowing four general types:

1. Ballistic Missile Nuclear-Powered Submarines (SSBN) - SSBN, the mostpowerful warships afloat, are, operated by only a few of the world's nuclear powers:China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

2. Nuclear-Powered Attack Submarines (SSNs) - SSNs are the most capable general-purpose submarines, but only a few blue-water nations (China, France, Russia, theUnited Kingdom, and the United States) can currently afford to build and operatenuclear submarines. However, Brazil and India have programs in place to develop anindigenous nuclear submarine construction capability.

3. General Purpose Diesel-Electric Submarine (SS) - Diesel-electric submarines arethe most common submarines and are, operated by a large number of the world'snavies.

4. Small Special Purpose Midget Submarines and Swimmer Delivery Vehicles -This would include small midget submarines such as the COSMOS type as well asdry and wet swimmer delivery vehicles.

b)

Nuclear Aircraft Carriers:Anuclear aircraft carrier is a submarine powered by a nuclear reactor. An aircraftcarrier is a warship designed with a primary mission of deploying and recovering aircraft,acting as a seagoing airbase. Aircraft carriers thus allow a naval force to project air powerworldwide without having to depend on local bases for staging aircraft operations. Theyhave evolved from wooden vessels, used to deploy balloons, into nuclear powered warshipsthat carry dozens of fixed and rotary wing aircraft;

c) Nuclear Cruisers:Anuclear cruiser is a submarine powered by a nuclear reactor. A cruiser is the largesttype of surface combatant currently in-service or planned for service in world navies. Acruiser generally displaces over 10,000 tons, and is fully capable of a wide-range of

independent warfare operations in a multi-threat environment; andd) Nuclear Destroyers:

Anuclear destroyer is a submarine powered by a nuclear reactor. A destroyer is smaller,and less capable than a cruiser, but is also capable of operating independently in a high-threat environment. Destroyers have steadily grown in size (now 5,000 to 10,000 tons),expense (nearly US$700 million apiece) and capability. Generally, a destroyer is consideredto be a ship that has all of the sensors (including a sophisticated phased-array radar),combat systems, and weapons needed to operate in a high-threat environment. A numberof world navies are currently building ships that, while called frigates, more accuratelyrepresent destroyers in size and capability. Examples include the Spanish F-100, the

German F-124, and the Dutch De Zeven Provincien classes (all are highly capable shipsdisplacing over 5,000 tons and carrying phased-array radars).

Here is a graphical representation (Figure: 9-1) of a PWR which is commonly used for nuclearmarine propulsions:

According to the World Nuclear Association, navel reactors, with the exception of the ill-fatedRussianAlfa class, have been pressurised water types, which differ from commercial reactorsproducing electricity:

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These reactors deliver alot of power from avery small volume andtherefore run onhighly-enricheduranium (>20 percentU-235, originally c 97

percent but apparentlynow 93 percent in latestUS submarines, c 20-25percent in somewestern vessels, 20percent in the first andsecond generationRussian reactors 1957-81, then 45 percent in3rd generation Russian

units, 40 percent inIndia'sArihant);

The fuel is not UO2 but a uranium-zirconium or uranium-aluminium alloy (c15 percent Uwith 93 percent enrichment, or more U with less - eg 20 percent - U-235) or a metal-ceramic (Kursk: U-Al zoned 20-45 percent enriched, clad in zircaloy, with c 200kg U-235 ineach 200 MW core);

The reactors have long core lives, so that refuelling is needed only after 10 or more years,and new cores are designed to last 50 years in carriers and 30-40 years (over 1.5 millionkilometres) in most submarines;

The design enables a compact pressure vessel while maintaining safety. The Sevmorputpressure vessel for a relatively large marine reactor is 4.6 m high and 1.8 m diameter,

enclosing a core 1 m high and 1.2 m diameter; The thermal efficiency is less than in civil nuclear power plants due to the need for flexible

power output, and space constraints for the steam system; and

There is no soluble boron used in naval reactors (at least US ones).The submarines during World War II, used diesel engines that could be run on the water surface,charging a large bank of electric batteries which, could later be used while the submarine issubmerged, until discharged. At this point, the submarine had to surface to recharge its batteriesand become vulnerable to detection by aircrafts and surface vessels.

The concept of nuclear submarine was, capitalized at the beginning of the 1950s by the bothcountries the US and the Soviet Union - when the Cold War between those countries was atpinnacle. Both the countries were trying technologies to build nuclear powered submarines toovercome the drawbacks of conventional ones. Both the countries knew the strategic value ofusing nuclear reactors to power naval vessels.

Scientists in the both countries, the US and the Soviet Union, were, intensely engaged in exploringthe possibilities of using nuclear engines to power submarines, which could allow longer intervalsof time for refuelling the submarines. They were convinced that a nuclear engine could enable

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submarines to travel long distances undetected at high speed underwater avoiding the surfacewave resistance, without refuelling. Unlike diesel engine driven submarines, the nuclear enginewould not require oxygen to produce its energy.

3. The USA Nuclear Marine Propulsion:The USA Navy contracted out the construction, testing, and operation of a prototype pressurizedwater reactor plant to the Westinghouse Electric Corporation and this first reactor plant was,

called the Submarine Thermal Reactor (STR). The STR was, brought to power for the first time onMarch 30, 1953 and the age of naval propulsion was born.

The STR achieved a 96hours sustained fullpower run simulating acrossing of the AtlanticOcean in 1953. Thesecond SIW coresustained in 1955 a 66

days continuous fullpower simulating ahigh speed run twicearound the globe. TheSTR was, redesigned asthe first generationsubmarine reactor SIW,which was, used as theprototype of the USSNautilus - SSN571(Figure 9-2) reactor

and was, followed inthe middle to late 1950s by the aircraft carrier AIW, the prototype of the aircraft carrier USSEnterprise plant.

Under the leadership of Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, the first nuclear-powered submarine, USSNautilus - CCN-571 (Figure: 9-2) which utilized the STR prototype, started on June 14, 1952, its firstoperation was on December 30, 1954 and it reached full power operation on January 13, 1955. Thismarked the transition of submarines from slow underwater vessels to warships capable ofsustaining 20-25 knots submerged for weeks on end. Much of the early development work onnaval reactors was, done at the Naval Reactor Facility on the campus of the Idaho National

Laboratory in the United States of America.

Nautilus set speed, distance and submergence records for submarine operation that were notpossible with conventional submarines. It was the first ship to reach the North Pole. It was,decommissioned in 1980 after 25 years of service, 2,500 dives, and a travelled distance of 513,000miles. It is, preserved at a museum at Croton, Connecticut.

The nuclear reactor for the Nautilus was a high water moderated, highly enriched in Uranium235

core, with zirconium clad fuel plates. The high fuel enrichment gives the reactor a compact size,and a high reactivity reserve to override the xenon poison dead time. The Nautilus beat numerous

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records, establishingnuclear propulsion asthe ideal driving forcefor the globalsubmarine fleet.Among its feats was thefirst underwater

crossing of the Arcticice cap. It travelled1,400 miles at anaverage speed of 20knots. On a first corewithout refuelling, ittravelled 62,000 miles.

The second nuclearsubmarine of the US

Navy, the USS Seawolf -SSN-575 (Figure: 9-3),had a Sodium-CooledPower Reactor (S2G), which operated for early two years from 1957 to 1958. The intermediate-spectrum reactor raised its incoming coolant temperature over ten times as much as the Nautilus'water cooled plant, providing superheated steam, and it offered an outlet temperature of 454C,compared with the Nautilus 305C. It was highly efficient, but offsetting this, the plant hadserious operational disadvantages. Large electric heaters were required to keep the plant warmwhen the reactor was down to avoid the sodium freezing. The biggest problem was that thesodium became highly radioactive, with a half-life of 15 hours, so that the whole reactor systemhad to be more heavily, shielded than a Water-Cooled Reactor, and the reactor compartment

could not be entered for many days after shutdown. The reactor was, replaced with a PWR type(S2Wa) similar toNautilus.

USS Enterprise, CVN-65(Figure: 9-4) is the worlds firstnuclear powered aircraftcarrier. The only ship of herclass, Enterprise, is thesecond-oldest vessel incommission in the US Navy,

after the wooden-hulled,three-masted frigate USSConstitution.

The largest experience inoperating nuclear power sincethe 1950s has been in nuclearmarine propulsion,particularly aircraft carriersand submarines. The nuclear

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powered vessels comprise about 40 percent of the USA Navys combatant fleet, including theentire sea based strategic nuclear deterrent. All the USA Navys operational submarines and overhalf of its aircraft carriers are nuclear powered.

By 1962 the US Navy had 26 nuclear submarines operational and 30 under construction. Nuclearpower had revolutionized the Navy. The technology was, shared with the United Kingdom, whileFrench, Russian, Indian, and Chinese developments proceeded separately.

As of 2001, about 235 naval reactors had been, built a unit cost of about $100 million for asubmarine and $200 for an aircraft carrier. By 2002, the USA Navy operated 53 attack submarines(SSN) and 18 ballistic missile submarines (SSBN). These used by 1999 about 129 nuclear reactorsexceeding the number of commercial power plants at 108.

The USA has the main navy with nuclear-powered aircraft carriers, while both the USA andRussia - have had nuclear-powered cruisers (USA: 9, Russia 4). The USA had built 219 nuclear-powered vessels to mid 2010, and then had five submarines and an aircraft carrier underconstruction. All US aircraft carriers and submarines are nuclear-powered;

All the USA Navy as of 2008 operated 99 vessels powered by nuclear reactors including 10 nuclearpowered aircraft carriers and 71 submarines. The US Navy has accumulated over 6200 reactor-years of accident-free experience over the course of 230 million kilometres, and operated 82nuclear-powered ships (11 aircraft carriers, 71 submarines - 18 SSBN/SSGN, 53 SSN) with 103reactors as of March 2010.

4. The RussianNuclear MarinePropulsions:

The Soviet Union started itsnuclear submarine program inthe 1950s, too. Its researchwork was, conducted atInstitute of Physics and PowerEngineering at Obninsk. Theybegan testing their models in1956 and finally after manyobstacles like radiation leaksand steam generationproblems, their first nuclear

powered submarine enteredservice in Soviet Navy on 1958.

Russia built 248 nuclear submarines and five naval surface vessels (plus nine icebreakers) poweredby 468 reactors between 1950 and 2003, and was then operating about 60 nuclear naval vessels. In2007, Russia had about 40 retired subs from its Pacific fleet alone waiting scrapping. In November2008, it was, reported that Russia intended to scrap all decommissioned nuclear submarines by2012, the total being more than 200 of the 250 built to date. Most Northern Fleet submarines hadbeen dismantled at Severodvinsk and most remaining to be, scrapped, were with the Pacific Fleet.

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/radiation/http://www.buzzle.com/articles/radiation/

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The largest submarines (Figure: 9-5) are the 26,500 tonne Russian Typhoon-Class, powered bytwin 190 MWt PWR reactors, though the 24,000 t Oscar-II class (eg Kursk) with the same powerplant superseded these.

The Russian Navy has logged over 6000 nautical reactor-years. It appears to have eight strategicsubmarines (SSBN/SSGN) in operation and 13 nuclear-powered attack submarines (SSN), plus

some diesel subs. Russia has announced that it will build eight new nuclear SSBN submarines inits plan to 2015. Its only nuclear-powered carrier project was, cancelled in 1992. It has one nuclearpowered cruiser in operation and three others being, overhauled.

The Russian ALFA-Class submarines(Figure:9-6) had asingle liquid metalcooled reactor (LMR)of 155 MWt and using

very highly enricheduranium 90 percentenriched U-Be fuel.These were very fast,but had operationalproblems in ensuringthat the lead-bismuthcoolant did not freezewhen the reactor was,shut down. The designwas unsuccessful and

used in only eighttrouble-plaguedvessels.

The ALFA-Class submarine was the fasted submarine in service in any navy. It was, a deep divingtitanium submarine a submerged speed estimated to be over 40 knots. The titanium hullprovided strength for deep diving. It also offered a reduced weight advantage leading to higherpower to weight ratios resulting in higher acceleration. The higher speed could also be, related tosome unique propulsion system. The high speeds of Russian attack submarines were, meant tocounter the advanced propeller cavitation and pump vibration reduction technologies in the USA

designs, providing them with silent and stealth hiding and manoeuvring.

The ALFA-Class of Russian submarines used an alloy of Pb-Bi-45-50 percent by weight cooled fastreactors. The melting point of this alloy is 2570F. They faced problems of corrosion of the reactorcomponents, melting point, pump power, polonium activity and problems in fuel unloading. Thisclass of submarines has been decommissioned.

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The nuclear Russian navy also reached its peak at the same time as the USA navy. The first of theTYPHOON class (Figure: 9/7)25,000 ton, strategic ballisticmissile submarines was,launched in 1980 from theSeverodvinsk Shipyard in theWhite Sea. In the same year,

the first OSCAR class guidedmissile was, launched. It iscapable of firing 24 long-rangeantiship cruise missile whileremaining submerged. Fiveshipyards produced sevendifferent classes ofsubmarines.

The Delta class is nuclear-

powered with two VM-4 PWRrated at 180 MWth. There are,two-turbine type GT3A-365 rated at 27.5 WW. The propulsion system drives two shafts withseven-bladed fixed-pitch propellers.

The Russian navy has conducted research and experimentations on new types of propulsionconcepts. It recognized, for instance, the advantage of gas turbine for naval propulsion, anddramatically shifted toward it. Gas turbines offer low weight and volume in addition tooperational flexibility, reduced manning levels, and case of maintenance. Even though gasturbines have been, used instead of the Rankine Steam Cycle on the nuclear powered ships, theyhave built fast reactors, and studied the use of less reactive lead and lead-bismuth alloys instead of

sodium cooling in them. They may also have considered new propulsion concepts such asdissociating gases and magneto hydrodynamic propulsion.

The nuclear powered ECHO II and I can fire fight antiship weapons cruise missiles whileremaining submerged at a range of up to 100 kilometers from the intended target. These cruisesubmarines also carry ASW and antiship torpedoes.

Long-term integrity of the compact reactor pressure vessel is, maintained by providing an internalneutron shield. (This is in contrast to early Soviet civil PWR designs where embitterment occursdue to neutron bombardment of a very narrow pressure vessel.)

5. Other Nuclear Marine Propulsions:France has a nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, the Charles de Gaulle (Figure: 9-8) and ten nuclearsubmarines (4 SSBN, 6 Rubis class SSN).

The smallest nuclear submarines are the French Rubis-class attack subs, 2600 dwt in service since1983, and these have a 48 MW integrated PWR reactor from Technicatome which is variouslyreported as needing no refuelling for 30 years, or requiring refuelling every seven years. TheFrench aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (38,000 dwt), commissioned in 2000, has two K15

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integrated PWR units driving 61 MW Alstom turbines and the system can provide 5 years runningat 25 knots before refuelling.

The Le Triomphant class ofballistic missile submarines(12,640 dwt - the lastlaunched in 2008) uses this

K15 naval PWR of 150 MWtand 32 shafts MW. TheBarracuda class (4765 dwt)attack submarines will havehybrid propulsion: Electricfor normal use and pump-jetfor higher speeds. Areva TA(formerly Technicatome), willprovide six reactorsapparently of only 50 MWt

and based on the K15 for theBarracuda submarines, thefirst to be, commissioned in2017.

The UK has 12 submarines all nuclear-powered (4 SSBN, 8 SSN). The Vanguard Class SSBN, ShipSubmersible Ballistic Nuclear (Figure: 9-9) provides the United Kingdom's strategic nucleardeterrent. The first Vanguard class submarine was, launched in 1993 carrying Trident II D5missiles and is now the cornerstone of the British Defence policy, and significantly contributes tothe Alliance's deterrent forces.

Ballistic missile-submarinesmust at all times, have arobust and reliable link withtheir chain of command onthe mainland. Acomprehensive network ofcommunications installationsconnects Britain's nuclear fleetwith the Commander-in Chiefat Northwood, the Secretary of

State for Defence in Londonand the Prime Minister inorder to authorize the use ofnuclear weapons and keepthem under firm politicalcontrol.

The Royal Navy's Astute Class submarine (Figure: 9-10) is a nuclear-powered attack submarinethat is to replace the five Swiftsure Class submarines, launched between 1973 and 1977 and

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approaching the end of their operational life. In May 2007, the UK MOD awarded BAE Systems acontract to build a fourth Astute Class submarine, HMS Audacious (S122), to enter service in 2013.

In October 2007, Astute madeher first dive, for anunderwater test of systems, atthe 'divewhole in Devonshire

Dock, Barrow. Also inOctober, the vesselsuccessfully carried out firstfiring trials from its torpedotubes.

The Astute combatmanagement system (ACMS)is being, supplied by BAESystems Insyte (formerly

Alenia Marconi Systems). It isa development of theSubmarine Command System(SMCS), currently in service in all classes of UK submarines. ACMS receives data from the sonarsand other sensors and, through advanced algorithms and data handling, displays real-time imageson the command consoles. Factory acceptance of the operational software was, received from theAstute Prime Contract Office in July 2002.

China is, understood to have about ten nuclear submarines (possibly 3 SSBN, 7 SSN), similar to theBritish SSBN and SSN.

Chinas naval fleet as of 2008 had five nuclear powered fast attack submarines and one ballisticmissiles submarine carrying 12-16 nuclear tipped missiles with arrange of 3,500 km. This is inaddition to 30 diesel electric submarines with 20 other submarines under construction.

The Chinese submarine fleet is, expected to exceed the number of USAs Seventh Fleet Ships inthe Pacific Ocean by 2020 with the historic patience and ambition to pursue a long-term strategyof eventually matching and then surpassing the USAs dominance of the sea.

India launched its first submarine in 2009, the 6000 dwtArihant SSBN, with a single 85 MW PWRdriving a 70 MW steam turbine. It is, reported to have cost US$ 2.9 billion, and several more are,

planned. India is also leasing an almost-new 7900 dwt (12,770 tonne submerged) RussianAkula-IIclass nuclear attack submarine for ten years from 2010, at a cost of US$ 650 million: the Chakra,formerlyNerpa. It has a single 190 MWt VM-5/ OK-650 PWR driving a 32 MW steam turbine andtwo two MWe turbo-generators.

Brazil's navy is proposing to build an 11 MW prototype reactor by 2014 to operate for about eightyears, with a view to a full-sized version using low-enriched uranium being in a submarine to be,launched in 2021.

6. Economy of Nuclear Marine Propulsions:

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maritime applications for small modular reactors. The research is intended to produce a concepttanker-ship design," based on a 70 MWt reactor such as Hyperion's.

Hyperion has a three-year contract with the other parties in the consortium, which plans to havethe tanker design certified in as many countries as possible. The project includes research on acomprehensive regulatory framework led by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), andsupported by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and regulators in countries

involved. In response to its members' interest in nuclear propulsion Lloyd's Register has recentlyrewritten its 'rules' for nuclear ships, which concern the integration of a reactor certified by a land-based regulator with the rest of the ship. Nuclear ships are currently the responsibility of theirown countries, but none involved in international trade. Lloyds expects to "see nuclear ships onspecific trade routes sooner than many people currently anticipate."

8. Future Submarine Force Virginia Class:The Virginia Class of submarines (Figure: 9-12) represents the future nuclear navy force in theUSA.

The USA Navy plans on developing, the Virginia Class into a full modular, all electric submarinesthat will accommodate large modules to provide interfaces for future payloads and sensors. It is a30 ships class replacing the Los Angeles Class SSNs possessing the stealth of the Seawolf Class ofsubmarines but a 30 percent lower total cost. It has mission reconfigurable modules capabilities.It is equipped with Unmanned Undersea Vehicles (UUVs) and improved, sensors andcommunication systems. It is, characterized with improved habitability, and is equipped withadvanced strike millions and deployable-networked sensors.

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The main propulsion units are the ninth generation GE PWR S9G, designed to last as long as thesubmarine, two turbine engines with one shaft and a United Defence pump jet propulser,providing 29.84 MW. Thespeed is 25+ knots dived.

The principal features of S9Gnuclear marine propulsion

include:1. An all electric ship;2. Enhanced stealth;3. Modular isolated decks;4. Open system

architecture;5. Modular Masts;6. Structurally integrated

enclosures;7. Mission reconfigurable

torpedo room;8. Enhanced specialwarfare capabilities;and

9. Enhanced Littoral performance.It is, designed for mine avoidance, special operations forces delivery and recovery. It uses non-acoustic sensors, advanced tactical communications and non-acoustic stealth. In the future, it willbe equipped with conformal sonar arrays. Conformal sonar arrays seek to provide an optimallysensor coated submarine with improved stealth at a lower total ownership cost. New technologycalled Conformal Acoustic Velocity sonar (CAVES) will replace the existing Wide Aperture Array

technology and will be implemented starting in early units of the Virginia Class.

High Frequency Sonar will play more important role in the future submarine missions asoperations in the littorals require detailed information about the undersea environment tosupport missions requiring high quality bathymetry, precision navigation, mine detection or iceavoidance. Advanced High Frequency Sonar systems are under development and testing that willprovide submarines unparalleled information about the undersea environment. This technologywill be, expanded to allow Conformal Sonar Arrays on other parts of the ship that will create newopportunities for use of bow and sail structure volumes while improving sonar sensorperformance.

The next chapter will cover Nuclear Civil Vessels.

Further Reading:1. Chapter08: Generation IV Advanced Nuclear Reactors:http://intuitech.biz/?p=95792. Chapter07: Generation III Advanced Nuclear Reactors Part 2:

http://intuitech.biz/?p=9432&preview=true3. Chapter06: Generation III Advanced Nuclear Reactors Part 1:http://intuitech.biz/?p=80134. Chapter05: Small Nuclear Power Reactors:http://intuitech.biz/?p=7856

http://intuitech.biz/?p=9579http://intuitech.biz/?p=9579http://intuitech.biz/?p=9579http://intuitech.biz/?p=9432&preview=truehttp://intuitech.biz/?p=9432&preview=truehttp://intuitech.biz/?p=8013http://intuitech.biz/?p=8013http://intuitech.biz/?p=8013http://intuitech.biz/?p=7856http://intuitech.biz/?p=7856http://intuitech.biz/?p=7856http://intuitech.biz/?p=7856http://intuitech.biz/?p=8013http://intuitech.biz/?p=9432&preview=truehttp://intuitech.biz/?p=9579

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5. Chapter04: The Conventional Nuclear Power Reactors:http://intuitech.biz/?p=78406. Chapter03: Research Nuclear Reactors:http://intuitech.biz/?p=78287. Chapter02: Nuclear Power Reactors Components:http://intuitech.biz/?p=78038. Chapter01: Atoms for Peace Nuclear Energy:http://intuitech.biz/?p=7788

Sources:1. Nuclear-Powered Ships:http://www.world-

nuclear.org/info/default.aspx?id=550&terms=nuclear-powered%20ships2. Definitions of vessel types:http://www.amiinter.com/vessel_type.html#destroyers3. World Lingo:http://www.worldlingo.com/ma/enwiki/en/Nuclear_marine_propulsion#History4. Nuclear Marine Propulsion:

https://netfiles.uiuc.edu/mragheb/www/NPRE%20402%20ME%20405%20Nuclear%20Power%20Engineering/Nuclear%20Marine%20Propulsion.pdf

5. Ballistic Submarines (SSBN):http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/operations-and-support/submarine-service/ballistic-submarines-ssbn/index.htm

6.

SSN Astute Class Submarine, UK:http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/astute/

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