Chapter7 Social Process Theory

8/13/2019 Chapter7 Social Process Theory

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Chapter 7

Social Process Theor ies


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Socialization and Crime

Social process theories suggest criminality is a function of

socialization Any person regardless of race, class or gender can become

criminal

Elements of family, peer group, school, and church contribute to

socialization processes


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Family Relations

Family plays a critical role in the determinant of behavior

Parental efficacy refers to supportive parents who effectively

control their children

Links between inconsistent discipline and delinquency


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Weblink

www.childpolicy.org
http://www.childpolicy.org/http://www.childpolicy.org/


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Educational Experience

Children who fail in school offend more frequently than those whosucceed

Schools contribute to delinquency by labeling students

School dropouts have a significant chance of entering a criminal

career 2003 national survey estimates about 1.5 million violent incidents

occur in public schools each year


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Peer Relations

Children seek out peer groups between the ages of 8 and 14

Peer Rejection: Children rejected by peers are more likely to

display aggressive behavior

Pro-social friends may inhibit criminality

Peers and Criminality: Antisocial peer groups increase thelikelihood of delinquency

Mark Warr suggests delinquent friends tend to be sticky

meaning they are not easily lost once they are acquired


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Institutional Involvement and Belief

Religion binds people together

Travis Hirschi and Rodney Stark found the association between

religion attendance, belief, and delinquency is insignificant

Recent research contends that attending religious services is a

significant inhibitor of crime


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The Effects of Socialization on Crime

Social learning theory suggests people learn techniques of crimesfrom criminal peers

Social control theory contends people are controlled by their

bonds to society

Social reaction theory argues that society contributes to

criminality through the use of labels


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Figure 7.1 The Social Processes that Control Human Behavior


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Social Learning Theory

Crime is a product of learning norms, values, and behaviors

associated with criminal activity Differential Association: Edwin H. Sutherlands view that

criminality is a function of the socialization process


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Differential Association Theory

Differential Association: Edwin H. Sutherlands view thatcriminality is a function of the socialization process

Criminal behavior is learned

Learning is a by-product of interacting with others

Learning criminal behavior occurs within intimate personalgroups

Learning criminal behavior involves assimilating the

techniques of committing crime, including motives, drives,

rationalizations, and attitudes

The specific direction is learned from perceptions of variousaspects of the legal code as favorable or unfavorable


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A person becomes criminal when perceiving the consequences of

violating the law as favorable Differential associations vary in frequency, duration, priority, and

intensity

The process of learning criminal behavior involves the same

mechanisms as any other learning process

Criminal behavior and noncriminal behavior express the same

needs and values


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Figure 7.2 Differential Associations


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Testing Differential Association Theory

Difficult to conceptualize and test empirically

Research does support the core principles such as links to family,

and peers with criminality


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Analysis of Differential Association Theory

Fails to account for the origin of criminal definitions

Assumes criminal and delinquent acts to be rational and

systematic

Some suggest the theory is tautological


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Differential Reinforcement Theory

Ronald Akers suggests direct conditioning occurs whenbehavior is reinforced by rewards or punishment

People evaluate their own behavior through their interactions with

significant others and groups in their lives

Once people are indoctrinated into crime, their behavior can be

reinforced through peers and the lack of negative sanctions


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Testing Differential Reinforcement

Studies have suggested a strong association between drug andalcohol abuse and social learning variables

Deviant behavior is reinforced over time (I.E. smoking)

Parents may supply negative reinforcements to childrens deviant

behavior


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Neutralization Theory

David Matza and Gresham Sykes view criminality as a processlearning neutralizing techniques

Subterranean values are morally tinged influences

Drift occurs from conventional behavior to criminal behavior if one

can neutralize their sense of responsibility for antisocial behavior


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Figure 7.3 Techniques of Neutralization


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Testing Neutralization Theory

Empirical test results are inconclusive Not all criminal offenders approve of social values such as

honesty and fairness

As Matza predicted, people do seem to drift in and out of

antisocial behavior


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Are Learning Theories Valid?

Learning theories fail to explain how the first criminal learned thenecessary techniques and definitions of crime

Fails to account for spontaneous crime or expressive crimes

Learning of some criminality frequently occurs after one has

committed the first criminal act


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Social Control Theory

All people have potential to violate the law

Self-control refers to a strong moral sense that renders a personincapable of hurting others or violating social norms

Walter Reckless argued a strong self-image insulates a person

from the criminogenic influences of the environment

Howard Kaplan suggests youths with poor self-concepts are more

likely to engage in delinquent behavior (normative groups)


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Hirschis Social Bond Theory (social control theory)

Travis Hirschi links the onset of criminality to the weakening ofthe ties than bind people to society ( social bonds)

Attachment (sensitivity to and interest in others)

Commitment (time, energy, and effort into conventional

activities)

Involvement (insulates people from the lure of crime)

Belief (moral respect for law and social values)


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Figure 7.4 Elements of Social Bond Theory


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Testing Social Control Theory

Empirical studies revealed a strong support for Hirschis controltheory

Youths strongly attached to parents were less likely to commitcriminal acts

Youths involved in conventional activities were less likely to

engage in criminal behavior Youths involved in unconventional behaviors such as drinking

and smoking were more prone to delinquency

Youths who maintained weak relationships with others movedtoward delinquency

Those who shunned unconventional acts were attached topeers

Delinquents and nondelinquents shar similar beliefs aboutsociety

Recent research shows attachments to peers, school and family

may be interrelated


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Opposing Views

Friendship: A criticism of Hirschis theory is the notion thatdelinquents are detached loners

Not all elements of the bond are equal: Some people are very

involved and not attached

Deviant peers and parents: Some people are very attached to

deviant peers

Restricted in scope: May not explain all modes of criminality

Change bonds: Bonds seem to change over time

Crime and social bonds: Direction of association might be

miscalculated in the wrong direction


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Social Reaction Theory (Labeling Theory)

Explains criminal careers in terms of destructive social interactions

and stigma-producing encounters (symbolic interaction theory) People are given a variety of symbolic labels that define the

whole person

Negative labels stigmatize and reduce ones self-image

Social groups create definitions of positive and negative labels

Labels may actually maintain and amplify criminal behavior


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Crime and Labeling Theory

Crime and deviance are defined by the social audience Howard Becker described those making the rules as moral

entrepreneurs

Social groups create deviance by labeling particular people as

outsiders


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Figure 7.5 The Labeling Process


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Differential Enforcement

Those with social power penalize the powerless Content of law reflects power relationships

Street crimes punished more severely than white-collar crimes


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Consequences of Labeling

Labels produce stigma Condemnation is carried out in ceremonies such as trials and

media attention (degradation ceremonies)

Differential social control: Self-labeling involves one taking on the

attitudes and roles reflected in how a person views the way

others see them

Joining deviant cliques: Some labeled people may join cliques

and other outcast peers

Retrospective reading: refers to the reassessment of a persons

past to fit a current generalized label or status Dramatization of evil: Labels become a personal identity


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Primary and Secondary Deviance

Edwin Lemert defined a norm violation with little or no long-terminfluence as primary deviance

Secondary deviance refers to a norm violation that results in

application of a negative label with long-term consequences

The process whereby secondary deviance pushes offenders out

of the mainstream of society is referred to as deviance

amplification


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Figure 7.6 Primary and Secondary Deviance


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Research on Social Reaction Theory

Evidence supports the targets of labeling (poor and powerless)are victimized by the law and justice system

Contextual discrimination: refers to judges imposing harsher

sentences on minorities

Empirical evidence supports that negative labels influence self-

image

Cumulative disadvantage: Provokes repeat behaviors


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Is Labeling Theory Valid?

Inability to specify the conditions the must exist before an act orindividual is labeled

Failure to explain differences in crime rates

Ignores the onset of deviant behavior

Charles Tittle suggests criminal careers occur without labeling


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Evaluating Social Process Theories

The branches of social process theory-social learning-socialcontrol and social reaction are compatible

Interactions of social institutions, family, schools, peers, and the

justice system are important in creating and inhibiting criminal

behavior

Social process theories are not persuasive in explaining

fluctuations in crime patterns


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Public Policy Implications of Social Process Theory

Learning theories have greatly influenced the way criminal offenders

are treated Residential treatment programs utilize group interaction to

promote conventional behavior

Head Start is a well-known program designed to help lower-class

youths achieve proper socialization

Diversion programs are concerned with avoiding the stigma of a

criminal label

Restitution programs permit an offender to repay the victim rather

than face the stigma of a formal trial and court-ordered sentence

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Chapter7 Social Process Theory