Chapter05 11/05/2004 8:49 AM Page 100 Canada and World … › uploads › 8 › 1 › 5 › 8 › 81582952 › chapter05.pdfThe World at War 1939 September 1: Germany invades Poland

100 Unit I ■ Canada in the Twentieth Century

Maintenance Jobs in the Hangar by ParaskevaClark. Once the Canadian government declared war onGermany, it committed the country to “total war,” with allCanadians and sectors of the economy contributing to thewar effort. Paraskeva Clark (1898–1986) was a feministwhose paintings conveyed a strong social message.

Expressing ideas How does this painting illustrateCanada’s commitment to total war? What othermessage(s) does it convey?

Canada and World War II

FOCUS ON

• Why did Canada take partin World War II?

• What effect did the warhave on Canada’seconomy?

• What were the maincampaigns in World War II?

• What role did Canadianarmed forces play in thewar?

• How did the war changeCanadians’ perception ofthemselves?

Counterpoints Issue

• Is the use of weapons ofmass destruction everjustified?

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Chapter 5 ■ Canada and World War II 101

IntroductionOn the clear, balmy Sunday of Labour Day week-end in 1939, Mary Peate was walking home fromchurch. There were rumours of war, but theMontreal neighbourhood where she lived hadnever looked more peaceful. At home, she joinedher family for lunch in the dining room. Everyoneate half-heartedly while listening to a special radiobroadcast from London, England. King GeorgeVI was speaking:

For the second time in the lives of most of us, weare at war. Over and over again, we have tried tofind a peaceful way out of the differences betweenourselves and those who are now our enemies;but it has been in vain.

We have been forced into a conflict, for weare called, with our allies, to meet the challenge ofa principle which, if it were to prevail, would befatal to any civilized order in the world.

Once again, the world was on the brink ofwar. What would war mean to Mary and her fam-ily? How would Canadians respond to the mes-sage issued by the King? In this chapter, you willlearn about the events of World War II and thecontributions made by hundreds of thousands ofCanadians during its course.

Canada Declares WarIn 1938, British Prime Minister NevilleChamberlain optimistically announced to theworld that he had managed to secure “peace forour time” with the Munich Agreement. This agree-ment let Hitler take over part of Czechoslovakia onthe promise that he would cease his aggression. InMarch 1939, however, Hitler ignored the termsof the agreement, and his troops marched throughthe rest of Czechoslovakia. War seemed inevitable.

In May, Britain’s King George VI and QueenElizabeth visited Canada, the first time a reign-ing monarch had ever visited this country. Thepurpose of their visit was to rally support forBritain in these tense times. Crowds of cheeringCanadians did just that, lining the streets whereverthe royal couple appeared across the country.When the King and Queen left Halifax on June15, they could be satisfied that the bonds offriendship between Canada and the former“mother country” remained very strong.

But Prime Minister Mackenzie King did notwant Canada to become involved in another worldconflict. He had desperately hoped that Britain’spolicy of appeasement towards Hitler would besuccessful. The scars of World War I, fought lessthan twenty-five years earlier, were still fresh for

Figure 5-1 King George VIand Queen Elizabeth ontheir visit to Canada in May1939.

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The World at War

1939

September 1: Germany invades Poland.

September 3: Britain and France declare war onGermany.

September 10: Canada declares war on Germany.

1940

April: Germany invades Denmark and Norway.

May: Germany invades Netherlands, Belgium,Luxembourg, and France.

May–June: Evacuation of Dunkirk.

June: National Resource Mobilization Act allowsconscription of Canadians for home defence.

June 22: France surrenders to Hitler.

July: German air force begins bombing Britain(“the Battle of Britain”).

1940–1944

Battle of the Atlantic is fought.

1941

June 22: Germany invades USSR.

December 7: Japan bombs Pearl Harbour.

December 8: United States declares war on Japan.

December 25: Canadian soldiers defeated in Japan’sinvasion of Hong Kong.

1942

February: Japanese-Canadians sent to internmentcamps.

April: Canadians vote in plebiscite to supportconscription.

August: Raid on French port of Dieppe by Canadianand other Allied forces.

1943–1945

Allies bomb German cities.

1943

July: Canadian troops participate in invasion ofSicily and mainland Italy.

December: Canadians win Battle of Ortona, Italy.

1944

June 6: D-Day; Canadian troops join British andAmericans in Allied invasion of Normandy innorthern France.

1945

Spring: Canadian troops help liberate theNetherlands from German military control.

May 7: Germany surrenders.

August 6: United States drops atomic bomb onHiroshima.

August 9: United States drops atomic bomb onNagasaki.

August 15: Japan surrenders.


Figure 5-2 Canadiannurses arrive at thebeachhead inNormandy, July 1944,shortly after the Alliedinvasion. Thesewomen worked undervery difficultcircumstances, closeto the fighting.

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many Canadians. That war had deeply dividedCanada on the issue of conscription. King knewthat if he imposed conscription in this war, heand the Liberal Party would lose support inQuebec. Besides, Canada was just starting tocome out of the dark years of the Depression. Theeconomy was slowly improving, and King didn’twant the country plunged back into debt.

But on September 1, Germany invadedPoland. Two days later, Britain and France de-clared war on Germany. In World War I, whenBritain declared war on Germany, Canada wasautomatically at war with Germany, as well. Now,Canada was an independent country, and had todecide for itself whether it would go to war again.King knew that once Britain become involved insuch a major conflict, Canada would not standby idly. Still, it was important that the decision tojoin the war be a Canadian one, decided byCanada’s Parliament.

On September 8, Prime Minister King calleda special session of Parliament to decide Canada’sresponse. King gave a strong speech in favour ofdeclaring war. His minister of justice, ErnestLapointe from Quebec, also spoke in favour ofthe war, which helped convince Quebec votersthat Canada’s involvement in the war was neces-sary. But Lapointe spoke bluntly about what con-scription would do to Liberal supporters in

Quebec. “I am authorized by my colleagues in thecabinet from Quebec,” he informed Parliament,“to say that we will never agree to conscriptionand will never be members or supporters of a gov-ernment that will try to enforce it.”

King assured Parliament, and Quebec, that“So long as this government may be in power, nosuch measure [conscription] shall be enacted.”King’s position on joining the war was supportedby the opposition Conservative Party. Only J.S.Woodsworth, leader of the CommonwealthCooperative Federation (CCF), argued againstgoing to war. On September 10, Canada declaredwar on Germany.

Mobilizing Canada’s ResourcesDespite its willingness to join the war, Canadawas not prepared for it in 1939. Army, air force,and navy troops were small in number, and mostof Canada’s equipment was outdated and unfitfor combat. For example, the army had only 4500troops, a few dozen anti-tank guns, sixteen tanks,and no modern artillery. The air force and the navyalso had outdated equipment and only a smallnumber of recruits.

Unlike World War I, there were no crowdscheering on the streets when Canada declaredwar on Germany. Many Canadians remembered

Figure 5-3 Germantroops surrender toCanadian soldiers inFrance, 1944.

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only too well the suffering and horrors of the lastworld conflict, and they were unwilling to be-come involved in another. Still, Canada had notrouble finding volunteers. In September alone,over 58 330 people volunteered for service. Asin World War I, Aboriginal people volunteered ata higher percentage of their population than anyother group in Canada. Among them was ThomasPrince, who was to become one of Canada’s mostdecorated soldiers. The Canadian army initially re-jected African-Canadian volunteers because ofracist attitudes towards people of non-Europeanorigin. As the war continued, however, African-Canadians were accepted into the regular armyand the officer corps.

After years of the Depression, some Canadianswere attracted by the private’s pay of $1.30 a dayplus sixty dollars a month for a dependent spouseand thirty dollars a month for each child. Yet many

still felt strong ties with Britain and volunteeredfrom a sense of duty. Others came forward froma sense of new-found national pride. The firstCanadian troops sailed from Halifax on December10, 1939.

The British Commonwealth AirTraining PlanIn the early months of the war, Mackenzie Kinghoped Canada’s contribution to the war effortwould remain, as much as possible, at home. Thisway, the issue of conscription could be avoided.The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan(BCATP) seemed to offer Canada this possibil-ity. In December 1939, Canada agreed to hostand administer a training plan in which Britishinstructors would train pilots and other flight per-sonnel from all over the Commonwealth inCanada. Canada’s open skies, its climate, and itsdistance from enemy aircraft made it an idealtraining location. Air fields were built on thePrairies and in other locations near small townsand villages, and old aircraft were refitted and re-turned to service. The program was a majorCanadian contribution to the war effort. TheBCATP trained over 130 000 pilots, navigators,flight engineers, and ground staff. The total costwas over $2.2 billion, of which Canada paid over70 per cent. Contrary to King’s hopes, however,Canada’s role in the war would go much beyond itsinvolvement in the BCATP.

Total WarWith the declaration of war, the Canadian gov-ernment immediately became much more involvedin the planning and control of the economy. InApril 1940, the government established theDepartment of Munitions and Supplies, and Kingappointed C.D. Howe as its minister. Howe wasgiven extraordinary authority to do whatever ittook to gear up the economy to meet wartime de-mands. He told industries what to produce andhow to produce it. In his direct, impatient manner,he convinced business leaders to manufacturegoods they had never made before. SoonVancouver was building ships for the navy,

Figure 5-4 Troops departing from Winnipeg.

Using evidence From this photograph, how do youthink most Canadians felt about going to war?Consider the feelings of those who were stayinghome, as well as those who were going to fight.

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Montreal was constructing new planes andbombers such as the Lancaster, and Canada’s carindustries were producing military vehicles andtanks. Munitions factories opened in Ontario andQuebec. If the private sector was unable to pro-duce what Howe wanted, he created Crown cor-porations to do the job. Even farmers were toldto produce more wheat, beef, dairy products, andother foods. Under Howe’s leadership, the gov-ernment ran telephone companies, refined fuel,stockpiled silk for parachutes, mined uranium,and controlled food production. This was the pol-icy of total war, with Canadians willing to do what-ever it took to defeat the enemy.

A C T I V I T I E S

1. What assurance did Mackenzie King give Canadiansduring the debate on Canada’s involvement in thewar? Why did he do this?

2. What was the British Commonwealth Air TrainingPlan? Why was Canada chosen to host it? Why didMackenzie King support the plan?

3. Compare Canadians’ reaction to the announcementof World War I with that of World War II. Why didmany people volunteer?

4. How did Canada’s policy of total war change theeconomy? Why was the policy necessary?

Figure 5-5 Studentpilots and instructorswait to board their TigerMoths at an OshawaBCATP training school.

Gathering information

From this photograph,what can you tell aboutthe following: the scaleof the BCATP; the aircraftused; training methods?

Figure 5-6 A poster issued by the Vancouver Board ofTrade. It was meant to show workers in the lumberindustry how they were contributing to the war effortby supplying lumber to Britain.

Expressing ideas How would this poster encouragethe policy of total war?

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The War in Europe With the declaration of war, the Allies (Britain,France, Commonwealth countries includingCanada, Australia, and New Zealand) raced to gettheir forces organized and prepared for battle. Thealliance of Germany, Italy (1939), and Japan(1940) became known as the Axis. Allied troopswere quickly stationed along France’s border withGermany, where they waited for Germany’s nextmove—but for seven months, nothing happened.This period became known as the “phoney war,”and many people started to believe there mightnot be a war.

These illusions were shattered, however, whenGermany renewed its blitzkrieg (“lightening war”),attacking Denmark and Norway in April 1940.The blitzkrieg was a powerful and extremely suc-cessful war tactic: in surprise attacks and withlightening speed, German panzers (tanks) wouldcrash through enemy lines, driving forward as faras they could. At the same time, war planes wouldroar through the skies, constantly bombing theenemy below. German soldiers would also para-chute into enemy territory, destroying vital com-munication and transportation links. The attackswere swift and thorough, and left the defendingarmy confused and, eventually, surrounded.

Evacuation at DunkirkIt took Germany just hours to conquer Denmarkand only two months to subdue Norway. Then,on May 10, the German Wehrmacht (armedforces) began its invasion of the Netherlands. TheGerman forces moved quickly through Belgium,and finally into France. Within days of arriving inFrance, German panzers had reached the EnglishChannel. The Allied forces were soon surroundedin the French port of Dunkirk. They had to es-cape before the Germans captured the town. Theydecided to try an evacuation by sea. On learningof the Allied plan, the British navy rounded upevery boat capable of navigating the EnglishChannel. Hundreds of fishing boats, pleasurecrafts, and ferries joined naval and merchant shipsas they headed across the Channel for the beachesof Dunkirk. The evacuation began on May 26.

Two days later, the German Luftwaffe (air force)bombed the port of Dunkirk, making the escapeby the Allies even more difficult, but the evacua-tion continued. On June 4, the evacuation wasfinally completed. It had been a dramatic rescue.Nearly 340 000 Allied soldiers, thousands morethan originally anticipated, were brought to safetyin Britain.

The German army continued its sweepthrough France. The French army was no matchfor the powerful German troops, and on June 22,1940, France surrendered. Britain and theCommonwealth now stood alone againstGermany.

The Battle of BritainHitler’s next goal was “Operation Sea Lion,” the in-vasion of Britain. First, however, Germany plannedto destroy Britain’s air power. On July 10, 1940,the German Luftwaffe started a massive bombingcampaign, aimed at destroying harbours and ship-ping facilities in southern England. In August, thebombing raids targeted air fields and aircraft fac-

Figure 5-7 The Allies’ evacuation at Dunkirk.

Thinking critically Why were the Allies forced toretreat to Dunkirk? What was their only chance ofescape?

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STRAITS OF DOVER

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tories. By September, the German strategy shiftedto bombing civilian targets, and for fifty-five con-secutive nights, German planes bombed Londonand other cities, terrifying and killing civilians anddestroying buildings and streets. These raids be-came known as “the Blitz.” The Germans hadmore fighter aircraft than the British but, evenafter months of bombing, they were unable to de-feat the British air force. One reason was that theBritish had a very sophisticated radar system thatgave them early warnings of German air raids.The British also used Spitfires and Hurricanes,two fighter planes that, although limited in num-ber, were extremely effective defence planes. Andthe British pilots were not alone. They were joinedby many pilots from Commonwealth countries,including some eighty Canadian fighter pilots.

Eventually the British air force was havingmore and more success in shooting down Germanbombers, and in May 1941, Hitler finally gaveup on his plans to invade Britain. AlthoughGermany lost the Battle of Britain, more than 23 000 people were killed in the Blitz, mostlyBritish civilians.

The War SpreadsShortly after Germany’s defeat in the Battle ofBritain, Hitler turned his attention eastward: helaunched “Operation Barbarossa” (“red beard”),the invasion of the USSR. Even though Germanyand the Soviet Union had agreed, in 1939, not toinvade each other, Hitler never let go of his orig-inal plan to take over the USSR when the timewas right. Hitler needed to conquer the USSR inorder to fulfil his long-term plans of a GermanEmpire. He planned the invasion for later in thewar, but when the Soviet Union took over part ofthe Balkans in 1940, Hitler became suspicious ofthe motives of the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin.Hitler decided the time was right to invade. Thisdecision turned out to be a major miscalculationon Hitler’s part.

The Soviets were surprised and unpreparedfor the attack. At first, the German troops wereable to push the Soviet army deeper and deeperinto the Soviet Union. By autumn, the Germanshad managed to reach the outskirts of Moscowand Leningrad (now St. Petersburg). But the

Figure 5-8 For almosttwo months straight,London was bombedby the GermanLuftwaffe.

Developing

understanding Whatis the likely target inthis photo? Wherecould people findprotection from suchattacks?

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German troops were ill-equipped for the long andbitterly cold Soviet winter, and soon lost their ad-vantage. In 1942, Germany launched another of-fensive in the USSR, hoping to capture the rich oilfields in the south. This time, the German troopsgot as far as Stalingrad, but once again werestopped by the severe winter. Their situation grewdesperate and, after suffering more than 300 000casualties, the German army surrendered in early1943. Taking advantage of this victory, the Sovietarmy went on the offensive, retaking much of theterritory they had lost earlier. By early 1944, theSoviets were advancing into Eastern Europe, to-wards Germany.

The War in the PacificJapan was an Axis power, but it was not involvedin the war in Europe. By 1941, it was preparedto invade U.S. and European colonies in SoutheastAsia, which were rich in valuable resources suchas oil, rubber, and tin.

On December 7, 1941, Japanese planesbombed the U.S. naval base in Pearl Harbour, onthe island of Hawaii, destroying half the fleet.Then they bombed the Philippines. The surprisebombings stunned the Americans; the next day,the U.S. government declared war on Japan.Japan’s allies—Germany and Italy—then declaredwar on the United States. Japan continued its in-vasion of most of Southeast Asia and Burma(Myanmar), and the Netherlands East Indies(Indonesia), heading towards Australia. The wholeworld was now at war.

Only hours after Japanese planes bombedPearl Harbour, Japanese troops began their sur-prise invasion of the British colony of Hong Kong.By Christmas Day, 1941, Hong Kong had fallen tothe Japanese. Canada had sent troops to HongKong only months earlier, and all 1975 Canadianswere either killed or taken prisoner by theJapanese. Of the 555 who perished, nearly halfdied as prisoners during the three and a half yearsthey were imprisoned. Canadians at home werehorrified to learn of the fate of the Canadiansand angry that troops had been sent to HongKong.

Figure 5-9 This recruitment poster was issued afterCanadian forces were defeated at Hong Kong.

Expressing ideas How do the images and words onthis poster help to convey its message?

Canada’s Role in EuropeBy the middle of 1942, the Soviet Union, nowone of the Allied powers, had lost close to a mil-lion soldiers in its desperate fight against invadingGerman troops. Soviet leaders wanted the Allies toinvade Europe from the west, a move that wouldweaken the German army by forcing it to fightthe war on two fronts.

The Dieppe RaidThe Allies were not prepared for a full invasionof Europe, but they felt ready for a trial run. A

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smaller raid would give them an opportunity totest new techniques and equipment, as well asserve as a reconnaissance mission for a future in-vasion. Canadian troops had seen little actionsince coming to England. Until 1942, most of thewar had been fought in Africa, and Canadianstraining in Britain were anxious to participate.The Second Canadian Division was chosen to bethe main force of attack in an experimental raid onthe French port of Dieppe, under German occu-pation. Four pre-dawn attacks along the coastwere to be followed by one main attack on thetown of Dieppe half an hour later. Allied troopswere to be covered by air force bombers, and tankswere to be landed at the town.

From the very beginning of the raid, however,things went wrong. On the morning of August 19,1942, one of the ships carrying Canadian soldiersto Dieppe unexpectedly met a small German con-voy. The two sides engaged in a brief sea battle,but the noise alerted German troops on shore. Tomake matters worse, the Canadians were to dis-embark before dawn, but the ships were delayed,

and as Canadian soldiers leapt ashore in the earlydaylight, they were easily machine-gunned by thewaiting German soldiers. Communication be-tween the ships and troops on land was poor, andcommanders sent more reinforcements ashore,believing the first wave of soldiers had reachedthe town. These troops, too, became trapped onthe beaches, unable to retreat or advance, makingthem easy targets for the German soldiers posi-tioned in the cliffs along the coastline. As the daywore on, the situation got worse. Allied tankscouldn’t get enough traction on the pebbled beach,and many were left immobile.

The raid was a terrible failure. Ross Munro,the Canadian war correspondent who accompa-

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Movement of Allied troopsas planned

Landing forces, August 19, 1942

Movements of Allied troops actually carried out, August 19, 1942

Movements of Germanreserves, August 19, 1942

Barbed wirex x x x x

Proposed perimeter

SMALLPENETRATION

Figure 5-10 Planned and actual movements of Alliedtroops in raid on Dieppe, August 19, 1942.

Reading a map What information does the legendof this map give? What were the planned movementsof the Allies? What were the actual movements?What physical barriers did the Allies face?

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nied the troops to Dieppe, described the raid andits devastating results:

Our planes were overhead…. German flak [anti-aircraft fire] spouted from Dieppe, and the sky wasa spectacular… chandelier of coloured lights andflashes. Searchlights fingered the sky. There werea dozen sharp flashes of bursting bombs. Now Icould see the long stone pier at Dieppe, a red nav-igation light burning at the end….

The men in our boat crouched low. Then theramp went down and the first infantrymen pouredout. They plunged into about two feet [60 cm] ofwater and machine-gun bullets laced into them.Bodies piled up on the ramp. Some men staggeredto the beach….

Orders were to land the troops, then pull backto sea. It was useless to remain a sitting target.Everyone who had tried to leave the boat had beencut down. Our naval officer ordered the craft offthe beach…. Through an opening in the stern I gotmy last look at the grimmest beach of the Diepperaid. It was khaki with the bodies of Canadianboys….

Some boys had been hit a dozen times.Nobody had counted on casualities like this….

Source: The Canadians at War, 1939–1945(Montreal: Reader’s Digest Association [Canada],1969), 180–181.

Casualties were high. In all, 907 Canadianswere killed during the nine-hour battle, more thanany other day of the war. Another 586 werewounded and 1874 taken prisoner.

Was the raid on Dieppe worth the price? Didthe Allies learn anything from it? Opinion is di-vided on whether Dieppe was a valuable learningexperience or a complete disaster. Some historiansclaim that the Allies were later able to launch asuccessful invasion based on what they hadlearned at Dieppe. Others maintain that the raidwas badly planned and taught the Germans morethan it taught the Allies.

A C T I V I T I E S

1. Explain why, for tactical purposes, German forcesneeded to invade Britain if they were to hold WesternEurope. What efforts did they make to do this?

2. a) Do you think it was an error on Germany’s partto invade the USSR? Explain.

b) The German defeat at Stalingrad is considered bysome historians to be the point at which the de-feat of Germany became inevitable. Why?

3. a) What was the purpose of the Dieppe raid?

b) Why were Canadian troops chosen for the raid?

c) Why did the raid fail?

d) What useful information might have been learnedfrom the raid?

Figure 5-11 DeadCanadian soldiers andtanks on Dieppe beach,August 19, 1942.

Using evidence

Canadian troops weresupported by tanks, butmost never advancedfar from the shoreline.Find evidence in thisphotograph to suggestwhy vehicles withcaterpillar tracks wereuseless during theattack.

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Canadians at SeaWhen war broke out, the Royal Canadian Navy(RCN) rushed into a massive building and train-ing program. With only thirteen ships and 1819sailors, Canada’s navy was desperately short ofequipment and trained manpower. By 1941, theBattle of the Atlantic was in full force, andCanada’s contribution was much needed. Britainwas almost completely dependent on food andmilitary supplies from Canada and the UnitedStates, but the Allied merchant ships bound forEngland were being sunk by “wolf packs” ofGerman U-boats patrolling the Atlantic. Germanywas trying to starve Britain by cutting off vitalshipping routes to the island.

In order to protect supply ships from beingsunk by German torpedoes, Allies sailed in con-voys: warships escorted vessels carrying vital sup-plies, protecting them. But even convoys didn’tstop the attacks. German U-boats continued todestroy hundreds of supply ships, sinking millionsof tonnes of cargo. Canada started building smallwarships, called corvettes, to escort convoys acrossthe ocean. The corvette was quick, small, and ma-

noeuvred well, but it was not a very seaworthyvessel. Some sailors claimed the corvette would“roll on wet grass,” it was so unsteady.Nevertheless, the corvette was the best ship thatcould be built in such short time.

Until the winter of 1942–1943, it seemed thatthe Allies would lose the Battle of the Atlantic.German submarines continued to pound the con-voys, sinking ships at a rapid pace. Some Germansubmarines even sailed into the Gulf of St.Lawrence and up the St. Lawrence River to at-tack ships there. Gradually, however, the situa-tion started to turn around. By May 1942, theBritish had cracked the German naval code, whichmeant the Allies could track German submarinemovements more easily. In December, the Britishcracked a second German code. As well, the Allieswere reaching the point where more ships werebeing built than were being destroyed. Better train-ing of RCN personnel and more sophisticatedequipment also contributed to the Allies’ success.And the corvettes were helped by long-rangeLiberator bombers, which could fly far enoughfrom bases in Britain and Canada to protect muchof the convoy’s route.

Figure 5-12 A convoygathered in Bedford Basin,Halifax, 1942.

Thinking critically Locateships that appear to besmaller. What might be thenature and function of thesevessels?

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I n n o v a t i o n s

War Technology

Great advances were made in radar (radiodetection and ranging), an electronic sys-tem that uses radio waves to detect objectsbeyond the range of vision. Radar can pro-vide information about the distance, posi-tion, size, shape, direction, and speed of anobject. Radar was used to detect approach-ing aircraft and naval vessels.

Great advances were made in medical technology, as doctors tried to repair thehideous wounds of war. Penicillin, anantibiotic, was first isolated in 1929 byBritish scientist Alexander Fleming, but was not used to treat infections in humansuntil 1941. It contributed to a 95 per cent recovery rate for wounded Allied soldiers. Plastic surgeonsperformed thou-sands of operations,using innovativetechniques torestore hands, feet,and faces. ▼


The first jet-propelled airplanes were usedin World War II. Because jets could flyhigher and faster than propeller-drivenplanes, both the Axis powers and the Alliesworked around the clock to produce asmany jets as they could. However, jetswere not perfected until after 1945, and notenough were produced to affect theoutcome of thewar.

Submarines became much more efficient.The Germans invented a snorkel thatbrought air into a submarine. Surfacing torecharge its battery made a submarine

vulnerable to attack. With thesnorkel, batteries could be

rechargedbelow thesurface.

▼

Because of the war, some natural rawmaterials were no longer available, so sci-entists developed synthetics to replacethem. Synthetic rubber was stronger thannatural rubber and more resistant to heat.Nylon became a substitute for Japanesesilk in parachutes. Aircraft windows weremade from perspex, a clear plastic that wassuperior to glass because it did not shatter.Heat-resistant polyethylene was used toimprove radar equipment, and other plas-tics were used to waterproof tanks.

The German V-2 rocket was apowerful new weapon. With arange of 350 km, the V-2s wereused with deadly accuracyagainst London in the closingdays of the war but had noimpact on the war’s outcome.Wernher von Braun, thedesigner of the V-2, moved to

the United States after thewar. After becoming a U.S.citizen, he designed theGemini and Apollo rocketsthat eventually led to the

U.S. moon landing in 1969.

The Germans developed a coding machine,known as “Enigma,” which converted radiomessages into code so that they could notbe understood by the enemy. This machinespurred the development of an early com-puter that could decode German signals.

The United States developed the atomicbomb. In this weapon, a sphere about thesize of a baseball was equal in power toover 20 000 t of TNT. A single atomic bombcould cripple an entire medium-sized city.The nature of warfare was permanentlychanged.

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By 1943, Germany’s U-boat fleet had sufferedserious losses, and many more Allied convoys werereaching their destination. British Prime MinisterWinston Churchill recognized the importance ofthis outcome:

The only thing that ever really frightened me wasthe U-boat peril…. The Battle of the Atlantic wasthe dominating factor all through the war. Neverfor one moment could we forget that everythinghappening elsewhere—on land, at sea or in theair—depended ultimately on its outcome, and amidall other cares we viewed its changing fortunesday by day with hope or apprehension.

Canada’s navy grew significantly during thewar. By 1945, it had 400 vessels and over 100 000sailors: 99 688 men and 6500 women. The RCNis credited with having provided about half theescorts across the Atlantic.

Canadians in the AirLike the RCN, the Royal Canadian Air Force(RCAF) grew quickly after the war began andplayed a variety of important roles. Altogether, al-most 250 000 Canadians joined the RCAF duringthe war years. At one point, there were forty-eightCanadian squadrons posted overseas. Canadian aircrews participated in bombing raids in Britain,North Africa, Italy, Northwest Europe, andSoutheast Asia. They also participated in one ofthe most controversial missions of the war: nightbombings over Germany. By mid-1943, the Allieshad started a series of bombing raids aimed at de-stroying German industry. Night after night, Britishand Canadian bombers pounded German cities;U.S. bombers attacked during the day. One of theworst attacks was on the German city of Hamburg.Relentless bombing by the Allies created a firestormbelow, and the city was engulfed in flames driven byfierce winds. Canadian bomber ace JohnnieFauquier later described those missions:

There were sights you can’t forget. Fire bombs,which set off as many as a hundred individual fireswhen they exploded, did the most damage. When

Figure 5-13 The Women’s Royal Canadian NavalService was created in 1942. Most “WRENs” werelimited to shore-based jobs, working as wirelessoperators, coders, drivers, and operational plotters.This WREN was one of the few to be postedoverseas.

Figure 5-14 Quebec’s George “Buzz” Beurling wasCanada’s greatest flying ace during World War II. Hepreferred to fly alone and always recorded his hits onthe side of his plane.

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Historical maps are useful documents that give spe-cific information. They are a visual way of conveyingfacts as well as concepts. As with other historical doc-uments, the information included in these maps is se-lective, so you must examine them carefully.

S t e p s i n R e a d i n g a H i s t o r i c a l M a p

1. Look at the title and legend of the map. These shouldtell you the historical period of the map, its main pur-pose, and the other kinds of information that themap is meant to convey.

2. Examine the names (or symbols) closely. Look forpatterns in the information. Why, for example, aresome names bigger or bolder than others? Certaincolours may be used to illustrate similarities in or dif-ferences between regions.

3. Now read the map by analysing the information. Askyourself: What is this map about? How is the infor-mation being communicated? What conclusions canbe drawn from this map?

A p p l y i n g t h e S k i l l

As you read about the events that occurred in Europebetween 1942 and 1945, refer to Figure 5-15. Gothrough the three steps in reading a historical map, andanswer the questions below.

1. What is this map about? What are the six pieces ofinformation given in the legend?

2. The cartographer (map maker) has shown a limitednumber of cities. How would you explain the choiceof Dunkirk, Stalingrad, and Palermo?

3. What ideas does this map convey about:

a) the importance of the success of the NorthAfrican campaign to the Allies?

b) the role of the USSR in the defeat of Germany?

c) the problems of the Allies in establishing a secondfront in Western Europe?

d) the importance of supremacy in naval forces forthe Allies?

e) the importance of an effective air force?

b u i l d i n g y o u r s k i l l s

Reading a Historical Map


you dropped thousands of them, the city lookedlike a vast pot of boiling lead.

We were after military objectives: the seaport,armament works and so on. But there was anotherpolicy at work: demoralize the people, don’t letthem sleep, make them homeless, break their will.It’s not a thing we bragged about. But those peoplewere at war with us and they were very seriousabout it.

Source: Quoted in The Canadians at War,1939–1945 (vol. 2) (Montreal: Reader’s DigestAssociation [Canada], 1969), 382.

The casualty rate among air crew was veryhigh. Nearly 10 000 Canadian bomber crew lost

their lives in the war, a quarter of the total num-ber of Canadians killed in World War II. Onegraduate of the BCATP put it simply: “There wereforty-three of us graduated, forty-three of us wentto England. There were only three survivors. I amone of the lucky guys who lived.”

In 1941, the RCAF formed the Women’sDivision (WD) to support the war effort. Womenwere trained as clerks, cooks, hospital assistants,drivers, telephone operators, welders, instrumentmechanics, and engine mechanics. There werewomen pilots in Canada at the time who werefrustrated by the RCAF’s refusal to let them fly.Only later in the war were women allowed to flybomber planes on flights to deliver them to Britain.Women never took part in combat.

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FINLAND

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Figure 5-15 Allied advances on Germany, 1942–1945.


A C T I V I T I E S

1. Define: Battle of the Atlantic; convoys; corvettes;Women’s Division of the RCAF.

2. Give at least three reasons for the growth of tech-nology and industry during World War II. How wasradar used in the war? Why was coding important?

3. What did Winston Churchill mean when he saideverything in the war depended on the outcome ofthe Battle of the Atlantic?

4. A TV film produced by the CBC in the 1990s impliedthat the firebombing of German cities by Allied forceswas a war crime. The film aroused great controversy.What would be your opinion? Explain.

The Tide TurnsIn 1942, the tide of the war finally began to turn.The Allies gained strength when the United Statesentered the conflict in December 1941. Theybegan to win the Battle of the Atlantic and madeimportant advances in the Pacific. By 1943, theAllies had cleared North Africa of Axis forces andcould, once again, turn their attention to the in-vasion of Europe.

The Invasion of ItalyBritish Prime Minister Winston Churchill feltthat the best way for the Allies to recaptureEurope was through what he called the “soft un-

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derbelly” of Europe—Italy and Sicily. The inva-sion ended up lasting almost two years, cost thou-sands of lives, and proved anything but soft.

On July 10, 1943, Canadian soldiers partici-pated in the Allies’ invasion of Sicily. After twoweeks of fierce fighting, the Allies were success-ful. In September, they moved to mainland Italywhere the rugged terrain, muddy conditions, andcold, rainy weather reminded many Canadian sol-diers of the horrible conditions of World War I.Advances were slow; battles were often foughthouse by house and street by street. In the bat-tle over one medieval coastal town, Ortona,Canadians fought for a month and lost 1372 sol-diers before the Germans withdrew.

Canadian war correspondent Matthew Haltoncaptured the drama of the fighting in this radioreport from Ortona:

Soaking wet, in a morass of mud, against an enemyfighting harder than he’s fought before, theCanadians attack, attack and attack. The enemy isnow fighting like the devil to hold us. He brings in

more and more guns, more and more troops. Thehillsides and farmlands and orchards are a ghastlybrew of fire, and our roads [six kilometres] behindthe [enemy] infantry are under heavy shelling….

We have fire superiority, we have wonderfulsoldiers—there’s a dogged fierceness about theCanadians now—but the enemy is well disciplinedand cunning, and he knows all the tricks.... Some ofhis troops surrender to attacking Canadians. As theCanadian platoon advanced to take the surrender,they were mowed down by flanking machine guns.They were trapped and murdered—just one of themany treacheries….

Source: Quoted in The Canadians at War,1939–1945 (Montreal: Reader’s Digest [Canada],1969), 362.

The Allies’ advance through Italy was diffi-cult, but on June 4, 1944, they finally took Rome.Fighting continued in Italy until the spring of1945.

D-Day and LiberationThe Allies’ success in Rome was followed imme-diately by the biggest Allied invasion of the war.On June 6, 1944, “D-Day,” the Allies launched“Operation Overlord”—a full-scale invasion ofEurope. The Allies had learned from the disasterat Dieppe, and this time the invasion was plannedand rehearsed down to the smallest detail.

There were to be five landing points along aneighty-kilometre stretch of beach in Normandy innorthern France. These beaches were code-named“Sword,” “Juno,” “Gold,” “Omaha,” and “Utah.”Attacks on the beaches were preceded by massiveair attacks, and paratroopers were parachuted inbehind the German lines. On the morning of June6, over 30 000 Canadians soldiers arrived at “Juno”Beach (see inset map, Figure 5-17) as part of thefirst wave of the attack. The task was daunting:they had to make their way past the concrete bar-riers the Germans had erected, through barbedwire and other obstacles, in order to work theirway inland.

The Allied troops had two advantages. First,they had massive air and naval support, with the

Figure 5-16 Streets of Ortona after the Canadianadvance.

Gathering information What might have been thecause of the devastation shown here? What can youtell about the effects of the fighting on the town andits residents?

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ability to land more than a million troops withintwo or three weeks of the initial landing. Second,they had managed to keep the details of the at-tack a secret from the Germans. The weather hadbeen stormy leading up to the invasion, and al-though the Germans had anticipated an attack,their meteorologists concluded that the Allieswould not attempt a landing in bad weather. Asa result, the German defence was poorly coordi-nated. Even so, casualties from that day werehigh—359 Canadians died and 715 werewounded. But these figures were lower than hadbeen expected.

It took the Allies weeks of constant fightingto work their way inland. Then, they began aneleven-month advance through France andBelgium, towards Germany. The campaign wasexhausting, brutal, and dangerous, but there werealso moving moments in which the Allies were

welcomed as the liberators of Europe. InSeptember, for example, Canadians marched tri-umphantly through the streets of Dieppe, whereonly two years earlier they had suffered a terribledefeat. Once again, Canadian correspondent RossMunro was there:

I reached Dieppe in a scout car, my mind floodedwith emotions.… I thought of the men who had

Figure 5-17 D-Day. The Allies landed on a stretch ofFrench coast over 80 km long. Canadians landed at“Juno” Beach; they were divided into different units,each responsible for a specific area. From Normandy,the Allies pushed through France, Belgium, theNetherlands, and into Germany.

Reading a map What route did the Canadians use intheir attack on the Netherlands? Why were Canadiantroops hailed as heroes there?

Som m e R.

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died there [in 1942], who were wounded, whowere taken prisoner when they could fight nolonger….

As I drove through the extravagant happinessof the crowds, the flowers, the memories, an oldlady tottered up to my scout car with a bouquet offlowers.… A hundred people crushed around, want-ing to shake our hands, to kiss us, to tell us howwelcome we were.

Source: Quoted in The Canadians at War,1939–1945 (vol. 2) (Montreal: Reader’s Digest[Canada], 1969), 522.

In March 1945, Allied forces attackedGermany. The Canadians were given a separatetask: the liberation of the Netherlands. This wasa difficult job. An earlier Allied attempt to liberateHolland in 1944 had failed; German troops had re-taliated by destroying much of the port cities ofAmsterdam and Rotterdam, and by flooding muchof the countryside. By the end of 1944, food andfuel supplies to the Dutch had been cut off, andmany were starving to death. The bitter winter of1944–1945 made difficult conditions even worsefor civilians. One Red Cross worker in theNetherlands described the desperation: “In thestruggle for existence, men even eat flower bulbs.Horses killed in bombardments are immediatelycut up [for food] by passersby.”

In early April, Canadian troops began theirattack on the Netherlands. The fighting was slow,and, as in Italy only months earlier, battles wereoften fought house by house. Casualties werehigh: over 6300 Canadians were killed in the op-eration. By April 17, the Canadians had defeatedthe German army in the northern city ofGroningen. They then worked their way south tothe city of Zwolle, while other Canadian troopsfought their way to the cities of Arnhem andApeldoorn. By May 4, the German troops in theNetherlands were surrounded, and they surren-dered. Even before the German surrender,Canadians had begun air drops of food over partsof the Netherlands. These air drops were followedby convoys of trucks carrying food and fuel.Eventually, Canadian army trucks were deliver-ing thousands of tonnes of food a day to the civil-ian population. Canadians were hailed as heroesin victory parades throughout the Netherlands.Wim Alings, Jr., who was a boy in the Netherlandsduring the war, recalls when the Canadian troopsentered his town:

Early the next morning I was awakened by shoutsin the house: “They will be here in an hour!” Theycame in jeeps, tanks and trucks—fellows in funnyuniforms. They waved. Everybody waved. Nowand then the column [procession] was held up andpeople jumped on the cars, but the children were

Figure 5-18

Celebrating theliberation of theNetherlands byCanadian troops in theDutch city of Delden,April 1945.

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not so daring that first morning. It was hours be-fore we began to run after them, shouting, hopingto draw the attention of just one Canadian, or tocatch just one of the cigarettes they were throwingby handfuls into the streets.… That same weekwe got bread and chocolate and chewing gum.…

Source: Quoted in The Canadians at War,1939–1945 (vol. 2) (Montreal: Reader’s Digest[Canada], 1969), 650.

While the Allies invaded Germany from thewest, the Soviet Union attacked from the east.Facing certain defeat, Germany surrendered onMay 7, 1945. Earlier, Hitler, together with hiswife Eva Braun, had committed suicide in abunker in Berlin rather than submit to the Allies.

The Holocaust DiscoveredAt the end of the war, as the Allies pressed closerto Germany, they discovered the extent of Naziatrocities. Millions of people had been murdered,and the piles of corpses and starving people theAllies found in the concentration camps horrifiedthem. The following letter was written by aCanadian soldier at Bergen-Belsen.

Tonight I am a different man. I have spent the lasttwo days in Belsen concentration camp, the mosthorrible festering scab there has ever been on theface of humanity.... It makes me sick to my stom-ach even to imagine the smell, and I want to weep

Figure 5-19 Survivors from Buchenwald concentration camp in Jena, nearGermany. Right: Author Elie Wiesel wrote about his experiences during theHolocaust in his book, Night. Wiesel was later awarded the Nobel PeacePrize. He is also shown in the photo above, the farthest face on the right inthe centre bunk.

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Is the Use of Weapons ofMass Destruction EverJustified? During World War II, both the United States andGermany were secretly working on developing a newkind of weapon to win the war. It was a race to see whocould develop the technology first. On July 16, 1945, agroup of U.S. scientists succeeded in testing the mostpowerful bomb that had ever been built: the atomicbomb. By this time, the Allied powers were desperate toend the war. Millions of people had died in World War II,and billions of dollars of damage had been caused world-wide. Still, the team of scientists who had developedthe bomb and witnessed the test were awestruck bythe power of the weapon they had created:

We knew the world would not be the same. A fewpeople laughed. A few people cried. Most weresilent. I remembered the line from the Hindu scrip-ture—the Bhagavad-Gita. Vishnu is trying to per-suade the prince that he should do his duty and toimpress him, takes on his multi-armed form andsays, “Now I am become Death, the destroyer ofthe worlds.” I suppose we all felt that, one way oranother.

Source: Robert Oppenheimer, leader of the scien-tific team at Los Alamos; quoted in Gwynne Dyer,War (New York: Crown Publishers, 1985), 96.

The atomic bomb ended the war against Japan,but the controversy surrounding its use continues. Wasit necessary to use such a deadly weapon? Even be-fore the bomb was dropped, there were those who be-lieved the use of such a weapon could never be justified.

Admiral William Leahy, an adviser to U.S. PresidentTruman, opposed the use of the bombs. In 1944, he ar-gued with Truman’s predecessor, Franklin Roosevelt,advising him not to use the bomb. Leahy later wrote:

Personally I recoiled at the idea and said toRoosevelt: “Mr. President, this would violate everyChristian ethic I have ever heard of and all knownlaws of war. It would be an attack on the noncom-batant population of the enemy.…”

It was my opinion that the use of this barbarousweapon at Hiroshima and Nagasaki was of no ma-terial assistance in our war…. The Japanese were al-ready defeated and ready to surrender…. My ownfeeling was that in being the first to use it, we hadadopted an ethical standard common to the bar-barians of the Dark Ages. I was not taught to makewar in that fashion, and wars cannot be won by de-stroying women and children….

Source: Memoirs of Admiral Willam D. Leahy,<www.peacewire.org.hironecessary.html>.

Colonel Paul Tibbets, commander of the air forcesquadron that dropped the bombs on Japan and pilotof the plane that dropped the bomb on Hiroshima, re-jects such criticism, which, he feels, fails to take intoconsideration the “context of the times”:

As for the missions flown against Japan on the 6thand 9th of August, 1945, I would remind you, wewere at war. Our job was to win. Once the targets

c o u n t e r p o i n t s


and go out in the streets and kill every Nazi I seewhen I think of what they have done....

You have seen pictures in the papers but theycannot tell the story. You have to smell it and feel itand keep a stern look on your face while your hearttears itself into pieces and tears of compassiondrench your soul....

Source: PR Officer King Whyte, Department ofPsychological Warfare, Canadian First ArmySource.

The anti-Semitic and racist views of Hitlerand the Nazi government were well known in the1930s. By 1941, the Nazi government adoptedthe “Final Solution”—a grisly and horrifying plan

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Many nations have agreed to treaties that limit thetesting of nuclear weapons. The Strategic ArmsLimitation Treaty (SALT) between the United States andthe Soviet Union was ratified in 1972. A second treatyon arms limitation was signed in 1979, although it wasnever ratified. Other agreements to reduce the arsenalof nuclear weapons were signed: one in 1988 betweenthe United States and the Soviet Union, and another in1991 between the United States and the Soviet Union.Despite these various agreements, both the UnitedStates and Russia still have the capability of destroyingthe world several times over.

In spite of international agreements that ban theuse of biological and chemical weapons, there is strongevidence that Iraq used chemical weapons on itsKurdish population in 1988, according to the interna-tional human rights organization Human Rights Watch.It is also conceivable that such weapons could be usedby a rogue state—a country that ignores internationalagreements and takes actions for its own gain to thedetriment of other nations.

A n a l y s i n g t h e I s s u e

1. What reasons did Admiral Leahy give against usingthe atomic bomb?

2. What three arguments did Colonel Paul Tibbets giveto support the use of the atomic bomb on Japan?

3. What do you think Robert Oppenheimer meant whenhe said, “We knew the world would not be thesame”?

4. Do you think there are any circumstances in whichweapons of mass destruction could ever be justi-fied? Explain your answer.

were named and presidential approval received,we were to deliver the weapons as expeditiously aspossible, consistent with good tactics. The objectivewas to stop the fighting, thereby saving furtherloss of life on both sides. The urgency of the situ-ation demanded that we use the weapons first—before the technology could be used against us.

Source: Statement on accepting Air ForceSergeants Association’s Freedom Award,<www.glue.umd.edu/~enola/vets/tibbets.html>.

For almost 200 years, war strategists (planners ofwar) have been influenced by the writings of Karl vonClausewitz, a Prussian general who supported the ideaof total war. He believed a country’s entire resourceshad to be used to ensure victory:

To introduce into a philosophy of war a principle ofmoderation would be an absurdity. War is an actof violence pushed to its utmost bounds.

Source: Karl von Clausewitz, 1819; quoted byGwynne Dyer, War (New York: Crown Publishers,1985), 75.

Once scientists discovered how to make atomicweapons, however, von Clausewitz’s theory of total warhad to be re-evaluated. Suddenly, weapons existed thatcould destroy all of humanity. Since the end of WorldWar II, nuclear weapons have been built that are a hun-dred times more powerful than the bombs dropped onJapan. Biological weapons that spread deadly micro-organisms, such as anthrax and smallpox, have alsobeen developed, as well as deadly chemical weaponssuch as nerve gas. Von Clausewitz could never haveenvisioned destruction on such a scale.


to rid their society of all people they consideredundesirable. Death camps were built in a num-ber of places, including Bergen-Belsen andBuchenwald in Germany and Auschwitz andTreblinka in Poland. German scientists experi-mented with the most efficient ways of killinglarge numbers of people.

Jews from all over Europe were shipped tothe death camps. On arrival, they were stripped oftheir clothes and valuables, their heads wereshaved, and families were separated. The weak,the old, and the young were sent immediately tothe “showers,” which spurted not water, but deadlyZyklon-B gas. The strong and healthy were put to

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work. Their turn at the “showers” came when over-work, starvation, and disease had weakened them.By 1945, the Germans had murdered more thansix million Jews, Roma (Gypsies), Slavs, and otherpeople they considered inferior, in what has cometo be known as the Holocaust.

Japan SurrendersAfter the Allied victory in Europe, the war in thePacific intensified. By mid-1945, most of theJapanese air force and navy had been destroyed,but the army was still strong. The Japanese haddemonstrated that they would “fight to the lastperson.” In response, the U.S. government decidedto use the atomic bomb—a completely new kind ofweapon, equal in power to over 20 000 t of TNT.

For some time, U.S. and British scientists hadbeen working on the Manhattan Project, a top-secret plan to develop a nuclear bomb. In 1942,Canada was made aware of the project. Uraniumwas an important component of the bomb, andthe Eldorado mine at Great Bear Lake, NWT,produced uranium. The Canadian governmentsecretly bought the mine.

On August 6, 1945, a U.S. bomber (nick-named the “Enola Gay,” after the pilot’s mother)dropped an atomic bomb over the Japanese city ofHiroshima. The destruction unleashed by thebomb had never been experienced before. Some70 000 residents of Hiroshima were killed. Theexplosion was so powerful that some people wereinstantly vaporized, with only the imprint of theirshadows left on the streets. Another 130 000 werewounded, many of them severely burned by radi-ation or injured by collapsing buildings.

Three days after the bombing of Hiroshima, asecond atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki,killing 40 000 people. The Japanese, realizing thatthey could not withstand the power of the newU.S. weapon, surrendered. World War II was over.

A C T I V I T I E S

1. What was D-Day? Why was it necessary? How didthe D-Day invasion differ from the raid on Dieppe?What role did Canadian troops play in these inva-sions?

2. In your own words, explain the situation in theNetherlands in the spring of 1945. Why wereCanadian troops hailed as heroes in the Netherlands?

3. Working with a partner, read Matthew Halton’s de-scription of the battle of Ortona. List examples ofdescriptive language and of images he uses. Whatcharacteristics do you think are needed to be a goodwar correspondent? Together with your partner, writea radio report of Canada’s role in the D-Day invasion.

4. Since World War II, Canada and many other nationshave enacted laws that protect their citizens’ humanrights, including laws to protect them against dis-crimination based on race. How do you think theHolocaust contributed to this movement?

The War at HomeThe roles played by Canadians at home were justas important in winning the war as were the ac-tions of the armed forces. Under the policy oftotal war, Canadian factories were producing moregoods than ever before. Workers put in long hours,many working seven days a week. Before long,there was a shortage of labour. As in World War I,women were mobilized to take men’s places, andthey began working as welders, drillers, punch-press operators, and machine operators. “Rosiethe Riveter” became a popular nickname for theseworking women.

Single women were in high demand as fac-tory workers as they often had limited family oblig-ations and could work long hours. But marriedwomen also found factory work, and in Ontarioand Quebec, where most munitions factories werelocated, the provincial governments began to pro-vide money for day care facilities. Many workers,especially single women, moved from rural areasto the industrial cities. Companies built dormi-tories to house them close to the factories, and

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drastic step of freezing all wages and prices as away to prevent inflation. Then, in 1942, King in-troduced food rationing, which meant Canadianswere allowed only a limited amount of certaingoods per week. For example, each Canadianadult was limited to a weekly ration of about 1 kg of meat, 220 g of sugar, 250 g of butter, andabout 115 g of coffee. Canadian rations were gen-erous compared with those in England and theUnited States.

Figure 5-20 Women with jobs, 1939–1945.

1 500 000

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01939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945

Figure 5-21 The Canadian government used postersto remind Canadians of the need for everyone to playa part in the war effort, including being aware ofpossible spies.

Identifying viewpoint How serious does the dangerof spying and sabotage appear to be from thisposter? What course of action does it suggestcitizens take? What techniques does it use to createan impact on the viewer?

the government helped subsidize the food andrent in the dormitories.

Canada’s Wartime EconomyWith so much increased production and employ-ment, people suddenly had more money to spend.But there were also fewer goods to buy, as most ofwhat was being produced was being shipped toBritain. Prime Minister King wanted to avoid theproblem of inflation, in which “too many dollarswere chasing too few goods.” King also wished toprevent the massive debt problem that had bur-dened Canada after the last war.

King chose James Ilsley, a former lawyer fromNova Scotia, to address these concerns. As min-ister of finance, Ilsley enthusiastically set aboutencouraging Canadians to buy Victory Bonds, asthey had during World War I. By selling bonds,the government would ensure that Canadianssaved money, which would help solve the prob-lem of inflation. The government would then usethe money from the bonds to help finance thewar. Ilsley also increased income taxes, whichhelped the government’s revenue.

Ilsley was successful in raising funds for thegovernment, but his actions did not prevent pricesfrom rising, and this increased inflation. In 1941,the Wartime Prices and Trade Board took the

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The Growing Demand for Social Change

During the war, the federal government also triedto restrict or prevent strikes by unions. The powerof trade unions was limited also with the intro-duction of wage and price controls. The acuteshortage of labour, however, often worked to theunions’ advantage, and many ignored restrictionson the right to strike. Workers wanted higherwages, but they were also demanding the right tobargain. Canada’s Minister of Munitions andSupply, C.D. Howe, was strongly anti-union, buthis harsh stand against organized labour didn’tstop steel workers in Nova Scotia and coal minersin Alberta and British Columbia from going onstrike in 1943. In 1944, the federal governmentsoftened its policy, allowing workers the right tojoin a union and forcing employers to recognizeunions chosen by their workers.

The war brought changes to the role of gov-ernment, as well. The wartime government hadbeen involved in almost every aspect of Canadians’lives, and many Canadians wanted some of thisinvolvement to continue. The CCF party and itsplatform of social reform was becoming increas-ingly popular at both the national and provinciallevels, a fact that was not lost on Prime Minister

King. In 1943, the CCF made up the oppositionin Ontario; in 1944, it formed the government inSaskatchewan under T.C. “Tommy” Douglas.Prime Minister King had already brought in anunemployment insurance program in 1940. In1945, he expanded Canada’s social assistance pro-grams by bringing in the Family Allowance pro-gram, which helped families cover the cost ofchild maintenance. Canada’s policy of “cradle tograve” social security had begun.

The Conscription Crisis Even though Mackenzie King had promised therewould be no conscription, the speed with whichthe Germans occupied Europe in 1940 stunnedCanadians. Many Canadians, including the op-position Conservative Party, demanded more gov-ernment action. In response to these demands,King’s government quickly brought in the NationalResources Mobilization Act (NRMA). This actgave the government special emergency powersto mobilize all the resources in the nation to defeatthe enemy. Most significantly, the NRMA allowedfor conscription, but only for home defence.

As the war progressed, however, King con-tinued to come under pressure from the

Figure 5-22 Anti-conscription rally inMontreal, 1939.

Gathering information

From this photograph,who do you thinkattended this rally? Whymight the rally drawthese people to attend?

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Conservative opposition to adopt overseas con-scription. King decided to hold a plebiscite to getpeople’s views on the issue. On April 27, 1942,voters were asked whether they would release thegovernment from its promise not to send con-scripts overseas. In all provinces except Quebec,the majority voted “yes.” Once again, the issue ofconscription had divided the nation. In an amend-ment to the National Resources Mobilization Actin August 1942, King finally permitted overseasconscription, even though conscripts were notsent until 1944. Quebec felt betrayed by King’sactions. King tried to smooth over the conflictwith the slogan, “Not necessarily conscription,but conscription if necessary.” His strategy didn’twork; the slogan failed to satisfy either side.Frustrated by King’s inaction, the Minister ofDefence, J.L. Ralston, resigned. Ralston laterchanged his mind and stayed in his position, butKing kept Ralston’s letter of resignation. For thenext two years, King managed to avoid the issue ofoverseas conscription.

In the 1944 invasion of Europe, however,Canada had lost almost 23 000 soldiers, and therewas now a severe shortage of trained infantry.Ralston journeyed to Europe to see for himselfwhether more Canadian troops were needed tohelp win the war. He concluded that they defi-nitely were. But King refused to be convinced. Ina move that stunned his Cabinet, King announcedRalston’s resignation, two years after it had beensubmitted. King then replaced Ralston withGeneral Andrew McNaughton, commander of theCanadian army in Europe from 1939 until 1943.King believed that, as a military man, McNaughtonwould be able to convince the men conscriptedunder the NRMA to volunteer for duty overseas.But McNaughton failed to do so, and King finallyhad to agree to send conscripts overseas. In thefinal months of the war, some 12 000 NRMA con-scripts were sent to Europe. Not all went peace-fully. Conscripts in British Columbia refused toleave at first, and there were riots in Montreal toprotest King’s decision. The Quebec legislaturepassed a motion condemning the federal govern-ment’s actions. In the end, only 2463 Canadianconscripts ever reached the front.

A C T I V I T I E S

1. What three initiatives did the Canadian governmentundertake to prevent inflation and pay for the war?How successful were these initiatives?

2. What social changes were taking place in Canadaduring the war? What demands were unions mak-ing?

3. Explain how Mackenzie King managed to avoid send-ing conscripts overseas during the war. Why did heeventually have to send troops overseas?

What the War Meant toCanadaUnder its policy of total war, Canada providedmajor military and economic support to the Allies.The value of goods it produced rose from $5.6billion in 1939 to $11.8 billion in 1945. Duringthe course of the war, financial aid given byCanada to the Allies amounted to $3.4 billion. Bythe end of the war, Canada was known as the “ar-senal [military storehouse] of democracy.”

Virtually every sector of the economy boomed.There was a rapid increase in the production ofaluminum, the strong, rust-proof, and light metalused in the manufacture of aircraft. Paper pro-duction rose, too, because Germany had occu-pied Norway and Sweden, and was preventingpaper products from reaching Germany’s enemies.There was also a great increase in demand for pe-troleum products to fuel wartime tanks, trucks,and airplanes. A wave of exploration led to majordiscoveries of oil fields in Alberta. Many new jobswere created, not just in production but also intransportation, processing, and providing servicesfor the new industries.

All this activity had a dramatic effect onCanada’s economy. One measure of a nation’s out-put is its gross domestic product (GDP). Thisfigure is the value of all the goods (such as food,cars, and airplanes) and services (such as nursing,insurance, and education) produced in a country inone year. Figure 5-25 on page 128 shows howCanada’s GDP increased during the war years.

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up clo seJapanese-Canadians in the War


As the war in the Pacific heated up, many Canadians,particularly those in British Columbia, feared that

Canada itself might be attacked. After the Japanesebombed Pearl Harbour and invaded Hong Kong, manywest coast communities in Canada “blacked out” theirareas at night, turning off all their lights so that their lo-cation would not be obvious to airborne attackers.Japanese-Canadians living in British Columbia becamea special target of public suspicion. If the Japanese at-tacked Canada, it was thought, local residents ofJapanese descent might assist them. Some people be-came convinced there were Japanese spies in theirmidst. These suspicions were strengthened by localeditorials, gossip, and years of racism towards Canada’sJapanese population.

By 1941, there were over 23 000 Japanese-Canadians living in Canada, 22 000 in British Columbia.There was no evidence to suggest that any of thesepeople supported Japan rather than Canada. Indeed,some had served in the Canadian armed forces duringWorld War I. For this service, they had been promisedthe right to vote in 1918, but by the outbreak of WorldWar II, this promise had still not been fulfilled.

Neither the government nor the Mounties consid-ered the Japanese-Canadians a security risk. But asanti-Japanese sentiment grew into hysteria, the federal

government caved in to public pressure. In early 1942,under the War Measures Act, all Japanese-Canadians liv-ing near the British Columbia coast were “invited” tomove to the Okanagan Valley, where they would be set-tled in temporary camps known as “relocation centres.”In the wake of anti-Japanese marches in Vancouver,about 750 people moved voluntarily. Soon all Japanese-Canadians, regardless of how long they had been liv-ing in Canada, were forced to leave the coast.

Families were separated, and many were sent toisolated internment camps in the interior of BritishColumbia, where they were detained without trial untilthe end of the war. Some families chose to go, instead,to Alberta or Manitoba, where they laboured on beetfarms. These locations were farther away from theirhomes, but at least families were permitted to stay to-gether.

In January 1943, the Custodian of Enemy Property,a federal government official, was given the power toconfiscate and sell Japanese-Canadian property. Peoplewho had been relocated inland lost everything: theirhouses, cars, shops, fishing boats, and other property.All their possessions were sold at fire-sale prices, andthe owners received virtually nothing.

The persecution did not end when the war did, in1945. At that point, the federal government offered

Figure 5-23 VictoryBond poster.

Identifying viewpoint

Who do the rats in thisposter represent?What is the apparentpurpose of this poster?What other effectsmight it have had?

Chapter05 11/05/2004 8:50 AM Page 126


Japanese-Canadians a terrible choice. They could applyfor repatriation to Japan, which had been devastatedby war, or they could agree to settle permanently eastof the Rocky Mountains. Canada’s right to deport itsown citizens who were innocent of wrongdoing waschallenged, but the Supreme Court, in a close vote, up-held the government’s position. In all, 3964 Japanese-Canadians were repatriated. Of these, over 2600 wereCanadian citizens, of whom 1979 had been born inCanada. Thousands of others were relocated to otherparts of Canada.

In 1947, the government bowed to public pressureand cancelled the repatriation order. It was not until1988, however, that the federal government apologizedfor its actions. As compensation, it agreed to pay the1400 people who were affected by the policy and werestill living $21 000 each. It also agreed to restoreCanadian citizenship to any person who had lost itthrough repatriation to Japan.

Q u e s t i o n s

1. a) What attitudes do you think contributed to supportfor the evacuation of Japanese-Canadians duringWorld War II? Give evidence from this account.

b) How would posters such as the ones shown onpages 123 and 126 contribute to these attitudes?

2. Do you think Japanese-Canadians should have beengiven

a) compensation earlier?

b) more compensation?

c) no compensation?

3. The veterans from Hong Kong who were imprisonedin Japan were not given compensation for maltreat-ment, starvation, or being used as slave labour inJapanese factories, all of which were in violation ofthe rules of war. People often cite the compensa-tion given to Japanese-Canadians as a reason whythe Canadian government should negotiate with theJapanese for compensation for these veterans. Doyou agree with this reasoning? Why or why not?

Figure 5-24 Partof a Japanese-Canadian familyawaits relocationfrom Vancouver,1942. Manyfamilies wereseparated, withmen beinginternedseparately.

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The wartime boom brought another impor-tant change to the Canadian economy.Agriculture, once the most important sector ofCanada’s economy, was overtaken by industry.Manufacturing was now much more important.Huge investments were made in mining, pro-duction, transportation, and service industries.Canadian cities and the industrial areas aroundthem became much more important contributorsto the economy. They attracted a massive waveof post-war immigration that eventually led to themulticultural society we know today. There isprobably no other ten-year period when there wasmore change to Canada’s economy than in theperiod from 1939 to 1949. Canada had become amodern industrial nation.

Building an IdentityCanada’s enormous contribution to the war, inboth human and economic terms, gave it a newrole on the world stage. Just a few years before,Canada had been a colony in the British Empire;now, Canadians were major players in the globalconflict. They had built the world’s third-largestnavy and fourth-largest air force.

Although many Canadians were killed,wounded, or captured, World War II became adefining event in the development of Canada’sidentity:

It was a good war. I’m not talking about a good warfrom the standpoint of a high moral purpose. Ifgoing out and killing millions of [Germans] to getHitler off his … pedestal is a high moral purpose,then I’m all for it.

But it was a good war for Canada too, becauseit made us a great nation. I mean … it showed uswhat we could do. We just weren’t a bunch ofwheat farmers and Nova Scotia fishermen and lum-bermen in B.C. We were a nation. A big and toughand strong nation.

Source: Quoted in Barry Broadfoot, Six WarYears, 1939–1945: Memories of Canadians atHome and Abroad (Toronto: Doubleday, 1974), 11.

A C T I V I T I E S

1. a) How did the war end the Depression?

b) What were the major changes in Canada’s econ-omy during this period?

2. a) Why do you think the CCF made gains during thewar?

b) What was the federal government’s response tothese gains?

3. Why do you think there was opposition to conscrip-tion in Canada?

4. Do you agree that “It was a good war”? Explain yourviewpoint.

1935 4315

1939 5636

1940 6743

1941 8238

1942 10 327

1943 11 088

1944 11 850

1945 11 835

$ Millions

Year

Figure 5-25 Value of Canada’s gross domestic product(total value of all goods and services produced),1935–1945.

Reading a graph What is the difference in the grossdomestic product from 1935 to 1945? What accountedfor the increase?

Chapter05 11/05/2004 8:50 AM Page 128


Develop an Understanding

1. Write four statements explaining how the characterof Canada was changed by World War II.

2. In your own words, summarize Canada’s contribu-tion to World War II.

3. The table below shows the losses of both theGerman U-boats and the Allied ships during theBattle of the Atlantic. Examine the table closely and,in your own words, describe this battle, using fig-ures to explain the pattern of fighting.

Year U-boats U-boats Allied Ships

Active Sunk Sunk

1940 42 22 435

1941 110 35 410

1942 300 87 1015

1943 330 237 435

4. Write a series of five headlines about key events de-scribed in this chapter. Be sure to focus on eventsand aspects of those events that would have beenmost significant at the time.

Explore the Issues

5. Could war have been avoided if Britain, France, andtheir allies had stood up to Hitler’s demands earlierthan they did? Formulate a resolution based on thisidea and use it for a class debate.

6. Why do you think the RCAF allowed the Women’sDivision only a small number of military roles in thewar? In your opinion, what roles should women playin military life today?

7. The moral question raised by the Americans drop-ping atomic bombs on Japan to bring the war to anend has become an issue of debate. The Germanswere developing the technology to build a similarbomb. Does this change your views on this issue?Why or why not?

8. Do you think the war had a “high moral purpose,” assuggested on page 128? Choose three events in thewar that raised moral questions, and explain whyyou chose these.

Research and Communicate

9. Assume you are the editor of a national newspa-per. Prepare an editorial that might have been pub-lished the day after Mackenzie King and J.S.Woodsworth spoke in the House of Commons togive their opinion on a declaration of war. In theeditorial, state where, when, and why the speecheswere made. Summarize King’s and Woodsworth’spositions. Then state your newspaper’s position,together with its reasons for taking this view.

10. Work with a partner. Assume you are a radio jour-nalist who has the opportunity to interview PrimeMinister King on September 11, 1939, the day afterCanada has declared war on Germany. Prepare aten-question interview, taking care to ask a range ofquestions from simple factual questions to morespeculative ones. Role-play your interview for theclass.

11. Go to the Web site for the Encyclopedia Britannicaat <www.britannica.com>. Find information onthe Nuremberg war crimes trials. What was thepurpose of these trials? What was the outcome?Prepare a written or oral report on your findings.

12. Assume you are a veteran of World War I. Write aletter to your son or daughter who wants to vol-unteer for duty in World War II. In the letter, givereasons why you either support this decision orwhy you want him or her to reconsider it.

13. Contact the Canadian Legion in your area and askif there are any veterans from World War II whowould be willing to visit your school and share theirexperiences with the class. If you have any rela-tives who remember the war, interview them abouttheir experiences. Videotape the interview andshow it to the class.

14. The Japanese committed atrocities in China (“therape of Nanking”) and abused Chinese and Koreanwomen as so-called “comfort women” during thewar. Investigate the treaties made with Japan tofind out how the war crimes investigations in Japanwere different from the Nuremberg trials, and why.

L O O K I N G B A C K

Chapter05 11/05/2004 8:50 AM Page 129

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Chapter05 11/05/2004 8:49 AM Page 100 Canada and World … › uploads › 8 › 1 › 5 › 8 › 81582952 › chapter05.pdfThe World at War 1939 September 1: Germany invades Poland