CHAPTER War in Vietnam

CHAPTER

WORLD

Build on What You Know

After World War II, U.S. leadersworried about the spread of

communism abroad. Determined tokeep the Asian country of Vietnamfrom falling to communism, theUnited States sent thousands oftroops there. As the fighting wenton, however, the war in Vietnambegan raising troubling questionsfor many Americans.

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President Ngo Dinh Diem receivedU.S. support largely because of hisstrong anticommunist views.

French casualties were heavy during the battleat Dien Bien Phu.

War in Vietnam(1945–1975)

Members of the Special Forceswore green berets such as thisone to set them apart fromother army units.

The 173rd Airborne Brigade is supported by helicopters during one ofits operations.

1965 The first U.S.combat troops

arrive in Vietnam.

1963 The UnitedStates, Soviet

Union, and GreatBritain sign anuclear-test-

ban treaty.

UNITED STATES

1961 President Kennedysends members of the SpecialForces and more U.S. military

advisers to Vietnam.

1956 President Ngo DinhDiem of South Vietnamrefuses to let his nationtake part in elections toreunify Vietnam.

1945 1955 1959 19631954 Frenchforces lose toVietnamesenationalists inMay at the Battleof Dien Bien Phu.

In July Vietnam isdivided into NorthVietnam andSouth Vietnam.

You Be the HistorianWhat’s Your Opinion? Do you agreeor disagree with the following statements? Support your point of view in your journal.

• Global Relations A nation shouldbecome involved with foreign countries to encourage the growth of democracy.

• Geography Geography determines acountry’s chances of winning a war.

• Government New legislation can change the roles of the different branches of government.

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If you were there . . .Would you support

U.S. involvement in the warin Vietnam?

The Tet Offensiveinvolved some ofthe hardest fight-ing of the war.

The Vietnam Veterans Memorial attracts thousands of visitors, includingmany veterans and their families.

1968 PresidentJohnson withdrawsfrom the presidentialelection.

1971 TheTwenty-sixthAmendment ispassed, loweringthe voting agefrom 21 to 18.

1973 The Paris Peace Accords are signedon January 27, ending U.S. involvementin the Vietnam War.

On November 7, Congress passes theWar Powers Act to restrict presidentialpowers in committing U.S. troops toarmed conflicts.

1968 InJanuary

communistforces attackthroughout

South Vietnamin the TetOffensive.

1969 The British primeminister sends troops intoBelfast, Northern Ireland,to stop rioting.

1975 Saigon, the capitalof South Vietnam, falls toNorth Vietnamese forces.

1967 1971 1975

The Story Continues

In 1873 French explorer Francis Garnier encouraged theFrench to colonize Southeast Asia for trade and to bring

Western culture to the people. However, one of Garnier’sassociates warned that colonization would be a mistake.“The extraordinary resistance [of the Vietnamese], some-times violent, . . . is stronger now than at any time since theconquest,” he warned. “We must open our eyes.”

Read to Discover1. What events led to the creation of North and

South Vietnam? 2. Why did the U.S. government support South Vietnam? 3. How did some South Vietnamese who disliked Diem’s

government show their beliefs?

Define• domino theory

Identify• Ho Chi Minh

• Vietminh

• Geneva Accords

• Ngo Dinh Diem

• National Liberation Front

• Vietcong

Vietnam DividesFor many years, France controlled Vietnam along with neighboring Laosand Cambodia as a colony called French Indochina. Vietnamese national-ist Ho Chi Minh helped fight French rule. Over time, Ho came to believethat the best way to fight colonial imperialism was through a communistrevolution. During World War II, Japanese troops and local nationalistsdrove French soldiers out of Indochina. Ho then refused to accept Japanese rule. After Japan’s surrender to the Allies, Ho declared Vietnamindependent on September 2, 1945. But France insisted that Vietnam wasstill a French colony. Ho warned the French to leave Vietnam alone.

Early Conflicts in VietnamEarly Conflicts in Vietnam

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A Vietnamese villager transports a French

colonist.

DOUBLE DOOR Create the “Double Door”FoldNote described in the Appendix. Write “NorthVietnam” on one flap of the double door and“South Vietnam” on the other flap. As you read thesection, write details about each country on theinside of the appropriate flap.

Reading StrategyReading Strategy

War in Vietnam 875

The French ignored Ho’s warnings and moved to retake Vietnam.President Eisenhower’s administration aided France’s efforts based onhis belief in the domino theory. According to this theory, if Vietnam fellto the Communists—as China and North Korea had done—all of South-east Asia would fall. “You have a row of dominoes set up,” Eisenhowerexplained. “You knock over the first one, and . . . the last one . . . will goover very quickly.”

The Vietminh, as the Vietnamese nationalist forces were known,fought the war mostly through hit-and-run guerrilla attacks andambushes. In March 1954 they trapped some 13,000 French troops atthe village of Dien Bien Phu (DYEN BYEN FOO), causing more than 7,000French casualties. On May 7, 1954, the French surrendered.

The day after the Vietminh victory, an international conference in Geneva, Switzerland, addressed the future of Indochina. In July the delegates worked out the Geneva Accords, which temporarily divided Vietnam. North Vietnam was a communist state led by Ho Chi Minh.South Vietnam was a democracy led by Ngo Dinh Diem (NGOH DIN

de-EM), an anticommunist. The Geneva Accords also called for free elections in July 1956 to reunite North and South Vietnam.

✔ Reading Check: Contrasting How were the governments of North Viet-nam and South Vietnam different?

20°N

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Red River

M

ekongRiver

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Gulf ofThailand

SOUTHCHINA

SEA

ANDAMANSEA

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Vientiane

Phnom PenhSaigon

HueDa Nang

Dien Bien Phu

Bangkok

CHINA

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VIETNAM

CAMBODIA

BURMA(MYANMAR)

THAILAND

HAINANISLAND

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MekongDelta

ANNAMESE

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UN

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CentralHighlands

Final French defeatby Vietminh, 1954

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0 200 400 Miles

0 200 400 KilometersMercator Projection

Robinson Projection

SOUTHAMERICA

ANTARCTICA

AUSTRALIA

ASIAEUROPE

AFRICA

NORTHAMERICA

PACIFICOCEAN

INDIANOCEAN

ARCTIC OCEAN

ATLANTICOCEAN

Equator

French IndochinaInterpreting Maps French Indochina con-sisted of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Atthe end of World War II, Vietnam sought its own independence.

1. Places and Regions What were the capitalsof the three countries that made up FrenchIndochina?

2. Contrasting What major geographic difference can you see between Laos and Vietnam?

Skills Assessment

A French ForeignLegion pin

Vietnam at WarThe new government in South Vietnam was dishonest and brutal.President Diem put family members in top positions and was aggressive in silencing his enemies. Although Diem was not a very good leader,many American policy makers believed he was the best alternative to acommunist state. The Eisenhower administration began sending suppliesto South Vietnam and training Diem’s military forces during its last yearsin office.

Ho Chi Minh, on the other hand, enjoyed greater popular support.Many people in North Vietnam favored his government’s land redistribu-tion policies and social reforms. One North Vietnamese man recalled thepositive changes that took place.

“The living conditions of the people were getting better andbetter every day. The people were well off. They had enoughto eat. . . . They had land to work and buffaloes to help themplow the land.”

—Anonymous, quoted in The Vietnam Wars: 1945–1990, by Marilyn B. Young

However, these changes did not help everyone. Ho blamed landlords forNorth Vietnam’s poverty. Communist government officials searchedout landowners, imprisoning and killing thousands of them.

As the planned 1956 reunification elections drew near, Diem refusedto allow South Vietnam to take part. He feared that the northern communist government would win. U.S. officials backed his decision.Diem tried to stamp out support for the Vietminh by arresting thousands of South Vietnamese citizens. Many nationalists in SouthVietnam joined the National Liberation Front (NLF), a group thatfought Diem’s government. The NLF largely depended on the Vietcong,

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Born in Vietnam in 1890,Nguyen That Thanh lateradopted the name Ho ChiMinh, which means “he who enlightens.”

U.S. advisers As Diem’s govern-ment in South Vietnam facedincreasing opposition, theUnited States sent more militaryadvisers to train his army. Whattype of training do these U.S.troops appear to be providing?

Interpreting the Visual RecordInterpreting the Visual Record

Analyzing Primary Sources Drawing Inferences and Conclusions What do youthink life was like in NorthVietnam before Ho Chi Minhtook over leadership of the government?

War in Vietnam 877

communist guerrilla forces, as its army. North Vietnam supplied and funded the Vietcong as its sol-diers began a civil war against Diem’s government inthe late 1950s.

As fighting between the Vietcong and Diem’sArmy of the Republic of Vietnam grew worse,President Eisenhower sent more aid and advisers toSouth Vietnam. By the end of 1960, some 900 U.S.military advisers were stationed in South Vietnam.When John F. Kennedy became president, he senteven more advisers. He also sent 400 Special Forcessoldiers to Vietnam in May 1961. By the end of1963, some 16,000 U.S. military personnel wereserving there.

Despite U.S. help, Diem’s government was los-ing power. Diem became even more unpopularwhen his soldiers fired on Buddhist demonstrators.Some Buddhist monks set themselves on fire inprotest. Appearing on television and in newspapers,these shocking images helped turn Americans against Diem. Some ofDiem’s military leaders came to believe that his unpopularity hurt the wareffort. In November 1963 a group of South Vietnamese generals took overthe government and killed Diem. After the takeover, the political situationin South Vietnam grew worse.

✔ Reading Check: Identifying Cause and Effect Why was Diem’s govern-ment in South Vietnam unpopular, and how did the citizens respond to it?

Section Review11keyword: SC5 HP29

Define and explain:• domino theory

Identify and explain:• Ho Chi Minh• Vietminh• Geneva Accords• Ngo Dinh Diem• National Liberation

Front• Vietcong

2

1 Sequencing Copythe time line below.Use it to explainimportant events inVietnam’s historyfollowing the endof World War II.

3 Finding the Main Ideaa. What events in Vietnam ended in the creation of two separate countries?

b. How were North Vietnam and South Vietnamdifferent, and why did the United States supportSouth Vietnam?

Writing and Critical Thinking Summarizing Imagine that you are a State Department official. Write a report for PresidentEisenhower explaining why many South Vietnamesedislike Diem’s government and how they areexpressing their disapproval.

Consider the following:• Diem’s methods of ruling and maintaining order• the influence and support of North Vietnam on

resistance efforts• the nonviolent protests of Buddhist demonstrators

5

4

Buddhist monks held manynonviolent demonstrationsagainst President Diem and his policies.

1945

1954

late 1950s

1963

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The Story Continues

On November 24, 1963, the new president, Lyndon B.Johnson, met with his foreign-policy advisers to

discuss Vietnam. One aide recalled Johnson’s fear that theCommunists would think that “with Kennedy dead [theAmericans] have lost heart.” Johnson increased military support for South Vietnam and insisted that a message go out to South Vietnam “that Lyndon Johnson intends to stand by [the United States’s] word.”

Read to Discover1. What actions did President Johnson take to involve

the United States more deeply in the war in Vietnam? 2. How did U.S. military leaders try to defeat the North

Vietnamese? 3. How did the Vietnam War affect South Vietnamese

civilians and American soldiers?

Define• escalation

• search-and-destroy missions

• pacification

Identify• Tonkin Gulf Resolution

• Operation Rolling Thunder

• Ho Chi Minh Trail

• William Westmoreland

Johnson’s Vietnam PolicyPresident Lyndon B. Johnson faced a complicated situation in Vietnam.After Diem’s assassination, some of the new South Vietnamese leaderswanted to work out an agreement with the Communists. Johnson and his advisers, however, refused to accept the possibility of a communistSouth Vietnam.

On August 2, 1964, a U.S. navy vessel exchanged fire with North Vietnamese vessels in the Gulf of Tonkin off the North Vietnamesecoast. U.S. ships later reported that the North Vietnamese had launched

The Escalation of the WarThe Escalation of the War

Soon after taking office, President Johnson expanded

the U.S. role in Vietnam.

PREVIEWING TEXT Preview the section’s headings and vocabulary. Write what you already know about the people and topics. What would you like to find out? As you read, look for information that answers your questions.


Underground Tunnels Did youknow that the Vietcong usedunderground tunnels as mili-tary bases? American soldierswere baffled when the Vietcong launched attacks and then seemed to disappearinto thin air. The Vietcongwere actually using hiddentunnels to escape detectionand shield themselves frombombing raids. The tunnelswere about two feet wide and five feet high and hadthick roofs. These narrow passages connected roomssuch as kitchens, hospitals, and storage areas. Many tunnel systems had several levels and were protected bydeadly traps. Today, tourists in Vietnam can go on specialtours to view these amazingtunnel systems.

� � � � � � � � � � � �

� � � � � � � � � � � �

That’s Interesting!

torpedoes at them. Although the ships were not damaged, Johnsoncalled the reported attack an act of war. He ordered air strikes againstbases in North Vietnam.

On August 7 Congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution, whichgave President Johnson the power “to take all necessary measures to repelany armed attack against the forces of the United States.” With theauthority granted by this resolution, President Johnson greatly increasedU.S. military involvement in Vietnam. In March 1965 the first U.S.combat troops arrived in South Vietnam. That same month, Johnsonordered Operation Rolling Thunder—a series of air strikes meant todestroy war industries in North Vietnam. Johnson also saw the operationas a way to destroy the Ho Chi Minh Trail. This trail was a network ofpaths, small roads, and tunnels leading from North Vietnam throughneighboring Laos and Cambodia and into South Vietnam. The Vietcongused the Ho Chi Minh Trail as their major supply route. Johnson and his advisers wanted to destroy North Vietnam’s ability to supply the Vietcong. They believed that if they succeeded, the United States couldwin the war.

Thick jungle covered much of the trail and hid the movement of thesupplies. To burn off the forests, U.S. airplanes dropped napalm, or jellied gasoline. The planes also released chemical poisons, such asAgent Orange, that killed vegetation and tree leaves. These chemicalscaused environmental damage to the area and led to health problemsfor Vietnamese civilians and U.S. veterans.

The bombing raids lasted until late 1968. Before they ended, U.S.planes had dropped more than a million tons of explosives, much of it on South Vietnam. Operation Rolling Thunder killed many Vietnamese soldiers and civilians. However, the U.S. effort did not stopthe Communists’ ability to fight the war.

✔ Reading Check: Summarizing Describe Operation Rolling Thunder andhow it affected the North Vietnamese Communist war effort.

War in Vietnam 879

The U.S. Air Force used long-range bombers such as this B-52 to drop huge numbers of explosives on targets in North and South Vietnam.

The Ground WarIn the mid-1960s President Johnsonsent more ground forces to Vietnam.Between 1965 and 1967 the number ofU.S. soldiers grew rapidly as Johnsonfollowed a policy of escalation, orincreased U.S. involvement in the war.At the same time, North Vietnam alsobecame more involved. North Vietnamsent more of its regular army units, theNorth Vietnamese Army (NVA), tofight alongside the Vietcong.

General William Westmoreland,who led the U.S. ground forces in Vietnam, developed a new fightingstrategy. He sent U.S. patrols on search-and-destroy missions. U.S. patrolssearched for enemy camps and supplieshidden in the jungle. Then the soldiersdestroyed them with massive fire-power and air raids. Because the UnitedStates had better military technology,officials believed there would be a quick American victory. One U.S.general said, “The solution in Vietnam is more bombs, more shells, morenapalm.” However, U.S. generals did notunderstand just how difficult it wouldbe to defeat the North Vietnamese.

The Vietcong and the NVA had certain key advantages, which made upfor their inferior firepower. They usedeffective guerrilla strategies and had abetter knowledge of the local geography.Moving secretly, they set traps and landmines to kill and wound U.S. soldiers.

The Vietcong and the NVA usually attacked quickly and by surprise.Marine Philip Caputo recalled the effects of this kind of fighting.

“The discovery that the men we had scorned [disregarded]as peasant guerrillas were, in fact, a lethal [deadly], deter-mined enemy . . . broke our early confidence.”

—Philip Caputo, A Rumor of War

✔ Reading Check: Contrasting In what different ways did the Americansand the North Vietnamese use their advantages in the war?

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HOCHI M

INHTRAIL

20˚ N

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100˚E 10˚N

Gulf of Tonkin

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Mekong Delta

South China Sea

Gulf ofThailand

Red

River

MekongRiver Demilitarized

Zone (DMZ) U.S. 7thFleet

U.S. 7th Fleet

Dien BienPhu

Hanoi

Vientiane

My Lai

Ben Tre

Vinh Cam RanhDa Lat

Saigon

Phnom Penh

Xam Nua

MuangNgat

Bien Hoa

Da NangHue

Khe Sanh

Nha Trang

Vinh

Hon Gai

CHINA

BURMA(MYANMAR)

LAOS

THAILAND

NORTH VIETNAM

CAMBODIA SOUTHVIETNAM

North Vietnam bombed 1965–1968(Operation Rolling Thunder),1972 (Linebacker I and II)

Gulf of Tonkinincident, 1964

Laos invaded, 1971

Cambodia bombed,1969–1973;invaded, 1970

Surrender ofSouth Vietnam,1975

0 100 200 Miles

0 100 200 KilometersMercator Projection

Areas under attack in Tet Offensive, 1968

Areas of prolongedfighting

Major U.S.air strikes

Base areas/war zone

Major U.S. bases

Robinson Projection

SOUTHAMERICA

ANTARCTICA

AUSTRALIA

ASIAEUROPE

AFRICA

NORTHAMERICA

PACIFICOCEAN

INDIANOCEAN

ARCTIC OCEAN

ATLANTICOCEAN

Equator

The Vietnam WarInterpreting Maps North Vietnam used the Ho ChiMinh Trail to supply communist forces in the South.

Places and Regions Through whichcountries did the Ho Chi Minh Trail pass?Skills Assessment

Analyzing Primary Sources Identifying Bias What mis-take does Caputo say U.S. soldiers first made about the Vietnamese?

No Safe PlaceSouth Vietnamese villagers found themselves caught in the middle of thefighting. U.S. and South Vietnamese officials tried to win their supportthrough a policy of pacification. Under this program, they set aside civil-ian areas guarded by government troops. Even in areas protected by soldiers, villagers were not safe, however. At night, while the governmentforces stayed in their camps, the Vietcong came out of hiding. Theyattacked or killed people they believed had helped the South Vietnamesegovernment. South Vietnamese civilians had no safe place to go.

Many Vietnamese civilians also suffered at the hands of U.S. forces.Sometimes U.S. troops destroyed the villages and crops of innocentcivilians, believing they belonged to the Vietcong. Soldier KennethCampbell recalled how an officer explained the destruction of twoseemingly peaceful farming villages. According to Campbell, the officer“said they were probably feeding the NVA with rice anyway, so thereforethey are the enemy.” Such reasoning led to a larger number of deathsand injuries among civilians. It also made it harder for Americans towin local support or loyalty.

✔ Reading Check: Analyzing Information What types of problems didSouth Vietnamese civilians face during the war?

War in Vietnam 881

A DifficultWar

Despite its size andpower, the UnitedStates faced manychallenges in theVietnam War.

Visualizing History

1. Science and Technology Howwould the weaponsshown have helpedthe United Statesduring the war?

2. Connecting to TodayWhat types of challenges do U.S.military forces faceon their missionsaround the worldtoday?

U.S. Military Advantages

The U.S. military had advanced weapons,many soldiers, and tremendous firepowerto use against the enemy.

U.S. Military Disadvantages

The North Vietnamese and the Vietcong used the dif-ficult terrain and aggressive guerrilla tactics to hidethemselves and attack by surprise. U.S. soldiers oftendid not know who might be the enemy.

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The Soldiers’ StoriesThe war in Vietnam greatly affected themore than 2 million U.S. soldiers whoserved in it. Many soldiers were very young.Their average age was 22, about four yearsyounger than in previous wars. Most of thesoldiers had been drafted into service. Theywere often from minority groups and poorfamilies. On the other hand, college students—most of whom were white andfrom the middle and upper classes—couldearn draft releases called deferments.

Many of the young men who served inVietnam supported the war in the begin-ning. However, by mid-1967 more than 300

U.S. soldiers a week were dying in combat. As the war dragged on and thenumber of casualties rose, support for the war dropped. Some 10,000women also served in the military during the war. One nurse recalledwatching a soldier die.

“When you are sitting there working on . . . a 19-year-oldkid who’s 10,000 miles from home, and you know that he’sgoing to die before dawn . . . and you’re the only one thathe’s got . . . well it [gets] into your soul.”

—Dusty, quoted in Shrapnel in the Heart, by Laura Palmer

Like the nurse, many of those who served in Vietnam found that the experience left them forever changed.

✔ Reading Check: Finding the Main Idea How did many soldiers’ beliefsabout the war change over time?

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Define and explain:• escalation• search-and-destroy

missions• pacification

Identify and explain:• Tonkin Gulf

Resolution• Operation

Rolling Thunder

• Ho Chi Minh Trail

• William Westmoreland

2

1 Identifying Cause andEffect Copy the chartbelow. Use it to explainAmerican policies andstrategies during thewar and their effects.

3 Finding the Main Ideaa. How did President Johnson increase U.S.involvement in the Vietnam War?

b. How did the lives of many South Vietnamesecivilians change as a result of the war?

Writing and Critical Thinking Analyzing Information Imagine that you are aU.S. soldier stationed in Vietnam. Write a letterhome describing your experiences in the war.

Consider the following:• the strategies of the Vietcong and the NVA• the condition of South Vietnamese civilians• the progress of the war

5

4

Tonkin Gulf ResolutionOperation Rolling Thunderescalationsearch-and-destroy missionspacification

Event Cause Effect

U.S. troops often used helicopters to reach jungle areas.

Analyzing Primary SourcesIdentifying Points of ViewHow does this nurse seem tofeel about her experience inVietnam?

War in Vietnam 883

Divided OpinionsJournalists, particularly television reporters, played an important role inshaping public opinion about the war. Through television, Americansfelt the violence of the war right in their own homes. The graphic imagesof war led many people to wonder if the war in Vietnam was worth thecost. Some journalists began to report their growing suspicions that thefighting was not going as well as the military claimed. Gradually, somepeople who had supported the Vietnam War began to call for the UnitedStates to get out of the conflict. These people were called doves—namedafter the birds that symbolize peace.

The Story Continues

The women gathered at about 6:00 A.M. outside the militaryoffice, before the arrival of the new recruits for the Vietnam

War. They marched with signs reading “I Support Draft Refusal,”and some sat down in the street to block the recruits’ buses. Apolice officer warned an older woman,“Missus, you don’t wantto get arrested.” She answered,“I have to, my grandson’s in Vietnam.” As more American soldiers went off to fight—andto die—in Vietnam, the antiwar movement grew stronger.

Read to Discover1. How did doves protest U.S. involvement in the war? 2. How did the Tet Offensive change public opinion about

the Vietnam War? 3. How did the Vietnam War affect American politics during

the 1968 presidential election?

Define• doves

• hawks

Identify• Tet Offensive

• Eugene McCarthy

• Robert F. Kennedy

• Hubert Humphrey

• George Wallace

• Richard M. Nixon

A Divided NationA Divided Nation

As the fighting dragged on,more Americans began demanding an end to

the war.

THE GRANGERCO

LLEC

TION

, NEW

YORK

MAPPING CAUSE AND EFFECT Make a two-column chart. Labelthe columns “Cause” and “Effect.” As you read this section, look for cause-and-effect relationships between events. List causes and theireffects in the appropriate columns.


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Arkansas senator J. William Fulbright became a lead-ing dove. As the chairman of the Senate Foreign Rela-tions Committee, Fulbright had strongly supported theTonkin Gulf Resolution. But he later questioned whetherU.S. troops should even be in Vietnam. “You don’t wantto negotiate,” he accused a group of Johnson’s advisers.Other doves, like Martin Luther King Jr., believed thatthe U.S. government spent money on the war that couldbetter be used for important social programs.

President Johnson and most members of Congresssaid that defeating communism in Vietnam took priorityover domestic reforms. These so-called hawks wantedmore military spending to send new forces to Vietnam.

Many Americans did not agree with the hawks. Collegestudents often held protests to call for a change in U.S. warpolicy. Many of them had already taken part in the civilrights movements. The Students for a Democratic Society(SDS) became one of the most active antiwar groups. SDSprotested the draft system and the companies that madeweapons used in the war. In 1965, SDS led 20,000 protestersin a march on Washington, D.C. As the war continued, thestudent movement grew bolder and sometimes even grewviolent. By the end of 1968, protests had taken place onalmost 75 percent of the country’s college campuses.

Many ordinary citizens also took part in antiwar protests. CharlotteKeyes helped organize a group called Women Strike for Peace. Shedescribed the different types of people in the antiwar movement.

“The peaceniks [war protesters] these days are legion [very large]—they are ninety years old and fifteen, heads of families and housewives with babies, students, (and)young people.”

—Charlotte Keyes, “Suppose They Gave a War and No One Came,” McCall’s

✔ Reading Check: Summarizing Why and how did some Americansoppose the Vietnam War?

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CONNECTING TOCONNECTING TO

MATHMATHJust the Facts

U.S. Troops in Vietnam, 1966–1973

Year Number U.S. Military of U.S. Personnel

Troops Killed in Action1966 385,300 6,0081967 485,600 9,3771968 536,000 14,5891969 475,200 9,4141970 334,600 4,2211971 156,800 1,3811972 24,000 3001973 50 —

Using Mathematical Skills

1. In what year were the most U.S. militarypersonnel sent to Vietnam?

2. Create a bar graph showing how many mili-tary personnel in Vietnam, out of the total,were killed in action from 1966 to 1973.

3. Imagine that you are a member of Congressin 1974. Write a report to your colleaguesexplaining the significance of these statistics.

Reporting on the war A teamof television journalists inter-views a group of U.S. soldiers inVietnam. How might interviewssuch as this one bring the warcloser to the American public?


The Tet OffensiveDespite the growing antiwar movement, most Americans supported theVietnam War until early 1968. In previous years, a cease-fire had haltedall fighting during Tet—the Vietnamese New Year. On January 30, 1968,however, during Tet, North Vietnamese and Vietcong soldiers launchedthe Tet Offensive—a surprise attack on U.S. forces throughout southern Vietnam. The soldiers even invaded the U.S. Embassy in Saigon. In mostplaces, the U.S. and South Vietnamese troops defeated most of the com-munist forces quickly. Still, the Tet Offensive shocked Americans andchanged many people’s opinions about the war. A short time earlier,General Westmoreland had said that the war would soon be over. Thereis “light at the end of the tunnel,” he promised. The Tet Offensive, how-ever, appeared to show the opposite—that communist forces still had thestrength and the will to fight.

The Tet Offensive also convinced many Americans that officialswere not telling the truth about the war. Several well-known journalistsdoubted leaders’ claims of success. Television news anchor WalterCronkite shared his views in February 1968. “To say that we are closer tovictory today is to believe, in the face of the evidence, the optimists whohave been wrong in the past.”

Although there were already about 525,000 U.S. troops in Vietnam,General Westmoreland asked for 206,000 more soldiers. Many peoplequestioned whether such an increase was necessary if the United States was really winning the war. President Johnson turned down Westmoreland’s request.

✔ Reading Check: Analyzing Information What effect did the Tet Offen-sive have on the American public, and why?

War in Vietnam 885

The Tet Offensive These U.S.military police are leadingaway one of the Vietcong guer-rillas who attacked the U.S.embassy in Saigon during theTet Offensive. How do youthink Americans mightrespond to this photograph?


The Purple Heart medal is givento those who are injured orkilled while serving their country.

The Democrats in 1968As doubts about the war increased, President Johnson began losing publicsupport. A new poll showed that only 33 percent of Americans believedthat the United States was winning the war. About 49 percent said that theUnited States should never have gotten involved in Vietnam.

Johnson, who had won the presidency by a landslide in 1964, wasexpected to win the Democratic primaries easily. At first, his main oppo-nent was Eugene McCarthy, a senator from Minnesota. McCarthy was amajor antiwar critic. “The Democratic Party in 1964 promised ‘no widerwar,’” he reminded voters. “Yet the war is getting wider every month.” Inthe New Hampshire primary, Johnson narrowly beat McCarthy. This resultshowed how unpopular Johnson and his Vietnam policies had become.Physically and emotionally exhausted, President Johnson stunned thenation by announcing on March 31 that he would drop out of the election.

Meanwhile, Senator Robert F. Kennedy of New York, the former U.S.attorney general, had entered the race for the Democratic nomination onMarch 16. He believed that the United States should do everything possible to bring a quick and peaceful end to the war.

“Unable to defeat our enemy or break his will—at leastwithout a huge, long, and ever more costly effort—we mustactively seek a peaceful settlement. . . . [that] will give the

Vietcong and the National Liberation Front a chance to participate inthe political life of the country. Not because we want them to, butbecause that is the only way in which this struggle can be settled.”

—Robert F. Kennedy, “Vietnam—Illusion and Reality,” Chicago Sun–Times

Kennedy’s positions on civil rights reform, assistance to the poor, and thewar drew him much support.

Johnson, however, backed another Democratic candidate—his vicepresident Hubert Humphrey. Many voters disliked Humphrey for hissupport of the war, and Kennedy began gaining ground. On June 5,1968, Kennedy won the California primary, a major step before theDemocratic National Convention in Chicago. That night a gunmannamed Sirhan Sirhan shot Kennedy.

After Robert Kennedy died, Humphrey was almost sure to win the Democratic nomination. However, the party remained bitterlydivided. Many delegates at the Democratic National Convention wanteda candidate who was not tied to the war. Angry debates soon broke outinside the convention hall. In the streets outside the convention hall,hundreds of antiwar protesters marched, shouting, “Peace now! Peacenow!” Police officers moved in to stop the protesters, using clubs and teargas to break up the crowd. A riot broke out, with television camerasbroadcasting live images of the events to a concerned nation.

✔ Reading Check: Evaluating How did the Vietnam War affect the 1968Democratic presidential campaign?

HistoryMakersSpeak

HistoryMakersSpeak

Robert F. Kennedy was a popular political leader.

Free Find:Election of 1968After reading about theelection of 1968 on theHolt ResearcherCD–ROM, create a bargraph that shows howmany votes each candidatewon.

Analyzing Primary SourcesIdentifying Points of ViewHow can you tell thatKennedy wanted a peacefulsettlement to end the war?

War in Vietnam 887

A Republican Victory

Humphrey won the Democratic nomi-nation for president and chose Mainesenator Edmund Muskie as his runningmate. Conservative Alabama governorGeorge Wallace entered the race as thecandidate of the American IndependentParty. Wallace wanted to overturn civilrights legislation as well as most federalsocial programs. The Republicansnominated former vice presidentRichard M. Nixon, who said that hecould restore order to American society.Nixon also hinted that he had a “secretplan” for ending the Vietnam War.

Millions of Americans had been alarmed by the events at the Democratic National Convention. To these people, the riots showed thedecline of law and order in society and politics. Many voters blamed theDemocrats. However, the election of 1968 was still quite close. Nixonreceived only 43.4 percent of the popular vote, but won the presidencywith 302 electoral votes. Humphrey received 42.7 percent of the popularvote and 191 electoral votes. Wallace won 45 electoral votes, all from southern states. As President-elect Nixon prepared to take office,Americans watched events in Vietnam closely.

✔ Reading Check: Drawing Inferences and Conclusions Why do you thinkNixon won the 1968 election?


Define and explain:• doves• hawks

Identify and explain:• Tet Offensive• Eugene McCarthy• Robert F. Kennedy• Hubert Humphrey• George Wallace• Richard M. Nixon

2

1 Contrasting Copy thediagrams below. Usethem to show the different views thatAmericans had of theVietnam War.

3 Finding the Main Idea a. What actions did doves take to try tochange U.S. war policy?

b. What effects did the Tet Offensive have onAmericans’ attitudes toward the war?

Writing and Critical Thinking Supporting a Point of View Imagine that youare a journalist reporting on the 1968 elec-tions. Write an opinion piece sharing yourthoughts on how the Vietnam War affectedthe presidential primaries and election.

Consider the following:• Johnson’s decision not to run for re-election• the Democratic National Convention• the appeal that Nixon had for voters

5

4

Who? What?

Who? What?

Why? Why?

Doves

Hawks

Protests More people, including returned veterans,protested the war as it escalated. Growing concernover the Vietnam War forcedpresidential candidates toaddress the issue in their campaigns. How do you thinkthese protests might affect the actions of governmentofficials?


888 Chapter 29

The Story Continues

January 20, 1969, was the day of President Nixon’s inaugura-tion. That day, a top aide distributed a detailed questionnaire

about Vietnam to high-level military and diplomatic personnel.One question indirectly asked was Could the United States winthe war, even at that late date? One army general who took partin the study remembered the answer that came back.“Nobodybelieved the war could be won in the foreseeable [near] future.”That answer left the new president with another pressing issue.How was he going to end the Vietnam War?

Although the Vietnam War ended more than 25 yearsago, many Americans and Vietnamese still rememberthe war very well. Use or other currentevents sources to identify ways Americans view theeffects of the Vietnam War today. Record your findingsin your journal.

Read to Discover1. What policy for Vietnam did President Nixon follow when

he first took office? 2. What were the final years of the Vietnam War like? 3. What effects did the war have on those countries that

took part in it?

WHY IT MATTERS TODAY

Identify• Henry Kissinger

• Vietnamization

• Khmer Rouge

• Twenty-sixth Amendment

• Paris Peace Accords

• MIAs

• War Powers Act

• Vietnam Veterans Memorial

”Peace with Honor”President Nixon said that he wanted to “end the war as quickly as washonorably possible.” At the same time, he wanted to avoid appearingdefeated. “I will not be the first President of the United States to lose awar,” he told Republican leaders. Nixon and his national security adviserHenry Kissinger created a policy to bring about “peace with honor.” Ina process called Vietnamization, they would gradually turn over all of

The War under NixonThe War under Nixon

U.S. combat troopsarriving in Vietnam

the fighting to the South Vietnamese army. The United States wouldcontinue to provide supplies and training to South Vietnam even as U.S.troops left the country. Nixon also believed that the threat of usingnuclear weapons against the North Vietnamese might help end the war.He explained this view privately to an aide.

“I call it the madman theory. . . . I want the North Viet-namese to believe I’ve reached the point where I might doanything to stop the war. We’ll just slip the word to them

that, . . . ‘Nixon is obsessed [crazed] about Communists. We can’trestrain [control] him when he’s angry—and he has his hand on thenuclear button,’—and Ho Chi Minh himself will be in Paris in two daysbegging for peace.”

—Richard M. Nixon, quoted in The Vietnam Wars, 1945–1990, by Marilyn R. Young

However, Nixon and Kissinger misjudged the determination ofthe North Vietnamese and the Vietcong. Even though Ho Chi Minh diedin September 1969, his followers promised to keep fighting to reunite Vietnam. New U.S. leaders refused to consider any peace agreement thatdid not include the immediate removal of all U.S. troops.

After he took office, President Nixon did begin withdrawing U.S.ground troops from Vietnam. But he also ordered bombing raids onLaos and Cambodia without telling Congress or the American public.Like President Johnson, Nixon wanted to cut off use of the Ho Chi MinhTrail. The North Vietnamese responded to the bombings by giving more support to the Khmer Rouge (kuh-MER ROOZH), the Cambodiancommunist army.

Nixon announced on April 30, 1970, that he would send U.S. troopsto protect Cambodia’s new, pro-U.S. government. When he announcedthe invasion of Cambodia, many Americans were outraged. Instead ofworking for peace, it looked as if Nixon was expanding the war.

✔ Reading Check: Contrasting What actions did President Nixon take toend the war, and what actions did he take to expand the war?

HistoryMakersSpeak

HistoryMakersSpeak

War in Vietnam 889

Richard M. NixonRichard Milhous Nixon wasborn in 1913 and grew up in and around Whittier, California. Even as a youngman, Nixon showed variousaspects of his adult personality.He was shy and socially awk-ward, but he pushed himselfto meet people and win their support. His determinationhelped him to become aleader. At both Whittier College and Duke Law School,Nixon was elected student-body president. After practic-ing law and serving in WorldWar II, he ran for Congress in1946. Writer David Halberstamdescribed Nixon’s drive. “Oncehe started in politics, he couldnever stop: there would alwaysbe one more office to run for.” What events in Nixon’slife demonstrated his interest in politics?

Military secrets U.S. troops hopedthat North Vietnamese Armypapers captured in Cambodiawould reveal important militarysecrets. How might intelligence-gathering operations like this one be valuable to the U.S. military?


L I N K I N GL I N K I N G

PAST toPRESENT� �

PAST toPRESENT

The United Statesand Vietnam TodayAfter the war, the UnitedStates and Vietnam had a very unfriendly relationshipfor many years. Recently,however, the two countrieshave formed closer ties. TheUnited States first lifted itstrade ban on Vietnam in1994. The United Statesopened a new embassy inVietnam in 1997. Then inDecember 2000 President Bill Clinton made the firstpresidential visit to Vietnamin more than 30 years.

Vietnamese leaders haveencouraged American busi-nesses to open operations inVietnam. Many well-knownAmerican goods are nowavailable in Vietnam, andsigns for American productscan be seen in the streets of Vietnamese cities. Giveexamples of the new rela-tionship between Vietnamand the United States.

New Protests Students responded to President Nixon’s announcement by demonstratingat hundreds of college campuses, including Ohio’s Kent State University.After students attacked a military training building, the governor called inthe National Guard. On May 4, 1970, students at Kent State started todemonstrate again. The National Guard troops tried to break up theprotest with tear gas. As the students threw rocks at the soldiers, some of the guardsmen opened fire. When the smoke cleared, 4 students weredead and 9 others were hurt. The Kent State killings shocked the public,and antiwar activists held more protests. Nearly 20 years later, universityofficials dedicated markers in the parking lot where the four students were killed.

As the year went on, political and public opinion continued to turnagainst the war. In December 1970 Congress overturned the Tonkin GulfResolution. Public opinion grew even more divided when the New YorkTimes published secret U.S. government documents obtained from DanielEllsberg, a former Pentagon official. The Pentagon Papers, as they werecalled, showed that U.S. officials had been lying about the progress of theVietnam War for years. “It is a system that lies automatically from top tobottom,” Ellsberg said.

After the Pentagon papers were published, some members of Congresswanted to cut off all funds for the Vietnam War. As the 1972 election drewnear and as public opinion continued to turn against the war, PresidentNixon began to change his strategy. He ended the invasion of Cambodiaand became more open to compromise. In 1972 Henry Kissinger begansecret peace negotiations with North Vietnamese leaders.

✔ Reading Check: Identifying Cause and Effect Why did American publicopinion continue to turn against the Vietnam War, and what effect didthis have on political leaders?

Kent State The killings of antiwar protesters by NationalGuardsmen at Kent State University in 1970 hardenedmany Americans’ attitudesagainst the war. Why do you think scenes like this one upset the American public?


890 Chapter 29

The fall of Saigon South Vietnamese who had sup-ported the United Statesrushed to the U.S. embassy inhopes of escaping before theCommunists took over. U.S.helicopters carried many people to safety, but morewere left behind. How doesthis photograph indicate theurgency of the evacuation?


The End of the WarThe presidential election of 1972 offered voters a choice between two candidates with very different ideas about the war. Running against President Nixon was Senator George McGovern of South Dakota. A Democrat and a long-standing opponent of the war, McGovern promisedthat he would immediately pull all U.S. troops from Vietnam. “The doorsof government will be opened, and that brutal war will be closed,” he said.

In 1971 the Twenty-sixth Amendment had lowered the federal votingage from 21 to 18 years of age. Many Americans saw this change as fairbecause people of these ages were being drafted to serve in Vietnam. Somepoliticians expected this amendment to lead to a “youth rebellion” in the1972 election.

McGovern won the support of the majority of younger voters.However, most older voters from both parties supported Nixon.Although most Americans were tired of the war, they feared continueddisorder and protests. Nixon also promised to end the war soon ifre-elected. The public re-elected Nixon by a huge margin—520 electoralvotes compared to 17 for McGovern.

Ending the war proved difficult. Negotiations slowed after the election,and the United States began large-scale bombing of North Vietnam inDecember 1972. Finally, peace talks began again. On January 27, 1973,representatives of the National Liberation Front, North Vietnam, SouthVietnam, and the United States signed a cease-fire and a series of peaceagreements in Paris. Known as the Paris Peace Accords, theagreements called for the removal of all U.S. troops and thereturn of all American prisoners of war (POWs). Theaccords also set up a demilitarized buffer zone betweenNorth and South Vietnam to maintain peace between thetroops on each side. Under the agreement, Communists inSouth Vietnam could take part in politics. Further decisionsabout unification of the country were put off until later.

Late in 1974, however, fighting broke out againbetween North and South Vietnam. The United Statesmade it clear that it would not send troops back to SouthVietnam. The following year large numbers of NorthVietnamese troops invaded the South, where resistancecollapsed rapidly. By the end of April 1975, the NorthVietnamese had captured the southern capital, Saigon.Panic gripped the city, and many people fled. On July 2,1976, the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed.North and South Vietnam were officially unified under acommunist government.

✔ Reading Check: Sequencing List the important events inthe final years of the war in the order they occurred.

War in Vietnam 891

892 Chapter 29

The Consequences of the WarThe Vietnam War left long-lasting problems in Southeast Asia and theUnited States. Life was extremely difficult in Vietnam after the war. Thedeath toll there was enormous. About 1 million North Vietnamese andVietcong soldiers and about 185,000 South Vietnamese soldiers had died.Some 500,000 civilians also died, and almost 1 million Vietnamese children had become orphans. Cities and villages lay in ruins, while forestsand farmlands lay bare. One Vietnamese newspaper editor described thedamage. “The war lasted thirty years, but it will take another twenty yearsbefore we will be able to overcome the legacy [history] of the problems ithas left.”

Also in ruins, Laos and Cambodia fell to communist dictatorships in 1975. In Cambodia the Khmer Rouge Communists killed about 2 million people in a massive campaign to destroy supposed enemies ofcommunism. Eventually, the Vietnamese and Cambodian Communistsclashed. In 1979 Vietnam invaded Cambodia to drive out the KhmerRouge. For many years afterward, Cambodia experienced ongoing conflict.

Between 1975 and 1985 more than 1.5 million Southeast Asians left theregion. Many of them died while trying to escape. About half of therefugees came to the United States. Le Ly Hayslip was a former Vietcongsupporter who immigrated to the United States and later became a successful businesswoman. In her memoirs she addressed the U.S. soldierswho had fought in the war. “Most of you did not know, or fully under-stand, the different wars my people were fighting when you got [to Vietnam],” Hayslip wrote.

The war also carried huge costs for the United States. Some 58,000Americans died as a result of the war. About 2,500 remain MIAs. MIA

CONNECTING TOCONNECTING TO

The Vietnam VeteransMemorial In November1982 the Vietnam VeteransMemorial opened in Wash-ington, D.C., honoring theAmericans who served inthe Vietnam War. Designedby Maya Ying Lin, a 21-year-old Yale architecture stu-dent, the monument is awall of black granite. Thewall rises from the groundon one end and slopes backto the earth on the otherend. The names of the morethan 58,000 dead or missingAmericans are listed accord-ing to the date that eachdied or disappeared. Thesenames—the only words onthe monument—force visitors to face the humancosts of the war. The wallbrings out strong emotionsin visitors. Many people whovisit the memorial leavebehind keepsakes or militaryitems. Why do you thinkthis memorial brings outsuch strong emotions forvisitors?

stands for “missing in action.” Many soldiers faced difficulties after thewar. Instead of a warm welcome, many veterans faced insults from someAmericans. While most veterans readjusted to civilian life, others suffered from depression and a condition known as post-traumaticstress disorder.

The Vietnam War also left the United States deeply divided. The discoveries of government dishonesty weakened Americans’ trust intheir leaders. In 1973 Congress passed the War Powers Act to prevent undeclared wars. The act required the president to get approval from Congress before sending U.S. troops to an armed struggle. PresidentNixon vetoed the measure, but Congress overrode the veto. Passage ofthe War Powers Act gave Congress greater responsibility in setting U.S.military policy.

On Veterans Day in 1982, officials dedicated the Vietnam VeteransMemorial to honor those who died in the war. Designed by Maya YingLin, the memorial is a black granite wall engraved with the names of thedead and the missing. Bruce Weigl explained why he and other veteranshave visited the wall.

“We came to find the names of those we lost in the war, asif by tracing the letters cut into the granite we could findwhat was left of ourselves.”

—Bruce Weigl, “Welcome Home,” The Nation

Hundreds of people, some weeping, visit the memorial daily. Manyleave flowers, personal mementos, or written messages. Others simplyponder what the memorial—with its dark silence—has to tell them.

✔ Reading Check: Analyzing Information How did the Vietnam Waraffect Vietnam and the United States?

HistoryMakers

Speak

HistoryMakers

Speak

War in Vietnam 893


Identify and explain:• Henry Kissinger• Vietnamization• Khmer Rouge• Twenty-sixth

Amendment• Paris Peace Accords• MIAs• War Powers Act• Vietnam Veterans

Memorial

1 Comparing and Con-trasting Copy the dia-gram below. Use it to listthe consequences of theVietnam War, both inVietnam and the United States.

2 Finding the Main Ideaa. How did President Nixon handle the conflictin Vietnam when he first became president?

b. Why do you think the United States did notsend troops back to South Vietnam in 1974 toprotect it from invasion by North Vietnam?

Writing and Critical Thinking Summarizing Imagine that you are a SouthVietnamese citizen in 1975. Write a journalentry describing the feelings you have had during the last years of the war.

Consider the following:• the Paris Peace Accords• the North Vietnamese invasion• the takeover of the government by the

Communists

4

3

UnitedStates

BOTH

Vietnam

U.S. Air Force captain RonaldBliss runs to meet his wife afterspending seven years as a POWin Vietnam. Some Americansbought wristbands, like theone shown here, to rememberPOWs.

ReviewChapter

The Long War1950sAfter the division of Vietnam in 1954, the communist-backed Vietcong began a civil war in South Vietnam. The United States sent military advisers to help the South.

1970sIn 1973 the United States agreed to remove its troops from Vietnam. South Vietnam fell to North Vietnamese forces in 1975.

1960sU.S. involvement in the war reached its peak in 1968, with more than 500,000 military personnel stationed in Vietnam. U.S. planes also bombed North Vietnam.

894 Chapter 29

Identifying People and IdeasUse the following terms or people in historically significant sentences.

1. domino theory 6. pacification2. National Liberation Front 7. Tet Offensive 3. Tonkin Gulf Resolution 8. Richard M. Nixon4. Ho Chi Minh Trail 9. Vietnamization5. William Westmoreland 10. War Powers Act

Understanding Main IdeasSection 1 (Pages 874–877)

1. What led to the establishment of South Vietnamand North Vietnam?

Section 2 (Pages 878–882)

2. How did President Johnson follow a policy ofescalation in the Vietnam War?


3. How did some doves try to change U.S. war policy? 4. How did news of the Tet Offensive change many

Americans’ attitudes toward the war?


5. How did President Nixon end U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War?

6. How did the Vietnam War affect Americans andthe Vietnamese?

You Be the Historian—Reviewing Themes

1. Global Relations Why did the United States fightin Vietnam?

2. Geography How did Vietnam’s geography challenge the U.S. military effort there?

3. Government How did the Tonkin Gulf Resolutionand the War Powers Act affect the relationshipbetween the legislative and executive branchesof the U.S. government?

Thinking Critically1. Contrasting How were the governments of

North and South Vietnam different? 2. Supporting a Point of View Do you think people

can disagree with the policies and actions oftheir government and still be loyal citizens?Explain your answer.

3. Drawing Inferences and Conclusions Why didNorth Vietnam attack South Vietnam in 1975despite the cease-fire?

The Chapter at a GlanceExamine the visual summary of the chapter below. Then write a paragraphexplaining your opinion of which was the most important event in the VietnamWar. Compare your paragraph with a classmate’s paragraph.

Long-Term CausesFear of communist

expansionU.S. support of

South Vietnam‘sgovernment

Immediate CausesGulf of Tonkin incident

Communist attacks against South Vietnam

EffectsMany thousands of

Americans and Vietnamese killed and injured

Vietnam united as acommunist nation

Political divisions createdin the United States

Ailments suffered byU.S. veterans

Causes and Effects of the Vietnam War

Vietnam War

Interpreting ChartsStudy the chart below. Then use the chart to answer the questions thatfollow.

1. Which of the following was not one of the effects of the Vietnam War?a. Vietnam was united as a communist nation.b. The Gulf of Tonkin incident occurred.c. U.S. veterans suffered ailments.d. Many Americans and Vietnamese were killed and injured.

2. How do you think the long-term causes of the war shaped the U.S.government’s responses to the immediate causes of the war?

Analyzing PrimarySourcesRead the following excerpt fromthe War Powers Act, and thenanswer the questions that follow.

“Whenever United StatesArmed Forces are introducedinto hostilities [fighting] thePresident shall . . . report to the Congress . . . on the status[state] of such hostilities. . . .Within sixty calendar daysafter a report is submitted . . .the President shall terminate[end] any use of the . . . ArmedForces . . . unless the Congress(1) has declared war . . . (2) hasextended by law such sixty-day period, or (3) is physicallyunable to meet as a result ofan armed attack . . . .”

3. How does the War Powers Act lessen the president’s control of the military? a. It limits the president’s

power to send troops to fight and involves Congress in decisions about war.

b. It limits the troops that the president can send.

c. It requires the president to get the permission ofCongress to send troops.

d. It limits the president’sauthority to declare war.

4. Why do you think Congresspassed this law?

Alternative Assessment

Cooperative LearningComplete the following activity in small groups.Imagine that you work in the map bureau of theState Department. A new U.S. diplomat to South-east Asia has asked for a historical map of theregion spanning the years 1954 to 1975. Create a detailed map for the diplomat. Make sure thatyour map explains important historical events in the region. As a group, present your map to the class.

Building Your PortfolioInternet Activity: go.hrw.com

War in Vietnam 895

keyword: SC5 HP29

Choose a topic on the War in Vietnam to:

• Create a map on the geographic features of Southeast Asia.

• Write a journal entry from the point of view of a soldier in the war.

• Create a pamphlet describing the war underNixon.

Documents

CHAPTER War in Vietnam