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Chapter VI
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
In the last five chapters the position of women in Theravada
Buddhism was discussed in detail. Now a summary of each chapter
may be given.
Chapter I
Discrimination against women is a feature common in all
societies. Whether in Africa, America, Asia or Europe, the prejudices
and obstacles that women have had to encounter and surmount seem
almost identical. The peculiar stigma attached to women all over the
world is based on religious bias. "Woman" is depicted as a temptress
and is warned against in almost all religions of the world. Women's
basic stigma therefore originates in religion. The study focused on this
matter of discommendation against women in Theravada Buddhism.
Women have also been regarded as the source of all the sins of
the world and have been blamed for the misfortunes of men in this
world and the next. There was also the belief that as women, no
salvation could be gained—they had to be reincarnated as men before
they were able to gain their salvation.
Certain fanatical religious cults have also prohibited women from
reading the religious scriptures. The punishment for doing so was to
have their tongues cut off. They were also discouraged from entering
places of worship if they were at all allowed to participate in religious
practices; such participation was confined to their own homes, by
171
attending to household religious ceremonies. Such hindrances and
obstructions in the matter of moral and spiritual enlistment of women
still exist in varying degrees in certain parts of the world, even though
many barriers have been removed. Present day women claims equal
right in all areas including religion.
In contrast to such hindrances and bigoted religious practices,
Buddhism can certainly claim to have the least discriminatory attitudes
against women. This study would concentrate more on the Theravada
Buddhist rules and regulations concerning the position of women.
There is not the slightest doubt that the Buddha was one of the
religious teachers who gave women equal and unfettered opportunities
in the field of spiritual development. Although he had pointed out on
several occasions the natural tendencies and weaknesses of women,
he had also given due credit to their abilities and capabilities. He truly
paved the way for women to lead a full religious life. They were able to
develop and purify their minds and realize the bliss of Nibbana just as
men were. The testimonies of the Theris (Nuns) in the days of the
Buddha speak out amply this fact.
The Buddha opened the gates for the full participation of women
in the field of religion by making them eligible for admission to what was
known as the Bhikkuni Sangha, the Order of Nuns- that truly opened to
women new avenues of culture and social service and ample
opportunities for public life. This brought to women recognition of their
importance to society, and greatly enhanced their social status.
This philosophical study on the role of women in the Theravada
Buddhism has gone to substantiate equal status in social life for each
172
and every Buddhist woman. The chapter clearly states, the objectives
of research and methodology.
Chapter II
The study on the status of women in the Buddhist society in India
is considered. Most of the worst conditions of women regarding
religious matters are outlined.
The laws of Manu stand for domination of the male over the
female. He advocates strict rules of Dharma which outlined the duties of
women, particularly a fixed set of norms to be followed in the religious
rituals. If women failed to follow Sthri-Dharma, they had to undergo
serious punishment. Thus there was discrimination against women in
early Indian society.
The tyranny of man over women was cruel; her status was
pathetic; unbelievable domination in all aspects of her life by men.
Women were divorced, abandoned, sold or resold for mere whims of
men.
In view of social norms, wife was who considered as the property
of the husband could be used for the purpose of gambling or any other
profit oriented games in the society. In fact, early Indian society has
ruled out property right to women.
In the age of the later Samhitas, Brahmans and Upanishads the
position of women improved a little. Some consideration was made
towards women on her socio - political rights, such as abolition of pre-
173
historic sati system and sanctioning remarriage facilities; the
suppressed women changed their social status in the society.
The pre - Buddhist society emphasized inferiority of women to
men and labeled women a weak sex physically. The religious texts
gave limited women's participation in the matter of family, marriage,
marital status etc.
The qualities of sati-Dharma such as loyalty, chastity and humility
aroused the value of Indian epics such as Ramayana and
Mahabharatha strengthened some positions of women in the religious
matters.
The happiness of the heavens was within the easy reach of the
good householder and the good virgin wife. She was chaste, active and
attentive to household duties. She was obedient loving her husband
and wiling to die for him. She was praised for her womanly qualities. It
is okay. But Brahmanical ideals were molded with discriminative
inequalities in social and religious matters.
Major religion, Brahmanism kept women in dark room. They were
prohibited to enjoy the equal rights with men.
Women had to receive training at home from father, brother and
near relatives. They were prohibited from receiving religious training,
performing religious activities. _ „= / '. • >
/ ' . • • ' . , ^ '
According to the Law of Manu, no sacrifice, no voW, no fast must • / • • • ' J V * :
be performed by women. He also said a women's and npan'̂ s happmess
after death was ensured only by the performance of their funeral rites
74
by their son. And the mother was duly honored only if she was the
mother of a son. It is noticeable that both unmarried women and
widows were considered undesirable persons.
It was a well-known fact that women were grossly ill-treated from
cradle to graveyard and they experienced only suffering, misery and
sorrow throughout their life. The male dominated society and
Brahmanism never gave them an opportunity even to explore their
potential to live a complete life. Women lost all their social and political
rights. Irrespective of age a women was not supposed to act on her
own. At home she was always directed by man. For violation, she was
punished.
In the post Buddhist era Buddha gave full-strength to women by
recognizing her equality in the matter of religious rights and social
rights. This kind of support from the blessed one, regenerated in the
women power, confidence and faith in herself to lead good life and to
achieve Nibbana.
The Buddha pointed out that women had a dignified and
important role to play in society. With great insight he fitted her
harmoniously into the social fabric. She is a loveable member of the
household, held in place by numerous relationships and respect.
175
Chapter III
Buddha was an enlightened person. He was an ethical teacher
and reformer. He found in his mission successful efforts to attain
Nibbana by himself, through exploring the four Noble truths and eight
noble paths. Buddha Dharma stands for the growth of women in
religious matters.
According to the rule of Tilakkhana which means the common
characteristics of all things: both men and women are creatures of
nature; therefore, they are changing both in their physical and mental
aspects such as feeling or sensation which are influenced by external
factors. Human beings are subject to happiness or suffering.
According to the Buddha, based on the rule of Karma, all genders
have equal rights in living. They are equal in sharing the result based
on their own karma.
There is a close relationship between causes and effects
(results). Good actions create good results and bad actions create bad
results to any person in the society whichever the religion he/she may
follow. So, Buddhism treats human beings with justice. Buddha's
teaching of precept, concentration and wisdom can end suffering and
enter into the service to humanity.
With some limitations Buddha allowed female Sangha to take up
the leadership positions in Sangha life. The Bhikkunis were granted the
right of moving resolutions in the Sangha assembly with regard to the
admission of women. Buddha even did not prohibit admission to
pregnant women in the Sangha.
176
By the efforts of Buddha's teaching women went on to fulfill their
roles as daughter, mother, wife, sister and nun (Bhikkunis). Quite a
number of these women gained some level of enlightenment and a few
even become Arhats.
The Buddha taught that both women and men should respect
each other's duties. The relationship should be pure, faithful and
loveable.
Chapter IV
The Buddha accepted and saw the equal right and potential of
men and women alike to achieve the height of spiritual development.
Theravada Buddhism continued with same thoughts of Buddha's
ideology. In the earliest form of Buddhism called Theravada, there was
a conscious effort to follow the Buddha's lifestyle as closely as possible.
The Vinaya came out as the rules and regulations to assist this. All
scholars of Buddhism hold that there are more rules for women than
men only to protect them in a sexist society. The Vinaya allowed men to
be present at nun's religious ceremonies just to protect them.
Buddha established both an order of Bhikkus and an order of
Bhikkunis. The two orders protected the rules governing them, they
were identical. His belief is that women could become Arhats in the
same way men could. This was validated by the enlightenment of paay
of his female followers.
In Therigatha, Bhikkunis like Subha, Uppal^vatina,"'Hfea,
Gautami, Soma, Vijaya Lala, Upacala are referred' to as having
77
renounced the world out of unhappiness with life in general. They
accepted a life of devotion in order to overcome mundane suffering and
it is said that they made the best use of the opportunities which the
religion provided.
The admission of women into the order was permitted by
Gautama on strict conditions. There were eight conditions that were laid
down and recorded. These rules were precise and definite. The aim of
these rules was to preserve and encourage the integrity of the women's
order as a body independent of the relation with the secular world. The
eight chief rules were not the embodiment of ceremonial and
disciplinary aspects of Gautama's monastic system. The formations of
these rules were taken up in such a way that they were able to meet
some of the essential factors of conventional life. But these rules were
always sub-ordinate to the order of Almsmen.
In Theravada Buddhism we can see that order of Bhikkunis was
more progressive and rules were emphasized in a systematic way. It is
in the Theravada Buddhism that women were not despised and looked
down upon but were given wisdom and liberation.
In this thesis, the researcher explains the status of women in the
pre-Buddhist period, the changes in the Buddhist era and the changes
in the status of women in Thailand in order to present the influential role
of Theravada Buddhism on the society. This religion has helped to raise
the status of women in every aspect. In the olden days, women were
treated inferior to men; but after Buddhist Dhamma concepts were
introduced, those practices including Sati have been given up.
178
Chapter V
In this chapter, the status of women in Thai Theravada Buddhism
is projected. It is of the view that Thai Buddhism particularly recognized
the equal roles among men and women in the religious matters.
Thai history clearly shows that both men and women shared their
daily duties and rights equally. Thai women were held in high esteem
and were treated well by men. During Sukhothai era women were
protected and given plenty of opportunity to enjoy the life happily with
their husband. It shows how the king gave special importance to
women.
But during the Ayudhya period, the status of women began to
deteriorate. Men were allowed to practice polygamy and wives were
divided into different classes. Such laws were degrading women's
position in society. Throughout the history of Thailand women were
struggling hard to stand on par with men.
A new vibrant urban economy helped Thai women to get number
of opportunities to develop their financial status. Parents encouraged
daughters to obtain advanced education. This support benefitted
women to manage their family finance.
The first sign of equality between women and men in Thailand
occurred in 1901 when the educational system was first open to girls.
The four year compulsory education act was enacted in 1921. Later on
her position in finance improved.
179
Thailand in 1949 gave political right to women at the national
level. After 1970s the Thai government provided marital status to men
and women equally in the family matters. These changing roles brought
a change in social values of Thai women. But deep rooted cultural
values are continued with some restriction regarding women's
participation in Thai society.
But that is not all. In the matter of rituals, it should be said that
northern Thai society does not allow women to circumbulate the Stupa
or enter the main hall where the sacred relics are placed in the centre
because women are believed to be not clean. It is a black spot. Until
these are replaced by egalitarian beliefs, Thai women will continue to
find themselves unable to express fully their human potential.
Women had responsibility to make family more economically
strong. However, despite improved status and increasingly active roles
of women in economic and social realms, women are making their way
in fields previously closed to them, becoming successful educators,
doctors, lawyers and businesswomen. These changing roles will
definitely bring about a change in social values.
Since Buddhism allows women to think progressively, besides
the principles and tenets laid down, Thai women are able to see better
prospects in life. In the current 1997 constitution, regard for equality
between men and women was added. It upholds the principles of
gender equality and builds grounds for positive action to realize that
equality.
Generally, in the period of Buddha, status of women in the mortal
world as a wife, daughter, mother, widow, and worker improved and
180
they were respected and praised. Daughters also received better
treatment from their parents as Buddhism does not believe in the
importance of sons in performing rituals in the funeral of their fathers.
Buddhism wholeheartedly welcomes the female-child into the family.
Female-education was encouraged. Meanwhile, wives played more
and more important roles in the household. With their husbands, wives
had a right to be happy and were praised; they were not treated as
house servants as was in yesteryears. Mutual courtesy and faithfulness
were the equalities of both. Child marriage was not in vogue. Adultery
and barrenness were conditions of divorce; marriage was not
obligatory. For the mother, Buddhism had a very respectful, high-
esteemed place because mothers have to perform difficult activities
throughout their lives including providing essential support to their
children. She is self-sacrificing and benevolent. Additionally, the
widows could become the Buddhists; their status was thus raised. They
were not looked down upon or detested by other people, resulting in
their higher life quality; widow-remarriage was tolerated; Sati or burning
of the widow on the funeral pyre was unknown. Womanhood is not a
curse. There is no impediment in the path of her spiritual progress. A
nun could teach and preach laymen and laywomen; and could interpret
Dhamma with the help of monks.
In addition to the social status, religious status of women was
better because they did not have to rely on their husbands in
performing the religious activities, but could perform those activities
freely, following the concept of self-dependence. Women can be
ordained and attain Arhatship. Since women had an opportunity to be a
part of the Buddhism, they gained more trust and praise from people in
the society, resulting in their better social status as well.
181
In terms of several concepts and Dhamma principles in
Buddhism, Tilakkhana (The Three Characteristics), Karma Rule,
Dukkha (suffering) and nirvana have influenced the Buddhists to see
the equality between men and women, because all human beings are
under the rules of Tilakkhana and Karma and they all have to
experience suffering in this mortal world. Nirvana is the top goal in
Buddhism and men and women can attain this stage if they
intentionally practice it.
Studying about the ideas of Theravada Buddhism based on the
Tripitaka (the Three Baskets), the researcher would like to present the
conclusion in three main points as follows:
1. Theravada Buddhism is concerned that there are physical and
mental differences between men and women. For the physical aspect,
women are weaker than men, therefore, it is difficult for women to
protect themselves. Moreover, women have to handle physical
sufferings such as menstrual period, pregnancy and delivery, therefore,
naturally, women have to suffer more, compared to men.
When the mental aspect is considered, women and men have
different nature. Although women are patient, they are gentle, sensitive
and anxious; they are less steadfast than men.
The researcher believed that these differences could not make
one gender inferior or superior to another; because men andvj^men
can use these differences to support and compliment eacl^t^»^.-,^.,'y/>"'*
Sometimes, the social norms and beliefs influence thfe^^feJii^/'bf "51 • C •' ' ) '
men and women in the society that requires labor, \t^^refore, men are )
••V i
182
considered superior to women. However, the society has changed, and
men and women both have played a vital role in the industry and
society and intellectual capacity is more important than labor force.
Today in the modern world, people are judged based on their
knowledge and ability; women and men should have similar status in all
aspects. As a result, the physical difference is no longer the
reasonable factor forjudging that women are inferior to men.
2. Buddha opened the doors for women's entrance to monastic
life by allowing them to join the order of Bhikkunis. Women were
accepted in terms of their intelligence and success in that Path. At the
same time, Bhikkunis were slightly inferior to Bhikkhus as they had to
follow a larger number of strict regulations because both of them were
different in nature.
But because of their physical difference, there were some
additional rules for them. These rules were added in order to maintain
the security of Bhikkunis.
This opportunity given by the Buddha raised the status of women
in society. Because there were several liberlisations in the activities and
methods, women had better status but they could not be equal to men
in all angles. There were limitations also. These limitations included
culture, tradition and belief in society dunng that period. Sudden
changes would go against belief and culture of the people during that
period and this would lead to the resistance to the improvement of
women's status and religious dissemination of the Buddha. It must be
said that time and environment in that period played a vital role in
deciding the scope and method for improving the women's status.
183
3. There is physical difference between men and women but
there is no difference in terms of intelligence and capacity. Buddha's
permission for women ordination in Buddhism reflected that women are
accepted in terms of their intelligence and capacity. They can
understand, perform religious activities and attain nirvana like men.
Buddhism has accepted the capacity of women long time ago.
Additionally, Buddha categorized Buddhist assemblies into four
groups: Bhikkhus, Bhikkhunis, laymen and laywomen. This implies that
women are equal to men in terms of their capacity.
The presence of Bhikkhuni could be seen as the attempt and
method the Buddha used for raising the status of women in both the
Dhamma world and mortal world; because in pre-Buddhist period and
the in the period of Buddha, religious status greatly influenced the
social status of people. The religious status would specify or present
the social status of an individual. The permission for women ordination
in Buddhism was like giving freedom to women, encouraging them to
make their own decisions in adopting any religion. This could be implied
that women were accepted as intelligent persons who had a mission,
responsibility to human life, right and freedom. Women could perform
any activities as they wished.
In addition to these three main points, the researcher brings
attention to the Theravada Buddhist evidences showing that women
were blamed fiercely for their bad and terhble behavior and they were
blamed more than men. There was caution about women as they had
an influence on the virginity of men. In fact, human beings could be
good or bad and both men and women also have positive and negative
points.
184
However, Buddhism does not only explain the negative side of
women, but the negative points of men were also mentioned.
Meanwhile, Buddhism praised women who performed good deeds for
their families and society as well.
The analysis is that Buddhism does justice to women, by
advocating equality between men and women. This conforms to the
ideas and ideals of today.