Chapter TwoChapter Two

Philosophy and EducationPhilosophy and Education

The Three Branches of The Three Branches of PhilosophyPhilosophy

Metaphysics: Metaphysics: What is real?What is real?

Epistemology: Epistemology: How do we know?How do we know?

Axiology: Axiology: What is valuable? What is valuable?

Metaphysics: What is Real?Metaphysics: What is Real?

What knowledge do students need to What knowledge do students need to know?know?

What subjects shall we teach our What subjects shall we teach our students? students?

The question of metaphysics involves the The question of metaphysics involves the curriculum of the school. curriculum of the school.

Changes in our metaphysical Changes in our metaphysical perspectiveperspective

In In traditional societiestraditional societies, religion was the , religion was the basis of learning. basis of learning.

TodayToday learning has become more secular.learning has become more secular.

Epistemology: How do we know?Epistemology: How do we know?

How do we learn?How do we learn? How shall we teach the subjects that we How shall we teach the subjects that we

see as most important? see as most important?

Changes in our Epistemological Changes in our Epistemological PerspectivePerspective

In In traditional societiestraditional societies, information was , information was obtained from divine revelation or personal obtained from divine revelation or personal intuition. intuition.

TodayToday learning involves hard work, reason learning involves hard work, reason and scientific experimentation. and scientific experimentation.

Axiology: What Values are Most Axiology: What Values are Most Important?Important?

What values are the most important?What values are the most important? How do we teach those values? How do we teach those values?

Changes in Axiology:Changes in Axiology: Values Values

In In traditional societiestraditional societies, values were seen , values were seen as absolute and unchanging.as absolute and unchanging.

TodayToday we embrace a more relativistic set we embrace a more relativistic set of values that reflect different cultures and of values that reflect different cultures and worldviews. worldviews.

Axiology: How do we Teach Axiology: How do we Teach those values?those values?

TraditionalTraditional approaches to teaching approaches to teaching required students to memorize lists of required students to memorize lists of values and then recite them to the teacher.values and then recite them to the teacher.

TodayToday teachers focus on the teachers focus on the understanding of those values. understanding of those values.

The Four Modern Western The Four Modern Western PhilosophiesPhilosophies

IdealismIdealism RealismRealism PragmatismPragmatism ExistentialismExistentialism

IdealismIdealism

First articulated by Plato in ancient First articulated by Plato in ancient Greece. Greece.

Centered on an unchanging set of ideas Centered on an unchanging set of ideas that form the core of our society. that form the core of our society.

Idealists Believed…Idealists Believed…

Classics and the study of the ancient Classics and the study of the ancient languages (Greek and Latin) should form languages (Greek and Latin) should form the basis of the curriculum (the basis of the curriculum (metaphysicsmetaphysics).).

Students learn best through memorization Students learn best through memorization and recitation (and recitation (epistemologyepistemology). ).

Values are absolute and unchanging and Values are absolute and unchanging and best taught through memorization of best taught through memorization of specific sets of rules or oaths (specific sets of rules or oaths (axiologyaxiology).).

RealismRealism

Realism developed in the 1600s and Realism developed in the 1600s and 1700s.1700s.

This theory examined the seeming This theory examined the seeming paradoxical relationship between religion paradoxical relationship between religion and science. and science.

Realists BelievedRealists Believed

Science and mathematics were the most Science and mathematics were the most important subjects (important subjects (metaphysicsmetaphysics).).

An understanding of the natural laws of An understanding of the natural laws of our world was the appropriate method of our world was the appropriate method of instruction (instruction (epistemologyepistemology). ).

Values are absolute and unchanging and Values are absolute and unchanging and best taught through memorization best taught through memorization ((axiologyaxiology).).

PragmatismPragmatism

Developed in the 1800s. Developed in the 1800s. This theory separated religion from the This theory separated religion from the

worldly activities of humankind. worldly activities of humankind.

Pragmatists Believed…Pragmatists Believed…

Students should understand the major Students should understand the major problems facing society (problems facing society (metaphysicsmetaphysics).).

The curriculum should move from the The curriculum should move from the abstract to the concrete, from the abstract to the concrete, from the theoretical to the practical – learning by theoretical to the practical – learning by doing (doing (epistemologyepistemology). ).

Values are relative and rules are Values are relative and rules are sometimes inadequate in guiding complex sometimes inadequate in guiding complex decision-making (decision-making (axiologyaxiology). ).

ExistentialismExistentialism

Attention is on the individual and the world Attention is on the individual and the world of individual relationships. of individual relationships.

This theory represented a change in the This theory represented a change in the philosophical focus from religion to the philosophical focus from religion to the individual. (We are responsible for our own individual. (We are responsible for our own actions.)actions.)

Existentialists Believed…Existentialists Believed…

The best way to learn is through personal insight The best way to learn is through personal insight gained through journaling and autobiography gained through journaling and autobiography ((metaphysicsmetaphysics). ).

The curriculum should address the questions of The curriculum should address the questions of human existence, relationships, and an human existence, relationships, and an understanding of success and failure understanding of success and failure ((epistemologyepistemology).).

Values are not only relative but students also Values are not only relative but students also have a role in choosing them and should explore have a role in choosing them and should explore individual choices and options (individual choices and options (axiologyaxiology).).

Alternative & Non-Western Alternative & Non-Western PhilosophiesPhilosophies

Judaism, Christianity, and IslamJudaism, Christianity, and Islam Native AmericanNative American AsianAsian African AmericanAfrican American

Judaism, Christianity, and IslamJudaism, Christianity, and Islam

Each of these religions embrace a number of distinctive Each of these religions embrace a number of distinctive interpretations and sects.interpretations and sects. These range from:These range from:

progressive, inclusive denominationsprogressive, inclusive denominations toto

conservative, fundamentalist divisionsconservative, fundamentalist divisions toto

cultscults

ProgressiveProgressive divisions are open to diversity and the separation of divisions are open to diversity and the separation of church and state and embrace a relative understanding of values.church and state and embrace a relative understanding of values.

More More conservative, fundamentalistconservative, fundamentalist divisions tend to be less open to divisions tend to be less open to diversity of thought, more dogmatic in their understanding of diversity of thought, more dogmatic in their understanding of science, and more oriented towards a belief in absolute values. science, and more oriented towards a belief in absolute values.

Native AmericansNative Americans

Some groups have philosophies that differ from Some groups have philosophies that differ from western traditions.western traditions. Some emphasize living in harmony with the land Some emphasize living in harmony with the land

(rather than the Western tradition of development).(rather than the Western tradition of development). Others stress cooperation with members of the Others stress cooperation with members of the

community (rather than individualism and community (rather than individualism and competition). competition).

These values may conflict with traditional These values may conflict with traditional instruction in the classroom and require teachers instruction in the classroom and require teachers to include cooperative learning and other forms to include cooperative learning and other forms of evaluation. of evaluation.

AsiansAsians

Some groups have philosophies that differ from Some groups have philosophies that differ from western traditions.western traditions. Some embrace the values of harmony within the Some embrace the values of harmony within the

family and community. family and community. Others emphasize respect for elders and authority. Others emphasize respect for elders and authority. Still others place special emphasis on politeness and Still others place special emphasis on politeness and

devotion to tradition. devotion to tradition. These values may conflict with traditional These values may conflict with traditional

instruction in the classroom and require teachers instruction in the classroom and require teachers to include cooperative learning and other forms to include cooperative learning and other forms of evaluation. of evaluation.

African AmericansAfrican Americans African American culture is diverse as a result of historical African American culture is diverse as a result of historical

experience.experience.

Some groups have philosophies that differ from western Some groups have philosophies that differ from western traditions.traditions.

Some value introspective thought and strong family relationships Some value introspective thought and strong family relationships as crucial ways of learning and understanding.as crucial ways of learning and understanding.

Art and music provide an important outlet of expression Art and music provide an important outlet of expression and communication for others. and communication for others.

These values may conflict with traditional instruction in the These values may conflict with traditional instruction in the classroom and require teachers to include cooperative classroom and require teachers to include cooperative learning and other forms of evaluation.learning and other forms of evaluation.

The Danger of StereotypingThe Danger of Stereotyping All people belonging to Native American, Asian All people belonging to Native American, Asian

American, and African American ethnic groups American, and African American ethnic groups are not the same and cannot be identified by are not the same and cannot be identified by their heritage alone. their heritage alone.

Sometimes in our attempt to understand cultural Sometimes in our attempt to understand cultural differences among people, we begin to think in differences among people, we begin to think in terms of stereotypes. This is dangerous.terms of stereotypes. This is dangerous.

This diversity reminds us of the complexities of This diversity reminds us of the complexities of teaching.teaching.

Teachers must develop a curriculum that both Teachers must develop a curriculum that both empowers and takes into account our diverse empowers and takes into account our diverse culture. culture.

Educational PhilosophiesEducational Philosophies

Educators have developed a number of Educators have developed a number of educational philosophies.educational philosophies.

Some parallel one of the four modern Some parallel one of the four modern philosophies.philosophies.

Some borrow ideas from these and other Some borrow ideas from these and other alternative philosophies.alternative philosophies.

Two Philosophical Schools of Two Philosophical Schools of ThoughtThought

AuthoritarianAuthoritarian

Democratic (non-authoritarian)Democratic (non-authoritarian)

The Authoritarian School of The Authoritarian School of EducationEducation

Rooted in Idealism and RealismRooted in Idealism and Realism Derived from writings of John Locke – Blank Derived from writings of John Locke – Blank

SlateSlate Stressed the products rather than the process of Stressed the products rather than the process of

learninglearning Favored a subject-centered curriculumFavored a subject-centered curriculum Embraced convergent thinking (inside the box)Embraced convergent thinking (inside the box) Perennialism, Essentialism, Behaviorism and Perennialism, Essentialism, Behaviorism and

PositivismPositivism

Authoritarian School: Authoritarian School: PerennialismPerennialism

Rooted in ideas of idealism and realism.Rooted in ideas of idealism and realism. Has been the cornerstone of education for Has been the cornerstone of education for

centuries.centuries. Characterized by the “Great Books” Characterized by the “Great Books”

curriculum.curriculum. Favors a standardized curriculum. Favors a standardized curriculum. Prefers the top down “teacher centered,” Prefers the top down “teacher centered,”

or subject-centered method. or subject-centered method.

Authoritarian School: Authoritarian School: EssentialismEssentialism

Essentialists focus on the development of Essentialists focus on the development of essential skills for the future – especially essential skills for the future – especially the workplace. the workplace.

Emphasizes a core curriculum -- referred Emphasizes a core curriculum -- referred to as basic skills.to as basic skills.

Favors a top down learning environment.Favors a top down learning environment. Embrace the NCLB and EOGs as central Embrace the NCLB and EOGs as central

to the learning experience. to the learning experience.

Authoritarian School: Authoritarian School: BehaviorismBehaviorism

Rooted in psychology, especially William James, Rooted in psychology, especially William James, Edward Thorndike, John Watson, and B.F. Edward Thorndike, John Watson, and B.F. Skinner.Skinner.

Popular as a method of discipline and computer-Popular as a method of discipline and computer-aided instruction. aided instruction.

Students are essentially blank slates and can be Students are essentially blank slates and can be “manipulated” through a rewards system to “manipulated” through a rewards system to learn. learn.

Emphasizes learning the facts as well as Emphasizes learning the facts as well as convergent thinking. convergent thinking.

Authoritarian School: PositivismAuthoritarian School: Positivism

Derived from the writings of Auguste Derived from the writings of Auguste Comte who argued that reality existed only Comte who argued that reality existed only as observable fact. as observable fact.

We can “know” only through direct We can “know” only through direct observation.observation.

Prefers a curriculum based primarily on Prefers a curriculum based primarily on science and math with rigorous science and math with rigorous assessment of specific knowledge. assessment of specific knowledge.

Favors convergent thinking. Favors convergent thinking.

The Democratic School of The Democratic School of EducationEducation

Rooted in Pragmatism and ExistentialismRooted in Pragmatism and Existentialism Derived from writings of Jean Jacque RousseauDerived from writings of Jean Jacque Rousseau Stressed the Process rather than the Products of Stressed the Process rather than the Products of

LearningLearning Favored an experience-centered or student-Favored an experience-centered or student-

centered curriculum centered curriculum Embraced Divergent thinking (outside the box)Embraced Divergent thinking (outside the box) Progressivism, Humanism, Constructivism, Post-Progressivism, Humanism, Constructivism, Post-

Modernism, Reconstructionism Modernism, Reconstructionism

Democratic School: Democratic School: ProgressivismProgressivism

Emerged from the writings of pragmatists Charles Emerged from the writings of pragmatists Charles Pierce, William James, and John Dewey. Pierce, William James, and John Dewey.

Embraced realistic solutions to social problems. Embraced realistic solutions to social problems. Helped students understand their interconnections with Helped students understand their interconnections with

members of the community in which they lived. members of the community in which they lived. Favored an “open classroom” environment and Favored an “open classroom” environment and

cooperative learning. cooperative learning. Preferred the problem-solving approach that focuses on Preferred the problem-solving approach that focuses on

student interests.student interests. Focused on the learner-centered or student-centered Focused on the learner-centered or student-centered

curriculum. curriculum.

Democratic School: Democratic School: ReconstructionismReconstructionism

Emerged during the Great Depression and Emerged during the Great Depression and was influenced by the writings of George was influenced by the writings of George S. Counts. S. Counts.

Challenged teachers to become Challenged teachers to become “transformative intellectuals”.“transformative intellectuals”.

Provide students with a “Critical Provide students with a “Critical Pedagogy” (Henry Giroux) to become Pedagogy” (Henry Giroux) to become agents of social change. agents of social change.

Democratic School: HumanismDemocratic School: Humanism

Embodies the ideas of Jean Jacque Embodies the ideas of Jean Jacque Rousseau.Rousseau.

Seeks to nurture the individual spirit Seeks to nurture the individual spirit without imposing external ideas on the without imposing external ideas on the student.student.

Promotes divergent thinking.Promotes divergent thinking. Favors the student-centered approach to Favors the student-centered approach to

learning. learning.

Democratic School: Democratic School: ConstructivismConstructivism

Focuses on individual development Focuses on individual development through a nurturing approach to teaching. through a nurturing approach to teaching.

Provides students with hands-on activities.Provides students with hands-on activities. Favors the understanding of large, Favors the understanding of large,

complex ideas rather than the mastery of complex ideas rather than the mastery of facts. facts.

At odds with the current emphasis on At odds with the current emphasis on “mastery learning” and accountability as “mastery learning” and accountability as envisioned by the NCLB. envisioned by the NCLB.

Democratic School: Democratic School: PostmodernismPostmodernism

Developed during the upheavals of society in the Developed during the upheavals of society in the 1960s and 1970s.1960s and 1970s.

The goal is to understand power relationships The goal is to understand power relationships within society. within society.

Believes that those in power use the institutions Believes that those in power use the institutions of government, culture and school to maintain of government, culture and school to maintain their positions within society. their positions within society.

Contends that society has marginalized women, Contends that society has marginalized women, workers, people of color as well as cultural workers, people of color as well as cultural minorities. minorities.

Postmodernism (Continued)Postmodernism (Continued)

The curriculum should include works of The curriculum should include works of “marginalized” people in literature, history “marginalized” people in literature, history and other subjects.and other subjects.

Students will then appreciate the Students will then appreciate the contributions of other members of our contributions of other members of our diverse society. diverse society.

Favors a student-oriented approach and Favors a student-oriented approach and journal writing. journal writing.

Axiology and EducationAxiology and Education

Moral EducationMoral Education

Character EducationCharacter Education

Moral EducationMoral Education

Assumes that students are undevelopedAssumes that students are undeveloped Focuses on the Development of moral Focuses on the Development of moral

reasoning reasoning Consistent with the Democratic SchoolConsistent with the Democratic School Embraces Progressivism, Embraces Progressivism,

Reconstructionism, Humanism and Reconstructionism, Humanism and PostmodernismPostmodernism

Character EducationCharacter Education

Students are blank slatesStudents are blank slates Favors the transmission of “unambiguous Favors the transmission of “unambiguous

moral values”moral values” Consistent with the Authoritarian SchoolConsistent with the Authoritarian School Embraces Perennialism, Essentialism, Embraces Perennialism, Essentialism,

Behaviorism and PositivismBehaviorism and Positivism