CHAPTER THREE

The Psychological Approach: A Profusion of Theories

Psychology The scientific study of mind and

behavior. Uses the scientific method as a means of

gaining knowledge. Investigates internal mental events such

as reasoning, language, and memory. Also investigates external behaviors

such as talking, walking, and grasping.

The Scientific Method A theory is a general understanding of

the world that organizes a set of facts and aids us in understanding how the world works.

A hypothesis is a more specific statement about the world that is frequently derived from a hypothesis and can be tested.

Experiments Scientists use experiments to test

hypotheses. An experiment must have at least two

variables. The independent variable is manipulated

by the researcher. The dependent variable is measured by

the researcher.

Experiments An experiment must also have at least

two conditions or groups. The experimental group receives the

independent variable. The control group does not.

Experiments – An Example Theory: Practice facilitates problem

solving. Hypothesis: Doing logic problems before

being tested will increase scores on a subsequent logic test.

Experiments – An Example Experimental

group:

• 20 participants.• Allowed to practice

solving problems for 10 minutes.

• Then given a test problem.

• Independent variable is practice.

Control group:

• 20 participants.• Not allowed to

practice.• Given the same

test problem.• Dependent variable

is scores on the test.

Experiments – An Example Scores on the

dependent variable for the two groups are compared.

If test scores in the experimental group are significantly higher, then the hypothesis is supported.

Voluntarism Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is founder. View that the mind is made up of

elements. The elements are assembled into wholes

through an act of will. Influenced by atoms and molecules of

chemistry.

Introspection Method used by the voluntarists and

other early psychologists. Means “inner looking.” Consists of

subjective self-report of mental states. Fraught with difficulties.

Structuralism Edward Titchener (1867-1927)

considered founder. Shares the beliefs that mind is made of

elements and use of introspection with voluntarism.

But viewed element combination occurring through passive mechanical laws.

Functionalism Closely associated with William James

(1842-1910). Focus is on mental processes and

functions rather than elements. Idea of a stream of consciousness.

Thought is flowing and changing, not static.

Gestalt Psychology Contributors include Wertheimer (1880-

1943), Kohler (1887-1967), and Koffka (1886-1941).

View that mind consists of wholes that are more than the sum of their parts, described as a gestalt.

Method was phenomenology, a subjective description of an external stimulus.

Laws of Perceptual Organization Parts group together

based on their relationships.

Parts that are (a) proximal, (b) similar, and form (c) closed or (d) good figures tend to go together.

Insight Learning Initial attempts to solve a problem fail. Problem is put aside for some time. Solution occurs rapidly, perhaps through

unconscious processes, and is then verified.

Kohler’s chimpincubates on aproblem.

Psychoanalytic Psychology Established by Sigmund Freud (1856-

1939). Mind is made up of “mini-minds” that

compete for control. Three states of consciousness:

1. Conscious2. Preconscious3. Unconscious

Psychoanalytic Psychology In addition, three

primary mental structures:

1. Id. Runs on the pleasure principle.

2. Superego. Runs on the idealistic principle.

3. Ego. Runs on the reality principle.

Behaviorism The mind of an organism (O) is a “Black

Box.” It cannot be studied. Focus is instead on behaviors or responses

(R). Responses can be controlled through

stimuli (S).

Types of Learning Classical

conditioning:

• Unconditioned stimulus (US).

• Unconditioned response (UR).

• Conditioned stimulus (CS).

• Conditioned response (CR).

Operant conditioning:

• Reinforcement.• Punishment.

Interdisciplinary Crossroads: Studying Grouping Quantitatively

Kubovy and Wagemans (1995) showed six lattice types to observers.

They reported which way the dots grouped.

The likelihood of grouping was plotted as a function of the distances between dots.

The resulting attraction function showed an exponential increase.